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U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 

OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS 
BULLETIN No. 15 



HANDBOOK 



01" 



EXPERIMENT STATION WORK 



A POPULAR DIGEST 



or 



THE PUBLICATIONS OF THE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT 
STATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES 



PKEPARED BY THE OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS 



PUBLISHED BY AUTHORITY OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURB 



WASHINGTON 

GOVEIIN.AIKNT PRlNTlNCi OFFICZ 
1893 



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70331 



OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 

A. W. Harris, Director. 

A. C. Tkle, Assistant Director, iiud Editor of the departments of Bota.iy, Field 
Crops, and Horticulture. 

W. O. Atwatkh, Special Editor for Foreign Work. 

E. W. Allen, Editor of departments of Chemistry, Footlsand Animal Production, 
and Dairyino-. 

W. H. Beal, Editor of departments of Fertilizers. Soils, and Indexes. 

Walter H. E\^\Ns, Editor of departments of Seeds, Weeds, and Diseases of 
Plants. 

S. L. SoMMERS, Librarian and Record Clerk. 



THE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 



Alabama— .4 M6«r?i : College Stiition; w. L. 

Brouu.t Uniontovn : Caiicbiiikc Station; B. 

M. Diiggar.* 
Arizona— 3«c«oK; F. A. Gulley.* 
Arkansas— -Fa^/e«(?Kj7i<;; IX. L.Bennett.* 
California- i;e(A-(7f;y ; E. W". Ifilgard.* 
Colorado — Fort Collinn : Walter J. Quick. * 
Connecticut— yew Haven .- State Station ; S. W. 

Johnson.* Storrs : Storr.s School Sl;ation ; W. O. 

Atwater. * 
Delaware— iVfwaW.- : A. T. Neale.' 
Florida— inte City: J. P. De Pas.s.* 
Georgia — Experiment : R. J. Redding.* 
Idaho— J/()sco!c.- R. Milliken.* 
Illinois — Champaign : G. E. Morrow. t 
Indiana— I/o/a?/«<te : C. S. Plumb.* 
Iowa — Ames: James Wilson.* 
Kansas — Manhattan : G. T. Fairchild.^ 
KEyrvcKY— Lexington : M. A. Scovell.* 
Louisiana— .iMdwfcoji Park, New Orleans: Sugar 

Station. Baton Rouge : State Station. Calhoun: 

North Louisiana Station; W. C. Stubbs.* 
Maine — Orono : W. H. Jordan. * 
Maryland— C'o^Zf'jrc i'art; R. H Miller.* 
^Massachusetts — Amherst: State Station; C. A. 

Goessmann.* Amherst: Hatcli Station; H. H. 

Goodell.* 
Michigan — Agricvltvral College: 0. Clute.* 
Minnesota — St. Anthony Park : C. D. Smith.* 



Mississippi— A(/ricwi<MmJ College: S.M.Tracy.* 
Missouri— Coiin;i6tn; E. 1). Porter.* 
t^EURASKA— Lincoln : C. L. Ingersoll.* 
Nevada— ii'fno ; S. A. Jones. * 
NewHa-Mpshire— Z)?<)7(am ; G. H.Whitcher. ■ 
New Jersey— Xew Brunswick : State Station; E. 
B.Voorhees.* College Station; James Neilson.|| 
New Mexico— Lrts Cruees: H. Hadley.* 
New York— OVjicvrt; State Station; P.Collier.' 
Ithaca: Cornell University Station; I. P. Rob- 
erts.* 
North C, Anouti a— Paleigh : H. B. Battle.* 
North Dakota— /'rtrf/o .- H. E. Stockbridge.* 
Omo—Wooster: C. E. Thorne.* 
Oklahoma— .S'fi»w'a<«j' : J. C. Neal.* 
OREQOS—Corvallis : J. M. Bloss.* 
Pennsylvania- -/Syate College: H. P. Armsby.* 
Rhode Ihva^T)— Kingston : C. O. Flagg.* 
South CAROLiNA--7"or/ Uill : J. S. Newman. !| 
South Dakota— BjooAmii/.s- .- L. McLonth. || 
Tennessee — Enoxvillc : F. Lamson-Scribner.* 
Te^-as— College Station : G. W. Curtis.* 
Vtau— Logan : J. W. Sanborn.* 
XERnoyT—Bitrlington: W. "W. Cooke.* 
YiKGiyiA—Blackshurg : J. M. McBryde.* 
Washington -PM^imaj) .• J. W. Heston.* 
West Virginia — Morgantoivn -. J. A. Myers.* 
Wisconsin — Madison: W. A. Henry.* 
Wyoming— iaramie; A. A.Johnson.* 



* Director. 

t President of board of direction. 



* Assistant director in charge. 
5 Chairman of council. 



Acting director. 



PUBLICATIONS OF THE OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 

The Office of Experiment Stations issues two classes of publications for general 
(Ustrilnition : 

(1) Experiment Station Record, Exjieriment Station Bulletins, and Miscella- 
neous Bulletins, which are more or less technical. It is the practice to send to 
persons applying for them one or more mimbers, from which they may judge of 
their usefulness, hut not to place any names upon the mailing list until after receipt 
of applications on special blanks furnished by the Office. 

(2) Farmers' Bulletins, which are brief and popular in character, and are sent on 
application. These bulletins are issued as part of the general series of Farmers' 
Bulletins of the Department of Agriculture. 

The following publications have been issued: 

Experiment Station Record, vol. i, 6 numbers; vol. ii, 12 numbers; vol. iii, 12 num- 
bers and index; vol. iv, Nos. 1-10. Copies of the station and Department pul)lica- 
tions abstracted in the Record can, in many instances, be obtained on application. 

Experiment Station Bulletins. — No. 1, Organization and History of the Stations; No. 
2, Digest of Anniial Reports of the Stations for 1888, in two parts; No. 3, Report of 
Meeting of Horticulturists at Columbus, Ohio, June, 1889; No. 4, List of Station 
Horticulturists and Outline of their Work; No. 5, Organization Lists of Stations 
and Colleges, March, 1890 ; No. 6, List of Station Botanists and Outline of their Work ; 
No. 7, Proceedings of the Fifth Annual Convention of the Association of American 
Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations, Washington, D. C, August, 1891; 
No. 8, Lectures on Investigations at Rothamsted Experimental Station; No. 9, The 
Fermentations of Milk ; No. 10, Meteorological Work for Agricultural Institutions ; 
No. 11, A Compilation of Analyses of American Feeding Stuffs; No. 12, Organization 
Lists of the Agricultural Experiment Stations and Agricultural Schools and Colleges 
in the United States, June, 1892; No. 13, Organization Lists of the Agricultural Ex- 
periment Stations and Agricultural Schools and Colleges in the United States, April, 
1893; No. 14, Proceedings of a Convention of the National League for Good Roads. 

Miscellaneous Bulletins. — No. 1, Proceedings of Knoxville Convention of Association 
of Agricultural Colleges and Stations, January, 1889; No. 2, Proceedings of Washing- 
ton Convention of the Association, November, 1889 ; No. 3, Proceedings of Champaign 
Convention of the Association, November, 1890. 

Farmers' Bulletins. — No. 1, The What and Why of Agricultural Experiment Stations; 
No. 2, Illustrations of the Wofk of the Stations ; No. 9, Milk Fermentations and their 
Relation to Dairying ; No. 11, The Rape Plant. 

Communications intended for this Office should be addressed to the Secretary 
OF Agriculture, for the Office of Experiment Stations, Department of Agriculture, 
Washington, D. C. 
4 



LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. 



F. S. Department of Agricitlture, 

Office of Experiment Stations, 

Washington, D. C, March 27, 1893. 
Sir: T herewith transmit for publication, as a part of the exliibit of 
thisOttice at the World's Columbian Exposition, a bulletin entitled 
" Handbook of Experiment Station Work : a popular digest of the pub- 
lications of the agricultural experiment stations in the United States." 
This is a first attempt to collate in a systematic manner the information 
published by the experiment stations since their foundation, nearly 
twenty years ago. The eftbrt has been made to give in brief such infor- 
mation as seemed of interest and importance to the farmer and to refer 
more or less definitely to the station publications in which this and 
additional information in similar lines is to be found. While the sta- 
tions have already done a large amount of original work, they have also 
published much useful information in compilations. The scope of this 
publication did not permit reference to original sources, but only to sta- 
tion publications. It must therefore be understood, as regards espe- 
cially the descriptions of fungi and insects, that many of the articles 
from which the descriptions are taken are largely compilations. 

When the Office undertook this work it had no index of the early work 
of the stations, and the press of other duties has made it impracticable 
to complete such an index. The references to this part of the station 
work are therefore relatively incomplete, and it is more than likely 
that some important material has been overlooked. 

It will be readily understood by those familiar with station work 
that it is very difficult to make satisfactory summaries of investiga- 
tions in certain lines. This is perhaps especially true of feeding ex- 
periments. To make a thorough digest of the station Kterature would 
require far more time and labor than could be devoted to this work. 
It is hoped, however, that at least the main results of station work 
have been stated with sutficient fullness to make them intelligible to 
the reader. 

As this is in no sense a manual or encyclopedia of agriculture, many 
subjects which would properly find a place in a work of that character 
are omitted, and the treatment of numy others is very fragmentary. 
Most of our stations are at the beginning of their work, and have done 



6 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. 

little or notliingin Jiiaiiy lines. In some cases it was difficult to decide 
whether the work done was of sufficient importance to justify a mention 
of it in this publication. The rule followed was to admit everything 
which seemed at all likely to prove of benefit to the farmer. For ex- 
ample, a brief note that the station in California has planted a certain 
kind of tree may uot seem to be of much consequence, yet there may be 
liersous interested iu the growth of that species who by this reference 
will be able to get further informatiou by correspondence with the 
California Station. All the stations have collected many data which 
they have not published, and they are very willing to supply such in- 
formation as they have to all inquirers. 

It is hoped that one result of the publication of this work will be to 
bring the stations into closer relations with the public, as well as to 
diffuse among all the States knowledge of what has been done by all 
the stations. 

The United States Department of Agriculture, through its Office of 
Experiment Stations, desires to bring the stations and farmers of the 
whole country into the most intimate relations and is glad to serve as 
an intermediary in this good work wherever and whenever it can. 

The general plan of this publication was suggested by Hon. Edwin 
Willits, Assistant Secretary of Agriculture, under whose direction the 
Avork has been carried on. The labor involved in its preparation has 
been shared by all the members of the editorial staff" of the office. The 
general editoriaf supervision has devolved upon Mr. A. C. True, who 
has also prepared some of the articles on field crops and on the more 
general toijics; Mr. E. W. Allen has prepared the articles on subjects 
connected with chemistry, animal production, and dairying; Mr. W. H. 
Beal, those on meteorology, soils, and fertilizers; Mr. Walter H. Evans, 
those on grasses, seeds, weeds, diseases of jdants, and insects; Mr. E. 
S. Steele, as si^ecial agent for World's Fair work, did a large amount 
of indexing of station publications preparatory to the preparation of 
articles on the various subjects, and has also prepared the articles on 
subjects connected with horticulture and forestry; Mr. J. F. Duggar 
prepared some of the articles on field crops, especially those of the 
Southern States, and also rendered important assistance in the work on 
animal nutrition. 

Very respectfully, 

A. W. Harris, 

Director. 
Hon. J. Sterling Morton, 

Secretary of Agriculture. 



HANDBOOK OF EXPERIMENT STATION WORK. 



Abbreviations.— In references to station litorature the ordinary abbreviations for names of the 
States are used to designate tlie stations, ex<:ei)t tiiat in those cases where there is more than one sta- 
tion in a State an additional distinguishing word is used, e. </., Tenn. = Tennessee Station ; Ala. Cane- 
brake^- Alabama Oaneb rake Station ; E.=: Annual Report; B. r= Bulletin ; O. E. S. = Oflico of Experi- 
ment Stations ; U. S. D. A. = United States Department of Agriculture. At the end of each article or 
subdivision of an article is given a list of references not included in the article. 

Acacia trees. — Several Australian acacias of the group known as wattles are 
widely grown along the California coast, and are lecoimnended by the California 
Station to plant for tan bark and timber (Ca/. R. lSS2,p. 102 ; R.lSS5-'86,p. 119 ; li. 
1890, p. 195). The mo.st important of the acacias for tan bark is the black wattle 
{Acacia decurrens) ; tlie golden wattle (A. pycnaiitha) is rather small for profit; A. 
dealbaia, frequently planted around San Francisco Bay and known in nurseries as 
A. moUissima, is valuable for fuel, but according to Von Mueller is not snfticiently ricli 
in tannin. The bark of the black wattle, air-dried, contains over 40 per cent of 
tannin {Cal. B. 4, B.22) while oak yields only 10 or 12 per cent. For timber the black- 
wood acacia (.J. me?aHO.(v//on) is especiallj' recommended as being an equally fast 
grower as the black wattle and furnishing " a most valuable timber, which in Aus- 
tralia is used largely for tool handles; in fact it seems to be there a substitute for 
ash." The black wattle and the silver wattle would furnish valuable fuel where 
fuel is expensive. Caution is given against the cottony scale {leery a purcliasi) ,^yhlc\^. 
seems especially fond of tlie acacias. 

Acetic acid. — For the effect of acetic acid on chnruability of cream see Churn- 
ing sweet and sour cream. 

Acid phosphate. — See Fertilizers and Phosphates. 

Actinomycosis [also called Big jaw or Lumpy jaw of cattle ; Big head of horses] . — 
A local affection caused by a parasitic fungus, the spores of which find an entrance to 
the animal through wounds or abrasions of the skin or internal membranes, through 
the temporary exposure of the tissues in shedding teeth, etc. These fungi generally 
develop in the jaw, but sometimes in the tongue, lungs, and other parts of the body. 
Groups of them may be seen with the naked eye as minute yellowish specks in the 
diseased tissues. Until recently the only remedy has been to remove the diseased 
groAvth with the knife or with caustics before it had spread too far {Ark. li. 1889, 
p. 107; Ohio B. vol. Ill, 3). Experiments in Germany and France and by the Bureau 
of Animal Industry of this Department have lately shown that actinomycosis may 
be successfully treated with iodide of potassium. This remedy must be carefully 
used and should not be given to milch cows as it renders the milk unfit for use. 

" In treating actinomycosis in cattle with iodide of potassium the dose should 
never exceed 1 gram (one-fourth dram) for every hundred pounds live weight, the 
proper dose being from 8 to 12 grams (2 to 3 drams) according to the size of the ani- 
mal and the extent of the lesion. This dose may l)e given from five to six days, when 
the animal will show slight symptoms of iodisiii, viz, discharge of thick mucus from 
the nose and excretjon of tears. The manure will become rather dry, but that is 
easily rejjaired by giving a dose of glauber salts and some bran mash. This will 
restore the appetite, and two days after the last dose is given the animal will be 

7 



8 ADZUKI BEAN. 

ready lor another week's treatment, aiul so ou uuti] a cure is effected. If tliese pre- 
( aittioiis are takeu, no ill effect will result from the treatment, and if properly fed 
the auinial Avill gain in couditiou uniuflneuced by the medicine. There is, however, 
a great difference as to the individual effect of the medicine ou animals, but any 
fanner who takes au interest in seeing his stock doing well will easily perceive 
wheu it is time for him to stoj) and give tlie animal rest for two or three days. 

" The medicine is best administered dissolved in water and given by means of a 
slender, long-necked bottle, for example, aconnnon Ehine-wiue bottle. One dose of 
medicine is dissolved in a pint of water, the steer is seized by the nose to hold up 
the head, and the contents of the bottle is emptied into the mouth without lixing or 
securing the tongue in any way." — {Bur. An. Industry, B. 2.) 

Adzuki bean. — See Bean. 

Aerator. — An apparatus designed for deodorizing milk and cooling milk or cream 
rapidly to prevent fermentation. The practice of cooling and aerating milk is com- 
paratively new, and much importance is attached to it, especially for milk shippers, 
by several prominent authorities. For a discussion of the bearing of the rapid cool- 
ing of milk after milking on its souring, see Milk fermentations. The Vermont Sta- 
tion (B. 27) found the Evans and Heuling cooler and aerator capable of cooling 100 
pounds of milk from a temperature of 82° F. down to 44° with 417 pounds of water at 
39°. At the New York Cornell Station {B. 39) milk was cooled to 50° F., using about 
a third more water at 36° F. than milk, at the rate of 5.50 jiounds per hour, or with 
about three times as much water as milk 300 pounds of milk per hour were cooled 
to 43°. It was also found that the Champion aerator would keep cool 225 to 2.")0 
jjouuds of milk per hour down to about 60° F. if kept filled with ice. The station 
prefers the Evans and Heuling cooler where running water is at hand, otherwise it 
recommends the Champion. The Powell aerator is intended to aerate without cool- 
ing. It was found that milk aerated in it kept little if any longer than that not 
aerated, and that milk treated in the Evans and Heuling and in the Champion coolers 
kept a few hours longer than milk not aerated or cooled, although the conditions 
were very favorable for keeping the untreated milk, and it is believed the ditference 
would ordinarily be greater. The Pennsylvania Station {B. 20) kept milk cooled in 
the Evans and Heuling cooler practically sweet for two days in summer. 

As to the creaming of aerated milk, tests by the New York Cornell Station {B. 39) 
showed that it creamed nearly or quite as comijletely in cold, deep setting as untreated 
milk. 

Agricultural experiment stations. — The first regularly organized station in the 
Fnited States was established at Wesleyan University, Middletown, Conn., in 1875. 
Some investigations of a character similar to those conducted bjr the stations had 
been previously carried on at agricultural colleges. Within a few years similar 
stations were organized by State or college authority in a number of different States, 
and in 1887 Congress passed a law providing for the organization of stations in all 
the States and Territories. Under this act, passed March 2, 1887, $15,000 is annually 
given from the U. S. Treasury to each State and TerritorJ^ With a few exceptions, 
provided for in the act, these stations must be departments of the land grant col- 
leges. Under this act stations are now in operation in all the States and Territories, 
except Montana and Alaska. In several States the United States grant is divided 
so that 50 stations in 47 States and Territories are receiving money from the U. S 
Treasury. In each of the States of Connecticut, Massachusetts, New .Jersey, and 
New York a separate station is maintained entirely or in part by State funds, and 
in Louisiana a station for sugar experiments is maintained mainly by funds con- 
triliuted by sugar planters. In several States branches or substations have been 
established. If these be excluded the number of stations in the United States is 54. 
During 1892 the annual revenues of the stations amounted to $997,244, of which 
$i589,5l2 was appropriated from tlie National Treasury, the rest coming from State 
governments, private individuals, fees for analyses of fertilizers, sales of I'arm 



ALABAMA CANEBRAKE STATION. 9 

products, iuul otlier sources. The stations employ about 500 persons iu the woi-k 
of adiniiiistratiou aud iuqtiiry. The lumibcr of officers engaged in the difl'erent 
lines of work in 1892 was as follows: Directors OS, chemists 115, agriculturists 54, 
horticulturists 59, botanists 36, entomologists 3(5, veterinarians 23, meteorologists 
14, biologists 9, j^hysicists 3, geologists 4, irrigation engineers 3, in charge of sub- 
stations 27, secretaries and treasurers 28, librarians 4, clerks 23. There are also 21 
persons classitied under the head of miscellaneous, including superintendents of gar- 
dens, grounds, and buildings; foremen of farms and buildings; apiarists; hei'ds- 
nien, etc. 

During 1892 the stations published 55 annual reports aud 250 bulletins. The mail- 
ing lists of the stations now aggregate some 400,000 names. The results aud proc- 
esses of experiments are also described in thousands of newspapers and other 
periodicals. The stations are represented in the U. S. Department of Agriculture 
by the Office of Experiment Stations, an account of which is given on p. 233. Brief 
accounts of individual stations are given under the names of the several States and 
Tenitories. 

Agricultural schools and colleges. — The institutions for agricultural education 
in the United States may be classified as follows: (1) Institutions in which the 
sciences related to agriculture are taught; (2) colleges in which these sciences are 
taught along with the theory aud practice of agriculture; (3) schools in which the 
elements of agriculture and other sciences are taught iu connection with the prac- 
tice of agriculture. In addition to regular courses of from two to four years dura- 
tion many institutions give short farmers' courses during the winter months. The 
Pennsylvania State College has recently undertaken to supervise a course of home 
readings for farmers. The number of schools and colleges in which there are courses 
in agriculture is now 66. These employ in all their depnrtments not far from 1,200 
professors and other teachers. The whole number of students is about 12,000, of 
which some 3,500 are in the courses in agriculture. Most of these institutions are 
organized as departments of the colleges deriving a share of their endowment from 
the proceeds of the sale of public lands granted to the several States for this purpose 
under the act of Congress of July 2, 1862. Liberal appropriations are annually 
made by many of the States for their support. By the act of Congress of August 
30, 1890, grants of money from the U. S. Treasury were made for the maintenance 
and endowment of the land grant colleges. Fifteen tbousand dollars was appropri- 
ated to each institution for the year ending June 30, 1890, and the act provides for 
an annual increase of $1,000 in succeeding appropriations for ten years, after which 
time the annual amount to be paid to each State or Territory is to be $25,000. These 
funds can be applied only to instruction in agriculture and mechanic arts, the Eng- 
lish language, and the various branches of mathematical, physical, natural, and 
economic science, with special reference to their application in the industries of life 
and to the facilities for such instruction. Provision must be made for colored as well 
as Avhite students and in case separate institutions are maintained for the two races 
the division of funds must be an equitable one. Reports must be made annually to 
tlie Secretaries of Agriculture and the Interior. 

Agriculture. — As denoting a department of station work the term agriculture is 
variously applied. Strictly speaking it is used to include investigations on field 
crops, but it is often applied also to those in horticulture, animal production, and 
dairying. Unless otherwise specified the term is technically used in this work in its 
restricted sense, when referring to station work. An officer called an agriculturist 
is employed at 38 of the stations. 

Alabama Canebrake Station, Uniontown. — Organized in 1885 under State au- 
thority and now supported by State funds. The station statf consists of a director, 
assistant director iu charge, veterinarian, and treasurer. The director of the Ala- 
bama College Station is ex officio director of this station. The work of this station 
consists principally of field experiments with difi'ci-ent crops. Up to January 1, 1893, 
it had published 3 annual reports aud 15 bulletins. Revenue in 1892, $3,500. 



10 ALABAMA COLLEGE STATION. 

Alabama College Station, Auburn. — Orgauized iu June, 1883, under State author- 
ity, aud reorganized under act of Congress April 1, 1888, as a dei^artment of the 
Agricultural aud Mechanical College of Alabama. The staff consists of the president 
of the college and the board of direction, chemist, botanist and meteorologist, agri- 
culturist, biologist, veterinarian, assistant agriculturist, four assistant chemists, and 
assistant botanist and clerk. Its principal lines of work are meteorology, analysis 
and control of fertilizers, botany, mycology, aud field experiments with crops and 
fertilizers. Up to January 1, 1893, it had published 4 annual reports aud 41 bul- 
letins. Revenue iu 1892, $23,340. 

Albuminoids in feeding stuffs. — See Feeding farm animals. 

Alfalfa {Medieago mtiva) [also called LucernJ. — A perennial forage plant, resem- 
blin<'' clover in its feeding value, habits of growth, and effects on succeeding crops. 
Under favorable couditions it will live from eight to fifteen years and does not run out 
as clover does. It has long been cultivated in Europe and is grown quite extensively 
in California and some of the other Western and Southern States. It seems probable 
that it may be introduced with advantage into many parts of the Southern States east 
of the Mississippi, and over a wide tract of the more arid regions of the Southwest. 
It has been grown successfully for several years at the station at Geneva, N. Y,, but 
in recent experiments on thirty farms in different parts of V^ermont it was very 
largely winterkilled {Ft. R. 1888, p. 81). While a Soutliern climate is more favora- 
ble to alfalfa, numerous experiments have shown that it will do well in many local- 
ities in the Northern States, and when established will produce from three to five 
crops each season for a number of successive years. "Alfalfa is especially adapted 
to dry climates and withstands drought much better than ordinary clovers." For 
this reason it is largely relied on in Colorado and California, especially where irri- 
gation is used. 

Alfalfa is one of the plants which collects nitrogen from the air (see Leguminous 
plants). It also gathers a considerable amount of phosphoric acid and potash. At 
the New Jersey Station in two years the alfalla grown on 1 acre collected 553 pounds 
of nitrogen, 98 pounds of phosphoric acid, and .586 pounds of • potash, valued at 
$124. 

If alfalfa aud its products are properly utilized on the farm it can not be consid- 
ered an exhaustive crop, but rather one wliich transforms the raw materials in soil 
and atmosphere into products for man"s use {N. J. E. 1888, p. 105; Conn. Slorrs B. 
5.) 

Composition. — Sec Appendix, Tables I and II. 

CuLTURK. — Alfalfa prefers a light, sandy, orlt»arasoil, with a subsoil through which 
its long roots can penetrate. In some cases its taproot goes down 12 to 15 or even 
20 feet. At the New York Station, however, alfalfa has been successfully grown on 
a clay soil {N. Y. State B. 1888, p. SSI, B. 16, n. set'.). On such a soil greater pains 
must be taken to secure a good stand, but when the plant is once established the char- 
acter of the subsoil is of more importance than that of the surface soil ( Minn. I!. 1888, 
p. 179). Use fresh, pure seed. Sow at any time when the ground is in suitable condi- 
tion and when thcy/e will be time for the plants to become well established before they 
are subjected either to drought or extreme cold. The soil should be thoroughly pro- 
pared and the seed sown at the rate of 15 to 20 pounds to the acre. If sown broad- 
cast about the latter quantity will be required; if in drills the former amount will 
be sufficient. In the North spring seeding is advisable, but in the South it is better 
to sow in the fall {Colo. It. 1890. p. 188; N. J. 11. 1888, p. lOr,, R. 1889, p. 153, It. 1890, p. 
156; N. Y. State B. 16, n. ser.) 

In regions where irrigation is necessary the Colorado Station advises that the 
water should be applied to alfalfa before cutting, because thus the mower does its 
work more effectively and the growth of the succeeding crop is stimulated. A rela- 
tively large amount of moisture is required the first year iu order to secure a good 
stand. 



ALFALFA LEAF SPOT. 11 

Haiivkstin'G.— Alfalfa sliuiild be cut during the lirst piiioci of good weather after 
tlie blossoms begin to appear. If allowed to stand too long its staliv becomes hard 
and woody and succeeding crops are likely to be diminished. If designed for hay it 
must be carefully cured and housed, for otherwise its leaves will drop off and only a 
mass of bare stalks bo left (xV. T. Stale B. 16 n. sec). 

As A FEEi)iX(; STUFF. — During a single season alfalfa furnishes a large amount of 
nutritious green forage relished by all kinds of stock. It should be partially wilted 
or mixed with hay or straw. In the dry regions of the West it is much used for 
pasturage, especially in the fall, but there is more or less danger that it will cause 
the cattle to bloat or that the plants will be killed by close pasturing. Cattle, sheejt, 
and horses relish alfalfa hay and seem to thrive on it. 

Chemical analyses and digestion experiments show that alfalfa compares very 
favorably with rod clover both as green fodder and as hay. It may be used either 
for fattening or for milk. To secure a well-balanced and economical ration, alfalfa, 
which contains a large projiortion of protein, should be fed with corn, wheat, oat 
straw, root crops, etc., which ccmtaiu relatively large amounts of the other food in- 
gredients (carbohydrates an<l fat). In many instances farmers might ]>rotltably 
raise alfalfa as a substitute for the wheat bran, cotton-seed meal, and other mate- 
rials which contain large amounts of iiroteiu and which they are now buying in or- 
der to utilize the excess of carbohydrates produced in corn and other crops {N. J. R. 
1SS8, p. 110). 

Disadvantages of alfalfa. — (1) It is not easily established, (2) it is less hardy 
than clover, (3) if allowed to grow too long its stalks become hard and woody, 
(4) except in dry regions cattle can not be safely pastured on it, (5) it requires pecu- 
liar treatment to make good hay. 

Advantages of alfalfa. — (1) When established it does not run out, (2) it with- 
stands drought much better than clover, (3) it grows rapidly and may be cut early in 
the season, (4) it gathers a large amount of nitrogen from the air as well as from 
the soil, and is therefore very valuable as a fertilizing crop, (.5) it furnishes several 
large crops of green fodder each season, (6) when properly cured it makes an excel- 
lent hay, (7) it is relished and digested by all farm animals and is an excellent flesh 
and milk producer, (8) it makes muscle rather than fat, and is therefore valuable to 
use with corn and other fat-producing crops to make a well-balanced ration for 
cattle. 

In brief, experience at the stations and elsewhere indicates that alfalfa is valuable 
as a feeding stuff and as a fertilizing crop, but that it requires peculiar conditions 
of climate and soil for growth and careful culture and curing to make it a profitable 
crop. It is worthy of repeated and systematic experimental tests by farmers, even 
thoush in some regions and on some farms it should prove a failure. 

{Ala. Cauchrake B. 9; Colo. B. S, B. ISSS, p. 31, R. ISW, p. 188; Conn. Stons B. 5, 
R. 1SS9, p. 29: Dd. B. 5, R. 1889, p. 94, R. 1890, p. 79; III. B. 15; Iowa B. 11; La. B. 
26, B. 8, 2d ser., R. 1890, p. 177, R. 1891, p. 11; Me. R. 1889, p. 166; Mass. State R. 
1888, pp. 223, 227, R. 1889, p. 158; Minn. B. 13; Miss. R. 1889, p. 33, R. 1890, p. SI, 

B. 20; Nehr. />'. 17; Kev. R. 1890, p. 15; N. J. R. 1886, p. 168; R. 1887, p. 160, R. 1888, 
p. 105, R. 1889, p. 153, R. 1890, p. 156; N. T. State B. 16, n. ser., R. 1889, p. 138; X. 

C. B. 73; S. Dak. R. 1889, p. 26; Tex. B. 20; Wyo. B. 1.) 

Alfalfa leaf spot (Psendopcziza medicayinis). — This disease is found in nearly every 
place where all'alfa is grown. Usually it does not attack the plant until the second 
.years growth, when the plant is able to survive the disease. Sometimes, however, 
it completely destroys seedling plants. The disease shows itself as minute dark- 
brown spots of irregular shape upon the green or discolored leaflet. The center of 
each spot forms a small pustule. In this are developed the spores, w^hich are set 
free by the breaking of the epidermis. The disease readily survives the winter, 
and may develop year after year in the same field. In serious cases covering Avith 
straw and burning alone stopped the disease. It may be held in check by frequent 
cuttings. (Del. R. 1890, p. 79.) 



12 ALFALFA ROOT ROT. 

Alfalfa root rot (Ozon'uiiii auricoinuni). — The fungus causiug this disease has been 
ideutitied as the same as that causing the "root rot of cotton" (see p. 96). It attacks 
tlie crown of the plant and works down for 6 to 10 inches, completely killing it. In 
the field the disease spreads in almost a perfect circle, at a rate of 50 or 60 feet dur- 
ing the season, killing every plant. It is thought that sowing salt plentifully or 
applying kerosene over the infested spots Avill kill it out, thus preventing further 
spreading. The disease is worst in dry, hot weather. (Tex. B.22.) 

Alkali soils. — A term applied to soils found throughout a wide area in the arid 
and semi-arid districts of the United States containing an unusual amount of soluble 
mineral salts which effloresce or bloom out in the form of a white powder or crust in 
dry weather following- rains or irrigation. The basis of these salts is mainly soda, 
together with smaller amounts of potash and usually a little lime and magnesia. 
They are mixtures chiefly of sulphate of soda (Glauber's salts), chloride of sodium 
(common salt), and carbonate of soda (sal soda) in varying proportions. They con- 
tain besides smaller amounts of sulphate of potash, phosphate of soda, and nitrate 
of soda, substances whose fertilizing value is Avell known. Two distinct classes of 
alkali are known — white alkali, composed largely of sulphate of soda and common 
salt, which is comparatively harmless; and black alkali, composed largely of car- 
bonate of soda, which is highly corrosive and destructive to vegetation. 

Practically the same alkali salts are found in all soils, but in regions of abundant 
rainfall the excess is regularly carried off in the drainage water. In regions of defi- 
cient rainfall, on the other hand, there is no regular flow of drainage water and the 
scanty moisture only carries them a little way down into the subsoil, from which 
they rise to the surface by the evaporation of the water and are thus accumulated at 
or close to the top of the soil. 

Injurious efl:"ects of alkali are manifest not only in the corrosive action on the roots 
of plants and on the vegetable matter of the soil, but also in the case of black alkali 
in its tendency to render the soil pasty and difficult to till. 

"The reclamation of alkali lands for general agriculture rests upon three chief 
points: (1) Reducing surfiice evaporation to the lowest jtossible point; (2) render- 
ing the corrosive salts as bland as possible by the use of chemical antidotes or 
ueutralizers; and (3) correcting their unleaclied condition by underdrainage, and 
by flooding, thus supplementing the deficient rainfall." 

The first result may be secured to some extent by frequent and deep tillage and 
by growing such plants as alfalfa, which root deei)ly and shade the ground. In the 
many cases where alkali is not very abundant this will temporarily suffice. The 
second remedy, the use of cliemical antidotes, likewise affords temporary relief and 
is of greatest value only when the proportion of alkali is small and of a corrosive 
nature (black alkali). In case of neutral alkaline salts (white alkali) they aftbid 
no relief. Lime and calcareous marls are valuable as correctives for alkali contain- 
ing Epsom salts, bittern, chloride of calcium, alum, copperas, etc., but gypsum has 
been found to be the most generally satisfactory neutralizer of alkali salts. It is 
especially applicable in case of soils containing black alkali. Corrosive blaclv alkali 
is by this means converted into the comparatively harmless white form. The alkaline 
phosphates, which are always present, and the humus are fixed, and the physical 
condition of the soil is improved. 

Irrigation (preferably snbirrigation) in connection with underdraining is also em- 
ployed. The most satisfactory method of procedure would be the application of 
gypsum to correct the corrosive quality of the alkali and to fix the alkaline 
phosphates and humus present, and irrigation and drainage to gradually wash out 
the excess of salts from the soil. {Col. It. 1S90, Jj>j>./ Colo. B, 9; Tex. E. 1889, 
p. 94.) 

Alkekengi. — See Physalis. 

Almoud trees (Prunua lAmygdalus'] communis). — These have been planted at sev- 
eral stations. At the California Station, where 10 varieties have been planted, the 



ANTHRACNOSE OF GRAPE. 13 

trees have done well. The " double wliite Siberian almond," top-worked on native 
plum stock, is recommended by the Iowa Station {B. 10) as an ornamental small tree. 
{Cah R. 1SSS-'S9, pp. 86, 137, 184, 196 ; La. B. 22, B. S, 2d ser.; N. Mmx. B. 2, B. 4; 
E. I. B. 7: Tenn. R. 1888, p. 12.) 

Alsike clover. — See Clovers. 

American Holderness cows. — See Cous, tests of dairy breedi. 

Ammonia copper. — See Futigicides. 

Ammonium sulphate. — See Fertilizers and Nitrogen. 

Anthracnose of bean (Col letot rich urn liudemuihiftuitm). — A fungous disease which 
appears upon the pod in deep, dark pits, materially decreasing the yield of salable 
beans. It Avill also .spread rapidly among green beans in the market. The spores of 
this disease are carried over from one season to the next in the bean itself. When 
infected seed is planted the plants are soon affected and either do not grow at all 
or if they do it is only to spread the infection to otherwise healthy plants. The 
infected seed may be often distinguished by its shriveled and discolored appear- 
ance. Such seeds should be rejected, and only sound plumji seeds used. In this 
way the disease can be greatly restricted. Successful experiments have been made 
in treating seed before planting. The plants from beans soaked for an hour in a solu- 
tion of 3 ounces of copper carbonate and 1 quart of ammonia to 4^ gallons of water, 
were almost wholly free from anthracnose, while those from seed not so treated were 
badly diseased. This treatment can be easily applied, but the solution should not 
be stronger than indicated. (X. J. R. 1891, p. 284.) 

Anthracnose of blackberry and raspberry (Glceosporium renetum). — A fungous 
disease attacking the young shoots, especially during the period of their greatest 
growth. 

On the young shoots, near the ground, small jiurple spots apx)ear. These rapidly 
increase in size and number, extending around the canes and upward. Soon their 
centers become white with a raised purple border. The white center dies, the 
border becomes brown, numerous spots coalesce, the epidermis is broken, and we 
have an effect somewhat similar to girdling with a knife. Purple spots also appear 
on the leaves, causing the veins to swell and the leaf stalk to curl downward. The 
disease is not fatal the first year, but its effect is seen when the young shoots come to 
bearing age, in the dwarfed, shriveled, and dried-up berries. The leaves turn yellow 
and fall oft", and the canes blacken and die. The spores arc formed beneath the epi- 
dermis, through which they burst, and, under suitable conditions, spread the dis- 
ease. The Bordeaux and carbonate of copper mixtures are suggested for this disease. 

A disease of the leaves similar to anthracnose is caused by Septoria ruii. The 
spots occur on both surfaces of the leaves and are larger than those of anthracnose. 
Upon close examination the spots are seen to be largely made up of small black 
specks. So far not much damage has been reported from this fungus. {Conn. State 
B., Ill; N. J. R. 1891, p. 306; Ohio B. vol. IV, 6; Ft. R. 1890, p. 143.) 

Anthracnose of eggplant (Glwosjwrinm melovgeiKe). — A well-known fungous dis- 
ease, which as yet has caused but little damage to the crop. It may be recognized by 
its producing decided pits in the fruit, upon which soon appear minute blotches 
bordered with pink. For preventive treatment Bordeaux mixture is recommended. 
(iV. J. R. 1890, p. 358, R. 1891, p. 281). 

Anthracnose of grape {Sphaceloma ampelinnm) [sometimes called Bird's-eye 
rot]. — A fungous disease affecting the shoots and the fruit. On the shoots its pres- 
ence is first indicated by the appearance of minute brown spots with a slightly raised 
darker rim. These spots increase in size, the central portion becoming deeper and 
taking on a grayish hue. The bark is finally destroyed and in severe cases the wood 
beneath appears as if burned. The appearance on the leaves is similar to that just 
described, and when the diseased spots are numerous the leaves and shoots succumb 
to the parasite, 



14 ANTHEACNOSE OF PEPPER. 

Upon the fruit the anthracnose is manifest as small gray spots, with dark bro-vrn 
borders. Before the gray color appears the entire spot is of a dark-brown color, 
more or less rounded in outline, and between the lighter-colored center and dark rim 
is developed a vermilliou-colored band. Finally, under the attacks of the disease, 
the berries wither and dry up. There is no browning of the tissue or wrinkling of 
the skin as in the black rot, but the circular spots first seen are retained upon the 
dried fruit. Often the berry is attacked only on one side. This disease is not well 
understood. 

The best treatment is to wash the vines thoroughly with a strong solution of cop- i 
peras before the buds appear. Watch the vines closely, and as soon as the disease 
appears apply with a bellows powdered and dry slaked lime or sulphur. (Cal. B. 70: 
Conn. State E. 1890, p. 102, B. Ill; Mich. B. S3; N. Y. B. 1890, p. 336; Tenn. B. vol. 
IV, 4.) 

Authracuose of pepper (Glwosporhim pipentum). — A fungous disease causing 
irregular spots to ap])ear on the young fruit. These increase in size as the season 
advances, and as they soften tend to destroy the fruit. 

Another &wi\\x».c\\ofic.{Coltetotiiclium nif/rum)]ifis caused considerable loss recently. 
It forms decayed patches upon the young and ripening fruit, and later these spots 
become very black, due to multitudes of bristles developed by the fungus. As a 
remedy for both these diseases no doubt Bordeaux mixture, or any of the copper 
compounds, would be found effective. (N. J. E. 1890, p. 338.) 

Authracuose of spinach (Colletotriehum spmacea-). — A disease caused by a fungus 
of very rapid growth, which quickly spreads from plant to plant, often causing a 
heavy loss in the crop. It produces small patches upon the leaves, which soon 
increase in size, turn brown and then gray, followed by the drying of the leaf 
affected. It soon spreads to other leaves, and the whole plant becomes worthless. 
Owing to the nature of this plant, copper salts should not be used except when the 
plant is very young, and then only in moderation. Equal parts of air-slaked, lime 
and sulphur, well raked into the soil, Avill aid somewhat as a preventive. All refuse 
should be burned, and spinach should not be cultivated in one place very louo-. 
{N. J. B. 1890, p. 354, B. 70.) 

Anthrax [also called Charbon]. — An infectious disease caused by a bacterium 
(Bacillus (tnihraris), which chietly attacks cattle and sheep, bnt may be transmitted 
to goats, horses, and mules, and even to men. It is most jirevaleut in territories 
subject to inundation. Pools of stagnant water are a source of infection. Bodies 
of animals which have died with anthrax may spread the disease. The bacteria 
may be taken into the body with the food or get into the wounds in the skin. The 
animal attacked may drop suddenly as with apoplexy and die in convulsions, but 
more commonly the disease begins with high fever. In another form it starts with 
swellings which appear under the skin in difl'erent parts of the body. Treatment is 
as a rule ineffective. Disinfecting the stables with chloride of lime and the removal 
of cattle from fields likely to be infected are the chief preventive measures. All 
carcasses of animals which have died with anthrax should be carefully disposed of, 
perhaps best by burying them in deep pits. If practicable, all infectious material 
should be burned. The value of inoculation for this disease is yet doubtful. The 
Mississippi Station {B. 6, B. 11, E. 18S9,p.37) has reported on the history of anthrax 
in that State, and on an investigation of an outbreak among mules in the lowlands 
of the Delta in 1889. Observations at that time indicated that flies were active 
agents in disseminaiing the disease. Notes on anthrax in sheep are given iu N. Dak. 
B. 3. See also Ark. E. 1889, p. 106. 

Anti-gopher plaut. — On account of the jieriodical announcement in the papers 
that a plant had been found with the virtue of ridding its vicinity of gophers, it 
was thought best at the California Station that the plant should be thoroughly 
tested. The plant in every case was found to be Euphorbia lathtjriN, the giant sjiurge 
or false caper, called also cross of Malta from the arrangement of the leaves. The 



APPLE. 15 

successes reported had been mostly from regions with sandy soils. On the adobe 
soil of the station the plant certainly afforded no protection. (Cal. B. 95, E. 18S9, 
J). 202.) 

Ants. — Where ants have become troublesome in lawns and elsewhere they may be 
destroyed by running a stick down into their nests in several places, pouring into 
the holes a tenspoonful of bisulphide of carbon, and quickly stamping the holes shut 
(^Mass. Hatch B. 5, R. ISSS, p. S3; Mich. R. 1888, p. 98). Where the nests can not 
be found place a sponge soaked with sweetened water in their runway and dip it 
frequently into hot water {Masn. Hatch. B.5). Black ants are parasitic on the larva 
of the Gypsy moth and several species on the cotton worm {Arh. B. 15; Mass. Hatch 
B. 19). 

Apatite. — See Phosphates. 

Apiculture. — Under this name is included everything relating to the keeping of 
bees. An apiarist is employed at the Michigan and Rhode Island Stations. Exjieri- 
ments in bee-keeping are also conducted at the Colorado aud other stations. See 
Bees. 

Apoplexy, parturient, in cows. — See Milk fever. 

Apple. — Varieties. — More or less extensive tests of varieties have been undertaken 
at many of the stations. In several Northern States, especially Iowa aud Minne- 
sota, east European, chiefly Russian, varieties have been tried with a view to secur- 
ing- hardy varieties. In a bulletin of the Iowa Agricultural College, 1885, descrip- 
tive notes are given on several hundred varieties from St. Petersburg, Moscow, 
central and southern Russia, east Poland, Silesia, and Austria. The Minnesota Sta- 
tion {B. 1, R. 1886, pp. 40, R. 1888, p. 77) has taken up this work extensively. Six- 
seen of the varieties tested were more hardy than the Duchess of Oldenburg. Rus- 
tian varieties have also been planted at the Colorado, Massachusetts Hatch, Indiana, 
New York State, and some other stations. 

The responses to inquiries by the Texas Station (B. 8) regarding the varieties most 
successful in different localities indicated that Red Astrachan and Early Harvest for 
summer aud Ben Davis and Shockly for winter were leading favorites. 

{Ark. R. 1890, p. 33; Colo. R. 1888, p. 81; R. 1889, pp. 23, 110; R. 1890, pp. 197, 
214; Fla. B. 14,; Ga. B. 11; III. B. 21; Ind. B. 10; La. B. 8, 2d ser.; Me. R. 1889, 
p. 225; Mass. Hatch B. 2, B. 4; Mich. B. 55, B. 67, B.80; Miss. R. ISSS,}). 47; Mo. B. 
6, B. 10; N. Y. State R. 1883, p. 34, R. 1884, p. 20, R. 1887, p. 340, R. 1888, pp. 89, 97, 
R. 1889, pp. 347, 355, R. 1890, p. 346; N. C. B. 72; Ohio R. 1882, p, 58, R. 1883, p. 146; 
Pa. R. 1888, p. 161, B. 18; R. I. B. 7; S. D. B. 26; Term. B., vol. V, 1, R. 1888, p. 12; 
Tex. B. 16; Ft. R. 1889, p. 121.) 

Composition. — Bee Appendix, Tuhle III. Analyses are reported as follows: Sub- 
stance of a young tree, N. Y. Cornell B. 25 (fertilizing constituents); twigs, loiva B. 
4; fruit, Cal., B. S8 (fertilizing constituents), Conn. State R. 1879, p. 158 (Roxbury 
Russet), Mass. State R. 1889, pp. 295, 300; N. Y. State R. 1889, p. 94 (sweet). Mo. B. 
10 (ash analysis of Ben Davis apples, green, ripe, and imperfect) ; sugar content of 
fruit, Mass. State R. 1890, p. 301, R. 1891, p. 327 (Baldwin and Rhode Island Greening, 
at different stages of ripeness). 

At the Iowa station (B. 4) the chemical composition was investigated of twigs of 
Duchess of Oldenburg, Boroviiica, Ben Davis, and Baiken, to learn whether in midwin- 
ter there are any differences iu the composition of the new growth of varieties hardy 
and not hardy. The results of a short study indicated the presence of somewhat 
more of extractable matters in the tender than in the hardy varieties, and other 
similar differences; and it was thought that chemical analysis might yet aid in dis- 
tinguishing the classes. A somewhat extended microscopic investigation of the 
twigs, reported in the same connection, led to the conclusion that no constant dif- 
ference in structure probably exists which could serve as a sure distinction between 



16 APPLE. 

varieties. Differences of structure seemed to depend on the maturity of the wood 
rather than upon variety. 

At the Colorado Station (B. ISSS, p. 79) observations were made for two years on 
the dates of leafing and shedding leaves of 174 varieties. Long retention of leaves 
is taken in general as indicating the need of a long season to ripen the fruit ; early 
leafing as implying the exposure of the blossom or young fruit to cold. In Iowa B. 
IS the propositions are advanced that orchard fruits vary as much in hardiness of 
buds and blossoms as of tree, and that the typical ironclad tree hns hardier fruit buds 
and blossoms than the more tender varieties. In Minn. B. 18S8, p. 405, some account 
is given of efforts to adapt varieties to the conditions of that State, particularly 
through growing seedlings. Scions of seedlings were grafted on mature trees to 
learn their quality promptly. At the Iowa Station (li. 14) an effort at improving 
varieties by crossing was made. 

Experiments under the auspices of the New Jersey Station {B. 1889, p. 2S0) showed 
that apples will not set if the blossoms arekept wet during the period of pollination. 
VariouB notes occur relating to the treatment of orchards. South Dakota Station 
advocates the pruning of the young trees by pinching instead of cutting tlic branches. 
The necessity of checking the tendency conspicuous in that climate to develop ex- 
cessively on the north side is also pointed out. The apiiropriatencss of a low head 
of a modified goblet form for fruit trees in California is alluded to in Cal. B. 1888-89, 
p. 4S. The advantage of underdraining orchards is emphasized by the California 
Station {B. 1888-89, p. 43) and the method there used described. 

Minn. B. 1888, p. 406, contains an article recommending protection of orchards 
by continuous rows of evergreens at intervals through them, also advising the main- 
tenance of the trees in a vigorous condition capable of resisting trying conditions by 
fertilizing and prevention of overbearing. 

The New York Cornell Station {B. 9) reports an investigation favorable to the 
growing of wind-breaks to protect fruit plantations. 

The treatment of an old orchard at the Kentucky Station is noted {B. 18). At the 
Mississippi Station {B. 1888, p. 47, B. 1889, p. 38) a fertilizer experiment on a stunted 
orchard showed the want of potash, and night soil was successfully used on 
young trees. A keeping tost of varieties is recorded in Mo. B. 6. An experiment to 
observe the effects of enrly and late j)icking on keeping quality made at the Ohio 
Station (B. vol. IT, 4) showed some advantage in this regard from picking Sep- 
tember 26 as compared with October 6, 13, and 20. The loss of weight of several 
varieties by evaporation in lying two months was also noted. 

At the Mississippi Station (B. 1889, pp. 38, 39) a trial was made to learn whether 
unmarketable apples could be profitably dried, the result indicating the affirmative. 
Evaporated apples from western New York had been rejected by the German cus- 
tom-house chemists on account of the presence of zinc; an analysis at the New York 
Cornell Station {B.25) showed 0.583 gram of zinc to one kilogram of fruit, the zinc 
having been derived from the evaporating pans. 

Apple aphis. — See Plant lice. 

Apple bitter rot (Glceosporinm versicolor). — A fungous disease sometimes associated 
with the brown rot. In their early stages it is difYieult to distinguish them, but 
when more mature the bitter rot may be known by the minute pustules formed just 
under the skin of the apple, while brown rot always presents a smooth appearance. 
This disease is caused by the invasion of the tissues of the host by the fungus and 
the subsequent development of a network of branching threads. These cause a 
softening of the frait, which assumes a dark-brown color. This fungus may start 
from several points and the filaments, working in the interior, cause the complete 
rotting of the apple, but leave a comparatively fair shell. When the pustules first 
appear they look like small black dots with light centers. As they grow they in- 
crease in size, break through the epidermis, and scatter their spores to attack other 
fruits. Tkia fuugud is carried overwinter in the decayed fruit, which should always 



APPLE RUST. 17 

be destroyed. It can be transniitted to sonnd fruit after gatherinj; and care should 
be taken that no infested apples are packed with the others. Potassium sulphide 
solution is said to be beneficial as a remedial agent, but enongh information to war- 
rant its recommendation for this purpose as not at hand {Conn. Siate B. Ill; Ky. li. 
1S89, p. 43). 

Apple curcitlio (Anthonomus qiiadrigibbits). — The adult insect is a beetle three- 
sixteenths inch or less in length, somewhat resembling the plnm curcnlio, but easily 
distinguished by its long, slender, somewhat curved beak (as long as the body in 
the female, but shorter in the male), and by two prominent humps on the rear part 
of each wing cover. These humps give it the specific name qnadrifjibhus, four- 
humped. In late spring or early summer the beetles begin their attacks on apples 
by puncturing minute holes in the fruit in which to lay their eggs, making from one 
to twenty holes in a single fruit. These punctures soon cause the fruit to become 
gnarly and ill-shaped. The eggs hatch out into soft white grubs (about one-half 
inch long when mature) which feed on the pulp of the fruit, completing their trans- 
formations and emerging from the fruit on its decay. 

Collecting and destroying infested fruit and spraying with arsenites will hold this 
pest m check. Jarring the trees and collecting the beetles on sheets are also effect- 
ive means of repression. (Iowa B. 11; N. Y. State B. 35.) 

Apple maggot (Trypefa pomonella). — The adult insect resembles the common 
house tly, but is somewhat smaller. It is "readily recognized by its general black 
color, yellowish head and legs, dark feet, greenish, prominent eyes, white spots on 
the back and upper part of the thorax, three white bands across the abdomen of the 
male and four across the abdomen of the female, and four black bauds across the 
wings, resembling the outlines of a turkey " {Me. B. 1SS9, p. 215). 

The flies appear about June 1 and begin their attacks on apples by punctur- 
ing holes in the fruit (so small as to be hardly visible to the naked eye), in which 
they lay their eggs. Egg-laying continues until checked by frost in the fall, each 
female being capable of laying between 300 and 400 eggs. The eggs hatch in four or 
five days and the maggots begin at once to feed on the pulp of the fruit, which they 
will finally completely honeycomb. When the maggots mature (which, under 
favorable conditions, requires four or five weeks) they usually go into the ground a 
short distance and transform to pupte, although this transformation may occur in 
stored fruit and windfalls and on the surface of the ground under fallen fruit or 
other refuse. I'hey remain in the pupa state until the following summer, when they 
emerge as adult flies. 

All varieties of apples, early and late, are subject to attacks. Repression of the 
pest is difficult. Spraying with insecticides is of doubtful efliciency. Care in col- 
lecting and destroying windialls and refuse under trees and from bins and barrels in 
which fruit has been stored are efficient means of repression. Hogs and sheep run- 
ning in the orchard will aid in the destruction of the larvte and pupic. 

Some of the more important facts regarding the life history of this insect were dis- 
covered at the Maine Station, which published a detailed report on the maggot {Me. 
R. 18S9, p. 190). See also Iowa B. 13; Mich. E.1SS9, p. 96; N. ¥. State B. 35; Ohio B. 
vol III, 11. 

Apple pomace. — For composition see Appendix, Tables land II. Several methods of 
preservation have been proposed. Ensiling has been tried, generally with success (ii/. 
B. 16; Mass. State B. SI; Vt. B. 1888, p. 23). Dessiccation by a method said to be inex- 
pensive is discussed in Pa. E.1886, p. 169. Ensiled pomace used in a feeding experi- 
ment at the Vermont Station {B. ISSS, p. 22, B. 1889, p. 51) was a partial substitute 
for corn and was relished by cows. In a trial with pigs at the Illinois Station {B. 
16) it was not well eaten. 

Apple rust {Gymnosporangiummacropus). — A disease caused by a fungus known to 
spend two of its phases upon totally unlike hosts, the apple and the cedar. In the 

3094—1^0. 15 a 



18 APPLE SCAB. 

early spring the well-known "cedar apples," witli their orange-colored, jelly- 
like filaments, may be observed. These mature spores are borne by the wind to 
some apple or allied tree, where they find lodgment upon the leaves. Soon a slight 
discoloration appears and then an orange-colored spot upon the upper side of the 
leaf. In a week or two black cup-like spots appt'ar at the center, filled with spores, 
whose function is not yet known. Somewhat later appear from the same spot, but 
on the under side of the leaf, larger cup-shaped bodies, filled with rows of spores. 
This is called the Rcestelia stage of the fungus. These spores find their way back 
to the cedar, where they form what are usually considered galls, of a liglit brown 
color. In this form the fungus spends the winter, to reappear ujion the return of 
spring as the cedar apple. When abundant this fungus may cause considerable 
damage to apple trees, as the leaves are liable to turn yellow and fall from the tree. 
Its treatment upon the apple tree is rather difficult and not attended with much suc- 
cess, but it may be prevented by the destruction of the cedar trees, upon which it 
spends the Avinter and earliest stage of growth. The loss of the cedar trees is not 
great when the injury the cedar apples may cause is considered. {Ark. R. ISS'S, j). 
127; Conn. Slate, B. 107, 11. 1890, p. 9S; 2f. J. E. 1891, p. 305; Vt. It 1890, p. 139.) 

Apple scab {Fnsicladium dendriticum). — A well-known fungous disease which 
attacks both leaves and fruit. When the attack is upon the leaf it is usually called 
•'leaf blight or mildew." A similar fungus attacks the pear, and what is here said 
of the one will apply equally well to the other. The fungus lives through the Avin- 
ter upon the fallen fruit, leaves, and the younger twigs. In early spring it ripens a 
mass of spores ready to infest the coming leaves and crop. Early in the spring, 
small pale-green spots, definite in outline, appear on the young leaves. The spots 
lose their regularity of outline as they increase in size; become olive green in color 
and A'clvety, and often run together, forming large, irregular blotches. These may 
be found on both sides of the leaf, but are most abundant on the upper surface. 
Ultimately the leaves curl up and drop off. It is upon the fruit, however, that the 
icab is most conspicuous and injurious. It may attack the fruit when no larger than 
peas, or even earlier, causing the apples to fall ofl". If the attack is later the spots, 
which at first are light-colored, grow in size, assume the well-known scab-like ap- 
pearance, and become brown or russet-colored, rough looking, and surrounded by a 
lighter border. They often cause the apple to crack and expose it to spores of other 
fungi, causing it to rot. If the apple matures, wherever the scabs are found it will 
be misshapen and hard. Damp, cool Aveather, especially at the time the fruit is 
forming, favors the growth of the fungus, and it is for this reason that it is worse 
some seasons than others. 

Perhaps the best remedies are Bordeaux mixture, the ammoniacal carbonate of cop- 
per, and modified eau celeste. The first spraying should be before the leaves come 
out, the second j ust after the leaves appear, and the third when the fruit has formed. 
Subsequent spraying may be regulated according to the deniands of the case. About 
five applications will usually suffice. For the first treatment, Avashiug the trees 
with a solution of sulphate of copper, 1 pound to 10 gallons of Avater, is found very 
l)eneficial. The average cost of spraying jjer tree for the season need not exceed 30 
or 40 cents. ReraoA^ng fallen leaves and fruit will take away the principal source of 
infection in the spring. {Conn. State B. Ill; Iowa B. 13; Ky. B. 1889, p. 46; Me. 
R. 1890, p. 113; Mich. B. 59, B. 83; N. Y. State R. 1888, p. 154; N. C. B. 76; Ohio B. 
col. IV, 0; Vt. B. 2S, R. 1S90, p. 142; W. Va. B. 21; Wis. B. 23.) 

Apple tree bucculatrix {Bucciilatrix pomifoliella). — The adult insect is about one- 
seventh inch long. Its eggs hatch in a few days, and the minute yellow or green 
larvpe feed upon the upper surface of apple tree leaves, causing them to turn brown. 
One of its transformations is through white cocoons. These are A^ery conspicuous 
in Avinter on the lower side of twigs, where they are placed side by side. 

Burn the cocoons or apply strong kerosene to them. Spray the leaves with arson- 
ite solutions to kill the grubs. {N'. Y. State B. 35; N. Y. Cornell B. 23.) 



AEBOR VIT.E. 19 

Apple tree caterpillars. — Two (listiuct species will he referred to here: Yellow- 
necked {Duiitna tiiiiiistia) and red-humped ((Edcmcisla concintm). These well-known 
insects are easily distiiisnished by the characters sufjjgested in their common namea. 
They are the larva- of two moths, each measurinj;: an inch or more across the wings. 
The caterpillars are an inch or two long when mature. They feed on the leaves and 
as they usually keep close together, although spinning no web, may be removed or 
burned. If the tree is not bearing they may be killed by sjiraying with arsenites. 
{Mc. It. 1S90, p. 135; Ncbr. B. 14; N. Y. State B. 35; Ore. B. IS; Ohio B., vol. Ill, 11.) 

Apple tree borers. — Two distinct species will be here referred to — the flat-headed 
{Chrnsohoiliris femoraia) and the round-headed (Soperda cavdida). The beetle of the 
round headed borer is about three-fourths inch long, brown in color, with two whit- 
ish stripes on the back. The grub is about an inch long, white, with a round, brown- 
ish head. The eggs are depo.sited on the bark near the ground, and upon hatching 
the grub enters the wood. The Hat-headed borer is smaller, of a dull color, with a 
coppery luster. The larva is yellowish, about an inch long, with a small head. This 
beetle lays its eggs anywhere on the tree trunk or larger branches and the grub 
enters the sap wood while quite small. This grub remains in the wood two years, 
and that of the ronnd-hcaded borer three years. Both species do great damage, 
especially to young trees. 

Painting the trunks with whale-oil soap or thin soft soap as a preventive in the 
spring and digging out the grubs in the fall are recommended; also the covering of 
the trunk with a poisoned whitewash. {N. J. B. S6, R. 1S90, p. 513; N. Y. State B. 
So; 2s. C. B. 7S; Ore. B. IS; Me. E. ISSS, p. 153; W.Va. R. lS90,p. 157.') 

Apple tree tent caterpillar {Clisiocampa americaiia). — This caterpillar is the larva of 
a night-flying moth, which is brownish in color and about an inch across its expanded 
wings. Upon the fore wings are two oblique white lines. The eggs are laid in July 
n clusters of two or three hundred upon the small twigs of apple, wild cherry, and 
some other trees. They hatch out early in the spring and the young caterpillars 
soon form a common web or tent. The caterpillar when full grown is about 2 inches 
long, body black, Avith yellowish hairs, white stripes, and several broken, colored 
stripes down the back. They feed twice a day, about the middle of the forenoon 
and afternoon, when the tents are nearly deserted. Each insect remains connected 
with the tent by a tine thread spun as it goes. When not feeding they are in or on 
their web. The best way to destroy them is to look for the clusters of eggs during 
the winter, which may be seen without much difficulty. Burning or otherwise de- 
stroying the "nests '' should be done only early in the morning and late in the after- 
noon, when most of the caterpillars are in them. Spraying the trees in the spring 
with Paris green or Loudon purple will destroy them, but is more expensive than 
the other methods where no other insects are present. (Me. Ii.lS8S,p. 159; Afass, 
ffaich. B. 12; Nebr. B. 14; N. Mex. B. 3; N. Y. Cornell B. 15; N. Y. State B. 35; N. C. B. 
7S; W. Va. R. 1S90., p. 156) . 

Apricot {Frunus armeniaca). — The planting of varieties has been reported as fol- 
lows : Ark. R. 18SS, p. 57, R. 1S90, p. 46; Cal. R. 1SS9, pp. S6, 109; III. B. SI; La. B. 
S, 2d ser., B. 22; Mo. B. 10; N. Y. State R. 1SS9, pp. 353, 357; Pa. R. 1SS8, p. 161; R. 
I. B. 7; Tenn. Bfvol. Ill, 5, R. ISSS, p. 12; Tex. B. 8; Va. B. 2. 

The California Station (B. 97, R. 1S90, p. 115) has determined the food and fertil- 
izing constituents and the weight of fruit and percentages of flesh and stones of apri- 
cots, as compared with prunes, peaches, grapes, and oranges (see Appendix, Table III). 

In grafting experiments at Iowa Station {B. 10) Myrobalan and St. Julian stocks 
did not thorouglily unite with Chinese and Eussian varieties of apricots, even after 
some years. The use of a native plum stock is favored. 

Arbor vitae (T/t«j/a spp.) — Various species and varieties of this evergreen have 
been planted at several stations. At the South Dakota Station {B. 12, B. 15, R. 1SS8, 
p. 20), the American arbor vitie was found to do well and it is recommended for orua- 



20 ARBUTUS. 

mental liedfifcs. At tlie Kansas Station (B. 10) the American species (T. occidentalis) ' 
was not fully satisfiictory, succumbing, unless protected, to the hot south westr 
winds. A dwarf variety, the Little Geu), appeared more promising than the ordi- 
nary form. The Siberian arbor vitte (I", siberica) had been tried iive years withoutt 
loss of a tree, and is superior to the American in appearance, being of a handsomen 
green and a more regular form, and seems the most worthy of all the species for gen- 
eral planting. 

Arbutus. — See Straivherry tree. 

Argan (Arf/ania sideroxijlon) . — A tree of western Barbary wh'ch is hardy at thei 
California Station at Berkeley, but a very slow grower (CVt?. R. 1882, p. 107). In its 
native country its fruit is fed to cattle and its seeds yield an oil; but it is regarded 
very questionable whether it will ever find much favor in California. 

Arizona Station, Tucson. — Organized July 1, 1889, under act of Congress as a 
department of the University of Arizona. The stalf consists of a director, chemist 
and meteorologist, irrigation engineer, botanist and entomologist, horticulturist, 
assistant horticulturist, assistant chemist, and foreman of the substation at Phamix. 
The principal lines of work are lield experiments with crops and fruits, and irriga- 
tion. Up to January 1, 1893, the station had published 2 annual reports aud 6 
bulletins. Revenue in 1892, $15,000. 

Arkansas Station, Payetteville. — Organized in 1888 under act of Congress as a 
department of Arkansas Industrial Ihiiversity. Thestationstaff consists of a director, 
agriculturist, chemist, veterinarian, horticulturist, assistant chemist, and two assist- 
ant agriculturists in charge of substations at Pine Bluff and Newport. The principal 
lines of work are field experiments with crops and fruits ; chemical analyses of soils, 
fertilizers, and feeding staff's; and studies in veterinary science. Up to January 1, 
1893, the station had published 5 annual reports and 22 bulletins. Revenue in 1892, 
$15,000. 

Axxay woriQ. {Leucania unipuncta). — This worm is an inch or more long, gray or 
dingy black in color, with black stripes and narrow lines of white on the back, and 
under side greenish. The head is smooth and yellowish. It is common in many 
places, but is only formidable when it becomes so numerous as to migrate. The 
female moth lays about seven hundred and fifty eggs at a time and these hatch in 
aljout six days. TJie grubs feed day and night, cutting off stalks of grass aud grain. 
When increased numbers and decreased food compel they move froiu field to field 
often taking every green thing in their path. 

To ]jrevent their spread mow a wide swath about the infested region and burn 
everything within it. This will usually l)o cheapest in the end. Digging trenches 
and setting up boards end to end across their path, and covering tlie boards with 
tar or kerosene will check their migration and aid in their destruction. Poisoning all 
forage in their path with Paris green or similar arsenitcs is also effective. When they 
have been in a field it should be plowed very deep and rolled. In this way the pupa) 
will be killed and a future brood prevented to a great degree. {lowaB, 12; Ky. B. 
40; Mi nil. li. lSSS,p. 359; Nehr. B. 5; N. J. B. 1890, p. 514). 

Arsenites. — See Fungicides and Insecticides. ^ 

Artesian •wells. — Tlie name artesian is derived from Artois in France where arte- 
sian wells have long been used. In ordinary usage an artesian well means a flowing 
well. Such wells are usually of small diameter aud of great depth, and are illustra- 
tions of the familiar tendency of water to seek its own level. The conditions neces- 
sary for the existence of an artesian well are a porous stratum which is confined 
between continuous impervious strata and which outcrops somewhere at a level 
higher than that of the well, forming a more or less perfect basin structure. If at 
some point in tlie lower part of this basin the impervious upper stratum is bored 
through, the water conliued in the ^lorous stratum rises almost to the level of the 
outcrop. The amount of water which can be obtained from artesian wells is deter- 



ASHES. 21 

luined by the aniniint absorbed by tbo pervious stratum where it outcrops, and tliis 
iu turn is dctenniued by tlie ])enneability of the stratum and the area exposed. 
Cousequeutly there is a fixed limit to tlie uumbcr of artesian wells which can be put 
down in a given area. 

Artesian wells have been used in China from early ages. India derives a consider- 
able portion of her water sup])ly from them, and many have been successfully sunk 
by the French in the Desert of Sahara {Colo. B. 16). 

In 1890 and 1891 Congress made an appropriation for investigation into the source 
and availability for irrigation of tlie artesian and underflow waters of the great 
plains of the United States, to be carried on under the auspices of the U. S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture. The reports of these investigations tlirow much light upon 
the nature and extent of two of tlic largest artesiau basins of the world, that of the 
Dakotas or James River Valley, and that of central Texas from Fort Wortli to the 
west and south, besides giving iu detail the results of surface inquiries extending 
over a large j)art of the Ignited States west of the Mississippi Kiver. 

About 60,000 acres of land in California, chiefly in the San .Toaquin Valley, are 
irrigated by artesian wells, and their use for irrigation is being rapidlj' extended in 
other Western States. Such waters have been examined by the Califoruia and Colo- 
rado Stations with regard to the accumulation of soluble mineral substances (or 
alkali) in the soil, resulting from their continued use {Cal. Apj). R. 1S90, p. 51; 
Colo. B. 9). See also Alkali soils and Irrigation. 

Artichoke. — A trial of two varieties is noted by the New Mexico Station (ZJ. 4), 
in which vigorous plants were developed. Germination tests of the seeds are 
recorded as follows: JSf. Mex. B. 4; N. Y. State E. lS83,p. 67; Ft. R. 18S9,p. 150. 

Jerusalem artichokes {Hclinnilms tiihevosm). — Two vailetics have been distrib- 
uted by the California Station {B, 95) on the recommendation of a few growers iu 
that State. 

Chinese or Japanese aktichokes. — See Chorogi. 

Artificial digestion. — See Foods for animals, digestihiUiy. 

Ash iu feeding stuffs. — See Feeding farm animals and Appendix, Tahles T and IT. 

Ashes. — For ashes used in pig-feeding see Pigs. All plants contain a certain 
amount of mineral matter, which remains behind when they are burned. This 
incombustible matter usually forms only a small part of the plant. "The timber 
of freely growing trees contains but 0.2-0.4 of ash constitueuts in 100 of dry 
matter. In seeds free from husk the ash is generally 2-5 per cent of the dry matter; 
in the straw of cereals 4-7 per cent; in root? and tubers 4-8 per cent; iu hay 5-9 
per cent. It is in leaves aud especially old leaves that the greatest proportion of 
ash is found.'' (Waringtou.) 

The ash of plants always contains potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, phospho- 
rus, and sulplmr; generally sodium, silica, and chlorine, with frequently manga- 
nese and perhaps minute traces of other elements. Since, therefore, ashes represent 
in kind if not in exact amount the mineral matter necessary to the growth of plants, 
they naturally form one of the best of fertilizers. Besides their value as plant food, 
they often produce beneficial physical eftects on the soil. Ashes, however, are an 
incomplete fertilizer since they contain no nitrogen. 

There are three classes of ashes whicli are of agricultural importance, wood ashes 
from household fires or from furnaces, etc. ; cotton-hull ashes, resulting from the 
use of cotton hulls as fuel under boilers, etc., in the South; and limekiln ashes, 
which are a mixture of more or less lime with ashes of the fuel used in the kilns. 

The value of wood ashes depends upon the kiud of wood used, freedom from impu- 
rities, and care in preservation. 

According to analyses {Ga. B. 2) of samples of trees growing as nearly as possible 
under like conditions and of medium age, difierent kinds of wood (exchisive of 
bark) having a uniform water content, contain the following amounts of mineral 
constituents : 



22 ASHES. 

Composition of the ash of different tcoods. 








10,000 pounds of Wood contains— 


Pure* ash contains— 


. 


Potash. 


Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 


Lime. 


Magne- 
sia. 


{ Phos- 

Potash.' phoric 

j acid. 


Lime. 


Magne- 
sia. 




Pounds. 
19.02 

18.06 

16.85 

14.94 

13.95 

13.80 

10.60 

7.13 

5.01 

4.54 


Pounds. 
5.72 

9.55 
, 6.96 
1.15 
5.98 
5.83 
2.49 
3.19 
1.24 
n UR 


Pounds. Pounds. 


] 
Per ct. I Per ct. 


Per ct. 

38.93 

31.62 
46.39 
23.57 
48.26 
37.94 
29.85 
38.94 
55.24 
65. 53 
58.98 
49.18 
67.73 


Peret. 
6.80 

0.62 

6.88 

0.60 

5.38 

10. 04 

3. 43 

8. 05 

6.25 

3.20 ! 

0.50 

2.11 

6.54 


Sycamore (Platanus occidentalis) . . 

Post oak ( Quercus obtuniloba) 

Ash (Fraxinus ainericana) 

Eed oak (Quercus rubra) 


24. 73 j 0. 49 j 23. 17 | 12. 23 

3.5.61 5.28 I 21.92 j 9.00 

7. 60 i 0. 10 j 46. 04 1 3. P8 

27 40 "J OK ! 0,1 r.R i -m np. 


Hickory ( Gary a tomentosa) 

White oak ( Quercus alba) 

Magnolia (Magnolia grandijiora) .. 

Georgia piue (Pinus 2>alustris) 

Yellow pine (Pinus mitis) 


18.40 
7.85 
14.21 
18.04 
15.16 
12 46 


4.87 28.60 ! 11.97 
0. 90 1 42. 16 i 9. 48 
2. 94 i 19. 54 8. 75 
2.03 15.35 \ 3.82 
0.74 19.70 1 4.18 


Black pine (Picea nigra) 


3 02 f> 09 


Chestnut (Caitanea vulgaris) 

Old field pine (Pinus tmdia) 


2.90 
0.79 


1.09 
0,73 


7.93 
12.12 


0.34 
1.17 


18.10 6.76 

3.85 1 4.11 

i 



* Free from carbon and carbonic acid. 

The fact that these ashes were pure and prepared from the wood only, explains 
why the percentages of mineral constituents are so much higher than those found 
in the average ashes in the market, which are as follows for unleached ashes: 
Moisture 12.50, potash 5.25, phosphoric acid 1.70, lime 34, magnesia 3.40. Ashes 
which have been subjected to leaching show a reduced percentage of potash and an 
increased percentage of moisture, but otherwise remain practically unchanged. 
The average composition of leached ashes as compiled from analyses by the Massa- 
chusetts and Connecticut stations is as follows: Moisture 30.22, potash 1.27, phos- 
phoric acid 1.51, lime 28.08, magnesia 2.66 per cent. 

Limekiln ashes differ in composition from the leached ashes principally in their 
loAver percentage of moisture and higher percentage of lime. The lime exists to a 
considerable extent (8 per cent or more) as caustic or quicklime and not as carbonate, 
which is the almost exclusive form in leached and unleached wood ashes. The aver- 
age composition of limekiln ashes compiled from a large number of analyses is as 
follows: Moisture 15.45, potash 1.20, phosphoric acid 1.14, lime 48.50, magnesia 2.60 
per cent. 

Cotton-hull ashes have been on tlie market since 1880 and have come into great 
demand as a cheap potash supply, e.specially among the tobacco growers of New 
England. The cotton hulls are now being utilized for paper-making and it is prob- 
able that the supply of ashes in the future will be either very much reduced or 
entirely cut off. The composition of the ashes as put upon the market is extremely 
variable. The average composition is as follows: Moisture 7.80, potash 22.75, solu 
ble phosphoric acid 1.25, reverted phosphoric acid 6.50, total phosphoric acid 8.85, 
lime 9.60, magnesia 10.75 per ceut. The potash varies from 10 to 42 per cent and 
phosphoric acid from 3 to 13.5 per cent. The potash exists largely as carbonate, 
which is readily available to plants, but there is also a considerable percentage of 
silicate of potash which is difflcultly available. The value of cotton-hull ashes 
depends almost exclusively upon the amounts of potash and phosphoric acid they 
contain. This is not true of the other kinds of ashes described above. The lime 
contained in limekiln and wood ashes is of considerable agricultural importance on 
account of its well-known effect on the mechanical condition of soils, especially such 
as are light and sandy, the general experience being that such soils are rendered 
more moist by applications of wood ashes. Besides this wood ashes tend to correct 
"sourness" of the soil and promote nitrification by supplying the carbonate of lime 
necessary to that process. 



ASPARAGUS. '^^3 

The common practioo of fermenting boue with ashes has hecn a snhject of investi- 
gation at the New Hampshire Station (R. ISSS, pp. 10, 67) with the result of allowing 
that "this method is not a satisiaetory one, for in all cases where ashes were nsed 
the whole of the soluble phosphoric acid was changwl into either insoluble or 
reverted, while considerably over half of the reverted or citrate-soluble phosphoric 
acid was' made insoluble." It possesses the further disadvantage of being likely to 
cause a loss of nitrogen from the bone. Still the fact remains that the process 
furnishes a convenient and cheap means of reducing to a desirable condition for 
fertilizing purposes materials which would otherwise probably remain worthless on 

the farm. 

The scarcity and inferior quality of ashes on the market has led the Connecticut 
State Station (R. 1S91, p. S5) to seek a desirable substitute for them. As a result of 
its investigations three mixtures are suggested as equivalent to 1 ton of good ashes: 
(1) 20 bushels of burned oyster shells (40 pounds to the bushel) and 500 pounds of 
cotton-hull ashes, cost $11.\.5; (2) 20 bushels cf oyster-sliell lime, 220 pounds of high- 
grade sulphate of potash, and 150 pounds of cheap steamed bones, cost $11.10; and 
(3) 20 bushels of oyster-shell lime, 150 pounds of cheap steamed bones, and 220 pounds 
of muriate of potash, cost $9.45. {Conn. State R. 18S1, pp. 54, 66, R. 1SS3, p. 67, R. 18S9, 
p. 108, R. 1S91, p. 85 ; Ga. B. 2 ; Me. R. lSS5-'86, p. 29 ; Mass. State R. 1891, p. 306 ; Mich. 
B. 15; N. H. R. 1888, pp. 10, 67; N. C. R. 1881, p. 47.) 

Ash trees {Fmxinus spp.).— An economic description of the white ash {F. ameri- 
caua), red ash {F. pulescens), and the green ash {F. viridis) is given by the Ala- 
bama College Station (/?. 3, n. set:). The wood of all these species is similar, but 
that of the white ash is considered to be the best for many purposes. The bark of 
this species may be used for tanning and dyeing and its wood and leaves for medici- 
nal purposes. At the South Dakota Station (B. 12, B. 15, B. 20, B. 23, R. 1888, p. 
23) both the white and green species have done well, but the latter is likely to be 
more serviceable in that State, being a native tree able to endure heat and drought. 
" This tree has been more uniformly successful in prairie plantations than any 
other. When planted among bos elder it equals that tree in height at the end of 
seven years, and thereafter is the more rapid grower." Three species are catalogued 
{Nehr.B. IS) as native in Nebraska. Different species of ash, especially the white, 
are mentioned in lists of trees planted in forestry experiments (Cal. R. 1888-89, p. 
179; Minn. R. 1890, p. 38; N. Mex. B. 4; N. T. State R. 1890, p. 348; Ore. B. 4). 

The American and European mountain ash trees {Pyriis spp.), belonging to a diff- 
erent family, are mentioned by some stations as ornamental trees. 

Asparagus {Asparagus officinalis).— Yaviety tests of 5, 6, and 2 varieties, respec- 
tively, are reported as follows: Mich. B. 67; Minn. R.. 1888, p. 256; UtahB. 3. Suc- 
cessful experiments in growing this vegetable have been mad-e by the Florida {B. 1) 
and New Mexico {B. 4) Stations. 

For analyses made at Iowa and Massachusetts State Stations, see Appendix, Tahle 
III. 

The growth of the roots was observed at the New York State Station {R. 1884, 
p. 308). The roots developed in the same Avay whether the ground was trenched or 
not. The fact that the new roots grew out above the old ones seemed to favor the 
French practice of planting intrenches and year by year drawing the soil in. 

At the Ohio Station {B. Vol. Ill, 9) observations were made for two seasons on the 
relative yield of the male and the female plants. The male was found to gain over 
the female for four periods often days each, respectively, 76, .52, 63, and 31 per cent. 
Likewise at the New Mexico Station (B. 4) it was fouiid more profitable to raise the 
male plant. 

Germination tests of asparagus seed are noted as follows: N. Y. State R. 1883, 
p. 67; Vt. R. 1888, p. 100. 

In the Ohio bulletin referred to above the use of rubber bands in bunching for 
market is recommended. 



24 



AMERICAN AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES, 



Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations.— 
Organized in 1887 to promote the generiil interests of agricultural science and educa- 
tion. Tlie meiubersliip includes one delegate from each of the agricultural colleges 
and experiment stations in the United States and from the Office of Experiment Sta- 
tions. Annual conventions are held in different parts of the country, at which, be- 
sides discussions on general topics, papers on investigations in agricultural science 
are read before the general association or sections on college work, agriculture and 
chemistry, botany and horticulture, entomology, and mechanic arts. The proceed- 
ings of the several conventions are published as bulletins of the Office of Experiment 
Stations. 

Association of Official Agricultural Chemists.— See Chemistry. 

Australian fern tree.— See GrcviUea. 

Ayrshire cows.— See Cotvs, tests of dairy breeds. 

Babcock milk test.— See Milk tests. 

Baby separator.— See Creaming of milk. 

Bacteriology.— The work of the stations in this line includes investigations of the 
bacteria which are found in soils, plants, and animals, and in milk ancf its products. 
Bacteria are microscopic organisms, usually classed as plants, which develop in the 
air, water, soil, plants, animals, or vegetable and animal products. By their growth 
they cause chemical and physical changes in their hosts. Some of these changes are 
beneficial and others are injurious. Thus certain kinds of bacteria produce diseases 
in plants or animals, or render such substances as milk or butter unlit for food. 
Other kinds promote the acquisition of the nitrogen of the air bv plants (especially 
legumes) or give the peculiar flavor to butter, which makes it command a high price 
m the market. Bacteriology is so young a science that much still remains to be 
learned about these minute organisms before very definite statements can be made 
regarding their nature and the methods for their treatment. Enough is already 
known, however, to make their investigation of great importance. Work in bacteri- 
ology at the stations will be referred to under various diseases of plants and animals 
dairying, legumes, green manures, etc. ' 

Bamboos.— Several species of bamboo have been tested by the California Station 
and by individuals in the State (Cal. B. 1SS2, p. 114, R. 1SS5-'S6, jy. 127, R. 1SSS-'S9, 
p. 130, R. 1890, p. 2S3). In the report for 1882 general statements are made regarding 
the usefulness of bamboos, and descriptions are given of several species grown at 
the station or on private grounds. In a garden at Oakland '' a complete little grovo 
of bamboos can be seen, with cane averaging 20 to 30 feet in height and U to 2^ 
inches in diameter. For some years the shoots had been weak and were cut off with 
the mower. They then became vigorous, and, being left undisturbed, reached a 
height of 20 feet in a couple of months." In the same vicinity were growing vigor- 
ously the Metake variety, a black-stemmed species (Phyllostac'hys m<jr<i), and varfoua 
others. Of other species growing in the station collection Arundinariafalcata the 
Rmgal or Nigala bamboo from the Himalayas, was the most pronusing. Bamlmsa 
stricia seemed to require more heat. Many species of bamboos, especially those from 
Japan, are considered worthy of trial in California. Later reports of trials made in 
various parts of the State tend to confirm the expectations entertained by the station. 

Barberries (Berheris 8pp.)._A promising growth of the common barberry (Ber- 
beris nihjaris) is noted in Min7i. R. 18SS, p. 287. 

The edible barberry {B. heteropoda), a native of Turkestan, is noted in CaJ. R. 18S2, 
p. 102. It had proved adapted to the station climate, but was of slow growth. 

The tree or Amur barberry {B. armurensis) is recommended by the Iowa Station 
(B 16) for ornamental planting. It forms a neat round-topped tree of small size 
with large scarlet fruit in late summer and fall. ' 

Bark lice.— See riant lice and Oyster-shell bark louse. 



BARNYARD MANURE. 



25 



Barley (TTordeum spp.).— The work of the stations on this strain includes te.sts of 
varieties, analyses, and experiments with fertilizer.^. The cultivated species may he 
classitied as follows: Two-rowed (Hordeum dhtichum), six-rowed (//. vnlgare), and 
awnless {H. trif urea turn) {N. T. State R. 1SS4, p. SSo). 

VAKurriES.— Among the six-rowed varieties tested, Manshnry has been more gen- 
erally satisfactory than any other variety. Chevalier is an excellent two-rowed 
variety. Manshnry Avas discovered by a scientilic traveler in 1S59 in the mountain- 
ous region of Manchoori, China, and brought to the experimental garden at Sans 
Souci, Germany. It was introduced into this country by H. (Jrnnow, of Mifllin. Wis- 
consin. The first station to test it was the Wisconsin Station. (For a history of this 
variety, see Wis. K. ISSS and Pa. B. 6.) The cost of raising Manshurybarley inlowa 
has been estimated to be about 11 cents per bushel {Iowa B. 16). 

{Ala. Canehrake B. 9; Cat. R. 1S90. p. 27S; Colo. R. 1890, p. 16; Me. B. IS, B. 
1SS7, p. 106, R. 1SS9, p. 145; Mich. B. 46; Xeh: B. 13, B. 19; N. Y. State B. 12 {1SS2), 
R. lS83,p. 141, R. 1SS4, pp. SI, S85, R. 1S89, p. 288 ; Pa. B. 6, B. 10, R. 1889, p. 23 ; S. 
Dale. B. 11, B. 17, B. 21; Tenn. B. vol. Ill, 2; Utah R. 1891, p. 59; Wis. B. 11, B. 13, B. 
17, R. 1883, p. 111.) 

Composition.— See Appendix, Talles I and II; X. Y. State R. 1S90, p. 172 (hay); 
Mass. State R. 1890, p. 293 (straw). 

Fkrtilizer tests.— None of the tests thus far conducted by the stations have been 
continued long enough to give more than suggestive results. In California, on soil 
of decomposed granite deficient in iihosphates and hnmus, nitrate of soda and bone 
meal combined doubled the yield {Cal. R. 1890, p. 275). In Maine, ground South 
Carolina rock gave better results than acid South Carolina rock {Me. R. 1890, p. 92). 
In Indiana barnyard manure was more effective than commercial fertilizers {Ind. B. 
34). In Arkansas pea vines plowed under increased the yield of barley {Arh. B. 18). 
See also La. B. 8, 2d ser.; Fla. B. 14. 
Feeding experiments. — See Cotvs and Pigs. 
Barns. — See Farm hulldiiu/s. 

Barnyard manure.— This term is used to include the pure solid and liquid excre- 
ment of the different classes of farm live stock, as well as the more or less weathered 
and leached mixture of animal excrement and litter commonly known as farmyard 
or barnyard manure. 

Sources and composition.— The quality of barnyard manure depends upon the 
food used, the amount of litter added, and the care taken in preservation. As show- 
ing the amount and value of the manure produced by different animals under ordi- 
nary conditions of liberal feeding, the following figures, obtained in experiments at 
the New York Cornell Station {B. 27), are of interest: 

Amount and value of manure produced iy farm live stock. 





Food. 


Toodi 


Ma- 


Composition of manure . 


Value of manure. 


Animals. 


'i'^'^y- daily. 


Nitro- 
gen. 


Potash. 


Pho.s- 
plioric 
acid. 


Per 
ton. 


Per 
animal 
daily. 


Per 1,000 
pounds 

live 
weight 
daily. 


Cows 

Horses* 

Sheep 

Swine 


Hay, sil.ige, beets, wheat 
bran, coin meal, cotton- 
seed meal, malt sprouts. 


Lhs. 
75.5 


Lhs. 
81.5 

52.5 
7.2 
3.5 


Per ct. 
0.50 

0.47 
1.00 
0.83 


Perct.. 
0.29 

0.94 
1.21 
0.61 


Per ct. 
0.45 

0.39 
0.08 
0.04 


$2.37 

2.79 
4.19 
3.18 


$0. 093 

0.073 
0.015 
0.006 


$0. 082 
0.052 


Grain, beets, and hay 

Corn meal, or corn meal 
and tlesh meal. 


5.3 
3.6 


0.106 
0.047 



♦Wort horses. Estimates were made on the assumption that three fifths of the manure was col- 
lected. 



2G 



BARNYARD MANURE. 



This tal>le sliows iLe variation in composition of manure from different animal 
under ordinary feediu^^ A change in food in each case would result in a chanee in 
composition of the manure obtained, since it is well demonstrated that the manure 
from an animal fed upon a given food contains the larger part of the fertilizino- in. 
gredients, nitrogen, potash, and phosphoric acid of the food, and in almost the s'kme 
relative proportions. This point is well illustrated by the followiug experiments 
ma de at Ihe Maine Station (B. 1S85~>86, p. 42): Two lots of sheep were fed two 
different rations, one having a basis of corn meal but comparatively poor in fertiliz- 
ing constituents, and the other having a basis of cotton-seed meal and richer in fer- 
tilizing constituents. . The amounts of the different fertilizing ingredients fed and 
excreted m the two rations in five days were as follows: 

FertUizinfj constituents consumed and excreted ly sheep. 





Hay and cotton- 
seed meal. 


Hay and corn meal.* 


In food. 


In ma- 
nure. 


In food. 


In ma- 
nure. 


Kitrogen 


Ounces. 
3.0 
1.4 
2.2 


Ounces. 
3.9 
1.3 
2.0 


Ounces. 
1.6 
0.5 
1.1 


Ounces. 
1.5 
0.4 
0.8 


Phospboiic acid 

Potash 





* Calculated from amount excreted during four days. 

The results obtained are summarized as follows : 

"The amounts of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash in the manure residue stand 
m direct relation to the amounts of the same ingredients in the food, the loss in the 
present instance averaging only about 10 per cent. 

- The urine contained nearly half the potash of the total excreta, and from half 
to three-fourths the nitrogen, but no phosphoric acid, the latter being wholly in the 
solid excrement." 

We see here the intimate relation existing between the feeding of live stock and 
the fertility of the soil. In the different products sold from the-farm there is car- 
ried away a certain amount of fertili/.ing materials. The following table, adapted 
from Pa. B. 1890, p. 27, shows the fertilizing value of some of the m^ore common farm 
products: 

Manurial value of farm products. 



Pounds per ton. 



Value per ton. 



Nitrogen 



Meadow liay 

Clover hay 

Potatoes 

"Wheat bran 

Linseed meal . . . 
Cotton-seed meal .. 

"Wheat 

Oats 

Coin 

Barley 

Milk 

Cheese 

Live cattle 



20.42 

40.10 

7.01 

49.15 

105.32 

135. 65 

37.53 

36.42 

33.00 

39.65 

10.20 

90.00 

53.2 



Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 



8.2 
11.2 

3.2 
28.6 
32.2 
29.2 



Potash. Nitrogen 



10.6 


12.4 


11.8 


9.0 


3.4 


23.0 


37.2 



26.4 
30.6 
11.4 
54.6 
24. 8 
56.2 
15.8 
8.8 
7.4 
15.4 
3.0 
5.0 
3.4 



$3. 47 
e.83 
1.19 
8.35 

17.87 

23.00 
6.38 
6.21 
5.62 
6.74 
1.73 

15.40 
9.04 



Phos- 

plioric 

acid. 



$0.57 
0.78 
0.22 
2.00 
2. 25 
2.04 
0.74 
0.87 
0.83 
0.63 
0.24 
l.Cl 
2.00 



Potash. 

$1.06 
1.40 
0.46 
2.10 
0.99 
2.25 
0.63 
0.35 
0.30 
0.62 
0.12 
0.20 
0.14 



Total. 

$5. 10 

9.07 

1.87 

12.45 

21.11 

28.35 

7.75 

7.43 

6.75 

7.99 

2.09 

17.21 

11.78 



Manurial 
value of 
$10wonh. 



$5.10 
9.07 
0.12 
7.78 
7.54 

10.12 
2.58 
3.86 
3.78 
2.96 
0.88 
0.69 
1.18 



BARNYARD MANURE. 27 

"We learu from tlie above t;il)le that the farmer wlio sells a ton of Lay, for exam- 
j)le, sells in this ton of haj^ fertilizins: iuf^redients which, if purchased in the form 
of commercial fertilizers, would cost him about $5.10; that if he sells 2,000 pounds of 
Avheat, he sells an amount of nitroj^en, phosplioric acid, a-.id potash which it would 
cost him $7.75 to replace in his soil in the form of commercial fertilizers. [Or look- 
ing at it from a somewhat dill'erent standpoint] a fiknner who sells, for example, $10 
worth of wheat, sells with it about $2.58 worth of the fertility of his soil. In other 
words, when he receives his $10 this amount does not represent the net receipts of the 
transaction, for he has parted with $2.58 worth of his capital, that is, of the stored-up 
fertility of his soil, and if he does not take this into the account he makes the same 
mistake a merchant would should he estimate his profits by the amount of cash 
which ho received and neglect to take account of stock." 

If now the farmer, instead of selling off his crops, feeds them to live stock on the 
farm as far as possible, a large proportion of this fertility, as has been shown above, is 
retained on the farm ; and ' ' if the business of stock feeding is carried to the point where 
feed is purchased in addition to that grown on the farm, a considerable addition may 
in this way be made to the fertility of the farm at an almost nominal cost, since it is 
assumed that feed will not be bought unless its feeding value will at least pay its 
cost." {Fa. E. 1S90, p 27; Mass. State B. 36.) 

Deterioration and preservation. — The two chief causes of deterioration of 
barnyard manure are fermentation, whereby a certain amount of nitrogen is set free, 
and weathering or leaching, which results in a loss of the soluble fertilizing elements 
of the manure. 

Laboratory experiments at the North Carolina Station {B. C.3) with small amounts 
(100-gram lots) of manure to observe the proportion of ammonia escaping from ma- 
nure in mass, showed a loss of only 3.36 per cent of the nitrogen originally present 
in the manure. It is possible that from larger masses the loss would have been 
larger, although experiments at the New York Cornell Station (JS. 13) have shown 
that no appreciable loss takes place where manure simply dries, and it is the gener- 
ally accepted view that the loss of nitrogen under such conditions is insignihcant. 
Manure loosely piled is in the most favorable condition both for destructive fermen- 
tation and for leaching. Experiments at the New York Cornell Station {B. 13) show 
that "horse manure thrown into a loose pile and subjected to the action of the ele- 
ments will lose nearly half of the valuable fertilizing coustitaents in the course of 
six months; that mixed horse and cow manure in a compact mass and so placed tliat 
all water falling upon it quickly runs through and off is subjected to a considerable, 
though not so great a loss." 

Further experiments on a larger scale (jB. ^7) in general confirmed these results, 
showing that the loss of fertilizing constituents under ordinary conditions of piling 
and exposure daring the course of the summer amounted to about 50 per cent of the 
original value of the manure. 

In experiments at the New Y'ork State Station {B. S3) it was shown that on expo- 
sure to weather cow manure lost 65 per cent of its weight, and compost of which 
muck was the leading constituent, about 30 per cent. There was a loss in percent- 
age of each fertilizing constituent except phosphoric acid, amounting in the aggre- 
gate to $2.50 per cord of manure, and $1.18 per cord of compost. 

From somewhat similar experiments at the Kansas Station ( R. 188S, p. 10) the con- 
clusion was drawn "that farmyard manure must be hauled to the field in the spring, 
otherwise the loss of manure is sure to be very great, the waste in six months amount- 
ing to fully one half of the gross manure and nearly 40 per cent of the nitrogen that 
it contained." 

The comparative value of leached and unleached manure has been carefully tested 
at the Ohio Station {B. vol. V, 3) on corn and wheat, and mixtures of clover and 
timothy. The experiments show a wide difference in value between the leached and 
unleached manure and indicate that the margin of profit on open-yard manure is 
extremely small. 



28 BARNYARD MANURE. 

Maimre may be prcserveil by preveuting as far as possible destructive fermenta- 
tion and leacbing. Tlie first yesult is securod largely by keeping the manure moist 
and more or less compact, to prevent free access of air, and the second by storing 
under cover. 

In practice it is impossible to completely prevent the foriuation of ammonia gas, 
and so the addition of various materials to the manure to absorb this gas has been 
reconnnended. Dry loam may be used to advantage, but sulphate of lime (gypsum), 
superphosphate, or kaiuit in moderate quantities are generally more satisfactory. 
It has been the general experience that probably the best way to utilize farm manure 
in general is in compost with such materials as supplement and conserve its fertili- 
zing constituents (see Composts). 

The value of barnyard manure depends not so much upon tlie actual amounts of 
the essential elements of plant food, since analysis shows these to be comparatively 
small, as upon its eifect on the physical qualities of the soil. It not only improves 
the mechanical conditions of both light and heavy soil, but it induces fermentative 
changes in the soil which render available latent plant food, and promotes the capil- 
lary flow of soil water toward the surface, thus augmenting both the supply of water 
and plant food to the crop ( Wis. E. 1891, p. 111). 

Field experiments.— A review of the experiments with barnyard manure shows 
that tho high esteem in which it has long been \c\(\. is fully warranted. On the 
prairie soils of Illinois it has shown its superiority to commercial fertilizers (111. B. 
4, B. 22), although it appears that to base its value for such soils on the price of 
the constituents of commercial fertilizers is somewhat misleading. An application 
of 20 tons per acre on wheat in Kansas {B. 11) gave an increase of only 5 bushels 
per acre. 

On the dry soils of Mississippi (i?. 18d0, p. 10), which are deficient in organic mat- 
ter, it has been used with very favorable results. 

In a five-years' trial at the Indiana Station {B. 23) of gas lime, superphosphate, 
and stable manure on corn, the results were best with the manure both as regards 
increase of crop and permanency of effect. 

Comparative experiments at the New York Cornell Station {B. 21) with nitrate of 
soda, muriate of potash, and stable manure on tomatoes demonstrated the superiority 
of the latter, and showed that it may be profitably used in abundance on this crop. 

Comparative tests of commercial fertilizers and barnyard manure on corn at the 
Kentucky Station (B. 17) showed best results with the latter. 

The results of experiments on potatoes {Ga. B. 8; Inch B. 31; Mich. B. 85; N. J. B. 
80; N. Y. State 11. 1889, p. 223; R. I. B. 1890, p. 23) are equally favorable, the princi- 
pal objection urged against it being its liabilty when used close to the seed to pro- 
mote the formation of scab (Mass. State li. 1889, p. 214; Ohio B. vol. Ill, 1). The 
manure doubtless furnishes conditions well suited to the growth of the scab fungus 
as well as of other fungoid diseases, but experiments at the Connecticut State Sta- 
tion (E. 1891, p. 153) go to show that the chief danger lies in liability of infecting the 
potatoes with the fungus already living in the manure. Where the manure is not 
previously contaminated scab is not necessarily increased. 

Methods of applying. — It is the general experience with barnyard manure, as 
with all bulky organic manures, that in order to secure the best results time must be 
allowed for thorough decomposition in the soil. This is noticeably true where it is 
used for tobacco and sugar beets. There is much difiercnce of opinion in regard to 
the question whether manure should be incorporated in the soil as soon as applied 
or left for a time spread on the surface. Tlie following experiments of the New 
Hampshire Station {B. 6) liear on this question : On one acre the manure was plowed 
under in the fall, on a second it was spread on the surface in the fall, and on a third 
it was spread on the surface in the spring. The yield was largest with the second 
method and smallest with the third. In experiments on oats at the Maine Station 



BEAN. 29 

(/?. 1891, p. 146) spring manuring gave tlie largest yield of grain and fall mauiiting 
the largest yield of straw. 

Applications in the trench with potatoes have been known to produce injurious 
effects {Mass. State li. 1889, p. 214; Ohio U-vol. 111,1 ; Va. B.8),\mt as a mulch 
between the rows of potatoes at the rate of 10 cords per acre the results have been 
highly satisfactory {Mich. B. 85). 

{Ala. CambrakeB. 10, B. 11; Ala. College. B. 10, n. ser.; Ark. B, 19; Conu. Slate B. 1891, 
p, 101; Conn. Storrs It. 1888, p. 47; Ga. B. 8, B. 11, B. IS, B. 15; III. B. 4, B.8; 
hid. B. 23, B. 31, B. 32; Iowa B. 17 ; Kans. B. 11; It. 1888, p. 10, Ky. B. 17; Me. It. 
lS85-'86,p. 42, It. 1890, p. 96, It. 1891, pp. 138, 146; Mass. Hatch B. 9, B. 18; Mass. 
State B. 36, B. 1889, p. 214, B. 1890, p. 135 ; Mich. B. 85 ; Minn. B. 8; Miss. B. 1890. 
p. 38; N. H. B. 5, B. 6; N. J. B. 80; .V. Y. Cornell B. 13, B. 21, B. 27 ; N. Y. State 
B. 27, R. 1889, p. 256; K. C. B. 61, B. 63, B. 1879, p. 59, B. 1880, p. 119, R. 1882, p. 
79, B. 1885, p. 48, B. 1887, p. 56, Ohio B. vol. Ill, 1, B.vol. V, 2, 3; Pa. B. 1890, p. 27; 
B. I. B. 1890, p. 18; Tex. B. 1889, p. 98 ; Fa. B. 8.) 

Basella {Basella alba).— A twining herb known also as Malabar nightshade, 
native in India; the white variety is cultivated in France, and was grown at the 
New York State Station {B. 1885, p. 194). It has thick, fleshy leaves, which are 
used as a substitute for spinach. 

Bassv70od {Til ia americana) [also called American linden]. — This tree is briefly 
described from an economic point of view in Ala. B. 2, n. ser., and is recounueuded 
for a shade tree in Iowa B. 16. In Mich. B. 39 it is praised for its beauty, vigorous 
and rapid groAvth, endurance of transplantiug, and value as a honey tree. It is also 
praised as an ornamental tree by the Minnesota Station {B. 24). At the South Da- 
kota Station {B. 12, It. 1888, p. 24,) this tree grew fairly well in the lawn, though 
plantations of small trees in the nursery almost entirely failed. It was there looked 
upon with favor onlj^ as an ornamental tree. 
Bat guano. — i^ee Appendix, Tabic IF. 

Bean. — The work of the stations has been chiefly the testing of varieties, espe- 
cially of the French or kidney bean {Phaseohis luihjaris) and the Lima beau {P. 
lunatus). 

Vaiukties.— In N. Y. State B. 1883, p. 235, tabulated d.ita are given for 102 varie- 
ties, 88 of which are classiried on a scheme proposed by If. H. Wing, partly after 
Martens of Germany, which is based on the size, shape, and color of the ripe seed. 
(See also B. 1882, p. 89.) In .V. Y. State B. 1883, p. 243, a number of cases of volunteer 
variation and cross-fertilization among the varieties tested are described. At the 
Kansas Station {B. 1889, p. 133) a trial was made in 1889 of 81 varieties of kidney beans 
and 10 of Lima, classified mainly according to the scheme mentioned above. In 
1890, 194 varieties were planted, of which only 19 withstood the severe drought of 
the season {Kans. B. 19). 

The asparagus bean {Dolichos sesquipedalis), "a tall pole bean, needing a warmer 
climate than the northern United Stat«?s for full development," is described in K 
Y. State B. 1883, p. 259. 
The horse beau (FiciaJ'aba) has been planted as a forage plant at scNcral stations. 
Besides the soja or soy bean, frequently tested (see Soja bean), several other varie- 
ties of Japanese beans have been planted. At the Kansas Station (i>. IS, B. 19, B. 32) 
Bolichos cultratas, Miicnna capitata, Canuvalia sp., and varieties of the Adzuki bean 
(Phaseolns radiatn>f) were grown, as also varieties of the soja bean. These are spe- 
cifically described {B.IS), and it is estimated that though productive and nutritious 
they are not likely to meet the American taste except as specially cultivated. In 
Eans. B. 32, however, 2 Adzuki varieties are deseriljed, and it is stated that authori- 
ties concede this to be the best-flavored bean in existence. Samples were submitted 
to several housekeepers for trial, all but two of whom reeimnuendcd the bean. They 
were very successfully grown at the station. The red and white Adzuki beaus were 



30 BEAN ANTHRACNOSE. 

grown with success at tlie Massacliiisetta Hatch Station (B. 7, B. IS). It was 
regarded doubtful whether this class of beans would prove valuable here, as the 
confections made from them by the Japanese are considered insipid by foreigners. 
Two analyses of this bean are given in -^Mass. R. 1S91, p. SIS. 

The root systems of the scarlet runner bean and the Boston dwarf wax were ob- 
served at tlie N. Y. State station, showing for the deeper roots of the former a length 
of 2^ feet and for the longer horizontal roots a length of at least 4 feet. 

{Ala. Cancbrake B. 1 ; Ala. College B. 7, n. ser. B. 20, n. ser.; Ark. R. 1889, p. 98; 
Colo. B. 2, R. 1888, j). ISS, R. 1889, pp. 35, 100, 120, R. 1890, pp. 193, 205, 210; Iowa 
B. 7; Kij. B. 32; La. B. 3, 2d ser; Me. R. 1890, p. 102; Md. R. 1889, p. 60; Mass. Hatch 
B. 4; Mich. B. 70; Minn. R. ISSS, p. 259; Nebr. B. 12; Nev. R. 1890, p. 19; JS". Mex. B. 4; 
N. Y. State R. 1885, p. 190, R. 1886, p. 250, R. 1S87, p. 832, R. 1SS8, p. 110, R. 1889, p. 314, 
R. 1890, p. 285; Pa. R. 1888, p. 136, B. 10, B. 14; Utah B. 10; Ft. R. 1889, p. 125.) 

CoRirosiTiON. — See Appendix, Table III. 

Feiitilizer tests. — Experiments with fertilizers are reported as follows: Ga. B. 
14; R. I. R. 1890, p. 154. 

Seed tests. — Experiments in planting large and small seeds during two .years are 
reported from the NeAV York State Station (jB. 1889, p. 364). The second year the lar- 
gest and the smallest beans produced the previous year by both the large and the 
small seed, were i)lanted. The number of seeds which germinated and the history of 
the plants were observed. The results indicated that while tbe small seed vegetated 
more quickly, the large seed produced fully as many plants, Avhich had more vigor- 
ous growth. Germination tests of beans are reported as follows: Ark. R. 1889, p. 98; 
N. Y. State R. 1883, pp.59, 66; Ohio R. 1883, p. 170, R. 1885, p. 169, R. 1886, p. 254 ; 
Ore. B.2; Pa. R. 1889, p. 164; Vt. R. 1889, p. 100; S. C. R. 1888, pp. 62, 82. 

Greenhouse culture. — In N. Y. Cornell R. 1890, p. 171, instructions are given for 
the winter forcing of beans, based on experience at the station. The necessity of 
having bottom heat is urged. The Sion House is recommended as a good variety for 
winter forcing. 

Bean anthracnose. — See Anfhracvose of bean. 

Bean weevil (Briiclms obsoletus). — The adult beetle greatly resembles the pea 
weevil beetle, but is about half as large. It is about one-eighth inch long and brown- 
ish-black in color. It lays its eggs upon the outside of the young pod, and upon 
hatching the larva finds its way into the bean, where it spends the remainder of tbe 
season, to emerge in the spring. A single larva to a bean is not ihe rule, as in the 
case of the pea weevil, but from 6 to 12 grubs are found inside a single bean. For 
remedies and preventive measures, see Pea weevil. {Kuns. R. 1889, p. 206; Ky. B.40; 
Mass. Hatch. B. 12; Miss. B. 14.) 

Beech trees (Fagus spp.) — The American beech (Fagus ferruginea) is briefly de- 
scribed from the ectmomic point of view in Ala. College B. 3. Ornamental varieties 
of the European beech {F. sylvatica) are named in the lists of a few stations. 

Bee plants. — Several plants have been tested with reference to their value as bee 
food, chielly at the Micliigan Station {B. 65, R. 1888, p. 40, R. 1889, p. 97). 

The Chapman honey plant {EcJiinops spha'rocephalus) is a thistle-like plant, with 
the flowers in globular heads and opening gradually from the lower margin to the 
center. This ])]ant was found to continue long in bloom, covering the season of 
honey dearth, and was visited freely by the bees. But it does not blossom till the 
second year and nearly exhausts itself by once seeding; the seed is very difficult to 
separate on account of its annoying l)arbed awns, and is not sure to grow. If 
self-seeded the plant affords no honey again until the second year. The same plant 
was tested at tlie Colorado Station {R. 1890, p. 55), where a good stand was obtained 
and the flowers were visited by the bees from morning till night from July 21 to 
August 24. 



BEES. 31 

' The Rocky Monutain beo plant (Cleome inlefirifolia) grows from 1 to 3 feet high, 
has smooth compoimd leaves, and iimbolled flowers, which begin to open from below 
and continne for a long time. At the Michigan Station (7i. 63) the seed did not germinate 
well and the flowers did not secrete ranch nectar. A previous year, however, the 
plants fairly swarmed with bees and on account of its favorable blooming season 
kept them storing honey through the nsual period of dearth. 

The Melissa honey plant is a very sweet mint, which grows about a foot high and 
bears a beautiful whiteblossom. It did well at the Michigan Station (B. 65), blossomed 
freely, iind was very generally visited by the bees, blooming from early in .luly for a 
month or more. Unfortunately it is an annual, does not seed itself, and must be 
planted each year. It is considered doubtful if this would pay.- On 3 acres of Me- 
lissa the bees had swarmed in early August — a thing unprecedented in the State. 

In Mich. E. 18S9, p. 99, Japanese buckwheat is recommended for those who Avish to 
plant buckwheat, both because more productive and better than other kinds and 
because more valuable for bee keepers. It can be planted the middle of June, and 
in that case will blossom between basswood and late flowers, ending in time to avoid 
mixing its honey with the better i^roduct derived from the asters and golden-rods. 

In Midi. a. ISSS, p. 41, the pleurisy root {Asdepias tnhcrosa) is mentioned as a promis- 
ing honey plant. The excellence of basswood or linden as a honey tree is noted {Midi. 
B.S9). In J\. I. B. 9 the principal sources of honey supply for a season are named, 
viz, during June, white clover, blackberry, and charlock {Brassica siiiapislriim) ; in 
the fall, a light variety of golden-rod and various wild asters. The charlock honey 
was of a light amber color and the mustard flavor was plainly noticeable. "Aster 
honey is a pale amber, and when ripe, or after its weedy odor and flavor have passed 
ofl:", is very thick, clear, and sparkling, and has a delicious flavor, while golden-rod 
honey is darker and thinner, and has a rather strong or rank flavor." 

Bees. — The Colorado, Michigan, New York State, and Rhode Island Stations have 
conducted experiments in bee-keeping and reported results on the investigation of 
various kinds of bees and experiments in crossing. The common black and the 
Syrian bees are not inclined to be very amiable. Aside from that the Syrian bee 
has many admirable qualities. The Carniolan bees are amiable and jjroduce a A'ery 
white comb honey but swarm too readily. The Italian bees seem to be preferred by 
many, while some of the crosses are quite promising. Various Lives are discussed 
and their excellencies and defects pointed out. Handling of bees during brooding, 
swarming, feeding, doubling, and wintering is considered at greater or less length. 
The use of chaft' hives or chaff'-covered hives for winter protection is considered 
better than removing to a cellar. 

The popular objection to bees on the ground that they destroy fruit is shown to 
rest on a false supposition. It is true that bees suck the juices from fruit when the 
usual sources of nectar are wanting, but the openings through the skin must be 
prepared for them by other insects or by cracking, their mouths not being constructed 
for puncturing. 

Among the diseases to which bees are subject the most destructive is that knoAvn 
as "foul brood." This is a contagious disease caused by bacteria. Its presence may 
be known by the bees becoming languid. Dark, stringy, and elastic masses are 
found in the bottom of the cells, while the caps are sunken or irregularly punctured. 
Frequently the disease is accompanied by a peculiar oftensive odor. Prompt removal 
of diseased colonies, their transfer to clean and thoroughly disinfected hives, and 
feeding on antiseptically treated honey or sirup are the means taken for the preven- 
tion and cure of this disease. The antiseptics used are salicylic acid, carbolic acid, 
or formic acid. Spraying the brood with any one of these remedies in s(dution and 
feeding with honey or sirup medicated with them will usually be all that is required 
by way of treatment. Access to salt water is important for the health of bees. 
(Colo. R. 1SS8, p. 227, R. 1889, p. SO; Midi. B. 8, B. 61, R. 1888, p. 40, R. 1889, p. 100; N. Y. 
Cornell B. 1888, p. 20; R. I. B. 4, B. 7, B. 9, R. 1889, p. 91, R. 1890, p. 170.) 



32 BEET. 

Beet (Beta vulgaris). — See also Sugar beet. The station experiments with beeta 
grown as garden vegetables or as food for stock include tests of varieties, analyses, 
seed tests, fertilizer tests, and feeding experiments. 

Varieties. — Tests of varieties are reported as follows: Ala. Canebrake B. 1 ; Colo. 
B. 2, R. 1889, J). 50; Fla. B. 14; La. B. 3, M ser.; Me. E. 1890, p. 103; Mass. State 
B. 1888, p. 147; Mich. B. 46, B. 57, B. 70; Minn. B. 1888, p. 247 ; Nebr. B. 6; JST. 
Mex. B.4; N. Y. State It. 1882, p. 121, B. 1883, p. 176; B. 1884, p. 191, E. 1885, p. 114, E. 
1889, p. 273; Ohio B. 1882, p. 62, B. 1884, p. 131, B. 1885, p. 113, B. 1886, p. 133, B. 1887, p. 
222; Ore. B.4; Pa. B. 14, B. 1888, p. 142; Utah, B. 3, B. 12; Ft. B. 1888, p. 104, B. 1889, 
p. 129, B. 1890, p. 151. 

Composition. — See Appendix, Table III. — Analyses are also reported in Kans. R. 
1889, p. 116; Mass. State B. 1S88-1S91 ; Minn. B. 1888, p. 103; Vt. B. 18S6,pp.89,9S, 
R. 1888, p. 75. 

In Minn. E. 1888, pp. 104, 105, the feeding values of common and sugar beets and 
some other roots are shown. In N. Y. Cornell R. 1890, p. 160, sugar beets are consid- 
ered as stock food, their composition and other qualities being compared with those of 
mangel-wurzels. The latter had the advantage in yield and ease of handling. 

Seed tests. — Germination tests of beet seed are reported in Me. R. 1888, p. 140, R. 
1889, p. 150; Mich. B. 57; JSf. Y. State R. 1883, pp. 67,177 ; Ohio R. 1886, p. 254; Ore. 
B. 2; S. C. R. 1888, p. 74; Vt. R. 1889, p. 100. 

Fertilizer tests. — A fertilizer test on Golden Tankard and stock beets is recorded, 
as also on mangel-wurzels and sugar beets {Minn. R. 1888, p. 147). Nitrogen and some- 
times potash had a beneticial eflfect, as also salt, except with the sugar beets. A test 
on dry, sandy soil at the Florida Station {B. 14) showed the benefit of complete fer- 
tilizers and especially of the application of salt (see also Ga. B. 14). 

Feeding experiments. — See Silage. 

Beet bacterial disease. — This disease is of recent discovery, and but little is 
known about its history. It is in no way associated with any of the diseases caus- 
ing or accompanying the root rot of the beet, as it usually does not cause the death 
of the plant, any spots on its surface, or discoloration of its tissues. It may usually 
be recognized by a crinkled, puffed appearance of the leaves, which are smaller 
than in healthy plants, and die sooner. Upon cutting the root its presence may be 
known by greater prominence of fibers, a general yellowish color, and less solid 
texture. The microscope reveals the presence of vast numbers of bacteria in such 
cases. Selected specimens showed quite a diminution of the percentage of sugar in 
the diseased plants, sometimes amounting to a loss of 50 per cent. It is probably 
spread through infected seed and soil. Nothing is known as to treatment or pre- 
vention. {Ind. B. 39.) 

Beet root rot {Rhizoctonia beto3?). — This disease, which afi^ects the sugar beet, is 
quite common in Europe, causing great damage to the larger roots and killing the 
seedlings. A similar (perhaps the same) disease has appeared in Iowa, where it 
manifests itself by the gradual dying of the plant. If the root is not fleshy it is 
rather suddenly destroyed. The leaves of the diseased plants are paler and more or 
less wilted. It seems to first attack the crown of the root, and gradually the whole 
root is invaded and the plant killed. Upon pulling up the beets sound ones will 
come clean from the ground, while affected ones have more or less earth adhering to 
the diseased parts, the border line of which is marked by a brownish color. It is 
easily transmitted in the ground, so no crop of beets should follow one where the 
rot has been the year previous. But little is known as yet as to the effect of fungi- 
cides in preventing the disease. {Iowa B. 15.) 

Beet rust {Uromi/ces beta'). — This rust is quite common- in Europe, and has been 
reported from several localities in this country, where it has caused considerable 
loss to the market gardeners. 

Tiiis fungus goes througli tliict^ phases in its life cycle. The tirst is passed on the 
*'eeed beets," the other two on the reguhir crop. In the spring the spores,, which 



liEGGAR WEED. 



have been carried over in the leaves, s'Tminate, forming spores which liiid their way 
to their liost, tlie "seed beet." Here jinotlier cro]) of spores is grown, wliich infests 
j the beet crop with a red rust, causing loss to the gardener. As the lirst stage seems 
to be wholly upon the seed beets, its ravages m;iy bo held in jcheck by carefully 
removing all diseased leaves from the seed plants and destroying them. The disease 
here is shown in small cluster cups on the leaves and should be removed early or the 
spores may mature and spread. 

Spraying with some of the more common solutions would jjrobably prevent the 
development of the spores where they had found a lodging place. (Iowa B. 15.) 

Beet rust, white {Cystopus hlUil). — This may be recognized by the white spots and 
patches upon the beet leaves. 

It may cause considerable damage, but has not been extensively rejiorted as yet. 
It should yiehl to the application of some of the common fungicides, though no 
ex2)erinuMits are mentioned. {Iowa B. 15.) 

Beet scab {Oiispora scabies). — See also Potato scab. This disease is now known to 
be conmiou to the potato and beet, a fact brought out by the independent investi"-a- 
tions given in Conn. State B. 105, E. 1890,2). SI , /?. 1S91, p. 153; N. Dah. B. 4. The 
scab consists of spongy outgrowths of dark-brown color and rough surface and may 
occur on any part of the root. On the beet the scabs seem to he deeper and larger 
than on the potato. 

The course of the disease may be checked from some cause during the growth of 
the root, in which case it will be represented by a clearly marked deep scar. The 
effect that the scab has upon the sugar content of the beet is as yet unknown. The 
scabbing originates in the soil. The fungus (or its spores) is in the soil, derived 
from some previous crop, and coming in contact with beet roots produces the scab. It 
is known that it can remain forseveral years in the soil and notlose its vitality. Crops 
of beets and potatoes should not follow each other where the scab is bad. {Ind. B. 
39; lotca B. 15; X. Dak. B. 4.) 

Beet, spot disease {Cercospora beticola). — A fungus disease attacking both the 
common cultivated beet and the sugar beet. In Europe it is recognized as one of 
the worst diseases of the sugar beet. 

It manifests itself on the leaf by producing small round spots, no larger than a 
pinhead. Gradually these increase in size, losing to some extent their rounded 
outline, frequently coalescing. Thej- are of a pale brown color at tirst, but grow 
darker with age, until the whole leaf becomes nearly black. The spots are found 
as frequently on one side of the leaf as on the other and are often so numerous as to 
soon kill it. When the attack is severe it prevents the growth and maturing of the 
beet to a considerable degree. 

It has been learned that the spores can spend the winter in the old leaves and 
ground, where they can infest the coming crop, hence all diseased leaves should be 
removed and burned. In the case of sugar beets it is not detiuitely known that the 
percentage of sugar is affected except in the case of smaller and less developed 
roots. The use of ammoniacal carbonate of copper or Bordeaux mixture is recom- 
mended to prevent in a measure its attack. 

If the soil is badly infected one crop of beets should not follow another without 
a,u interval of one crop or more. {Iowa B. 15; Mass B., 1SS9, p. 225.) 

Beet -water core. — Various well-defined spots are often noted in roots of sugar- 
beets, having a watery appearance, similar to the water core of apples. The spots 
are of various sizes, colorless, and sharply defiued, and occur between the fibrous 
rings. There seems so far to be no jiarasite present and the cause of the water 
cores is unknown. {InH. B. 39.) 

Beggar ■weed {Dcsmodimn molle). — A leguminous plant, which is a promising hay 
plant for Florida and for jioor sandy land along the Gulf coast. At the North 
Ijouisiana Station it grows 5 or 6 feet high. Cows and sheep are said to bo very 
209i— No. 15 3 



34 BEIMLING MILK TEST. 

fond of it. Analyses made at the Florida Station indicate that it has a high nutri- 
tive value. " Beggar weed will make two crops of hay. The second crop * * * 
is regarded by some as the very best of hay." {Fla. B. 11 ; La. B. 8, 2d ser.) 

Beimling milk test. — See Milk iests. 

Bent grasses. — See Grasses. 

Berkshire pigs. — See Piffs, 'breeds. 

Bermuda grass. — See Grasses. 

Berrigan separator. — See Creaming of milk, separating. 

Big head of horses. — See Actinomycosis. 

Big jaw of cattle. — See Actinomycosis. 

Birch trees {Betula spp.). — Two native birches, the black and the cherry (B. nigra 
and i/. lenta), are briefly noted in Ala. College B. 3. Three species are catalogued 
(Nehr. B. 18) as native in Nebraska, and various species, especially the European 
white {B. alba) and the yellow (B. lutea), are noted in S. Dak. B. 12, B. 15, B. 20, B. 
23, B. 1888, p. 22. The birches as tested at that station have suffered seriously from 
drought, leaving their ultimate success considerably in doubt. 

Several birches are characterized in Minn. B. 24, where the " canoe, silver, or 
white" birch {B.papyracea) is commended as a beautiful lawn and jiark tree, not j 
planted nearly as much as it should be. The European white and the cut-leaved ! 
(here considered as a variety of the former), also a purple-leaved variety, are regarded 
as very desirable for ornament. In Iowa B.16 the cut-leaved birch (here classed as 
B.amurensis, var.) is recommended as "proving an ironclad and a thing of beauty 
on all soils and in all parts of the Northwest so far as heard from." Auicrican and 
foreign birches are included in the tree lists of several other stations. 

Blackberry. — The blackberries cultivated in America are the varieties of Rubus 
villosus, though the name sometimes includes the dewberry, liiibus canadensis (see 
Dewberry). The work of the stations has been chiefly the testing of varieties with 
reference mainly to hardiness and the quantity and quality of the fruit, and the 
study of its^iseases. Tests of varieties are reported as follows : Cal. M. 1888-89, pp. 
88, 110; Colo. B.-1890, p. 34; Del. B. 1889, p. 103; Ga. B. 11, B. 15; III. It. 1888, p. 11; 
Ind. B. 5, B. 10, B. 31, B. 33, B. 38; La. B. 26; Me. B. 1889, p. 256; Mass. Hatch B. 7, 

B. 10, B. 15; Mich. B. 55, B. 67, B. 80; Minn. B. 1886, p. 61, R. 1888, pp. 235, 285, R. 
1890, p. 27; Mo. B. 10, B. IS; N. Y. State B. 36, n. ser., R. 1885, p. 229, E. 1886, p. 256, 
R. 1887, pp. 337, 338, R. 1888, pp. 96, 100, B. 1889, pp. 311, 312, E. 1890, pp. 281, 282, N. 

C. B. 72, B. 74; N. Dak. B. 2; Ohio B. vol. II, 4, B. vol. 1 V, R. 1888, pp. 114, 115, 
6; Pa. B. IS; R. I. B. 7; Tenn. E. 1888, p. 12; Tex. B. 8; Vt. E. 1888, p. 117, E. 1889, 
p. 122; Va. B. 2. 

Notes on the culture of blackberries are given in Ga. B. 15, and N. Dak. B. 2. A 
fertilizer experiiueut is recorded (Mass. Hatch R. ISSS, p. 43). In N. Y. Cornell B. 
25 it is mentioned that according to many tests pollinations between blackberries, 
raspberries, and dewberries produce no efi'ect the hrst year. 

Blackberry anthracuose. — See Anthracnose of blackberry. 

Blackberry cane borer (Oberea bimaculata). — The grub of this species is yellow- 
ish in color and about three-fourths of an inch long. The adult is a small, slim, 
black beetle. Tlie female lays her eggs in June near tlie tip of the growing stem of 
the blackberry or raspberry plant. When the egg hatches the grub bores its way 
downward through the cane, coming to the surface occasionally. If unchecked it 
will reach the roots by fall and spend the winter in the ground, appearing the fol- 
lowing season as a beetle. When depositing her eggs the female girdles the stem 
twice at points about one-half inch apart near tlie tip aud lays an egg between these 
rings. The sudden wilting of the tips will indicate the preseuce of the egg or young 
grub, and the cane should be cnt at tlie lower ring aud burned. If this is not done 
soon after the egg is deposited the whole cane should bo burned. {N. Y. Cornell B. 
24; Ohio R. 1888, p. 154; ^\ Y. State B. 35.) 



BOLLWORM. 35 

Blackleg [also called Blaclc quarter}. — Au iufectious disease of cattle, due to a spe- 
cific gerui called Bacterium cliaiivei. It is usually fatal, running its course iu a l«w 
Iioiirs to several days. 

It is very much like anthrax, but iu several respects differs from that disease. 
The characteristic symptoms .are lameness, fever, aiul swellings on the legs above the 
knee, souietimes on the neck or back. If the liand be passed over these swellings a 
crackliug sound will be heard, due to gas formed under the skin. In blackleg the 
spleen and liver are not enlarged nor changed in any way and the blood does not 
lose its ability to coagulate, as iu the case of anthrax. In the latter disease no 
crackling sound is given from any of the swellings caused by it. Blackleg seems to bo 
confined to certain low-lying grassy situations and the germs of infection seem to be 
derived from such pastures. When the attack is severe death almost always results. 
In the milder attacks (especially on valuable animals) if taken iu time the adminis- 
tration of epsom salts, one-quarter to one pound, if tlie bowels of the animal are not 
loose, followed by dram doses of quiniue four or five times a day, may give relief. 
Preventive inoculation, however, is the best means to employ iu regions where the 
disease is common and liable to recur. Bj^ this means a mild attack is caused and 
immunity from subsequent attacks secured. This disease is preeminently one of 
cattle, but sheep are also said to be susceptible to its infection. (Mo. B. 12; S. Dak. 
B. 25.) 

Black quarter. — See BhicMeq, 

Black ■walnut. — See Walnut. 

Blister beetles (Epicauta spp.). — There are several kinds of these beetles^ known 
as black, gray, one-coloi"ed, spotted, and striped blister beetles, their colors giving 
them their individual names. They get the name blister beetle from their property 
of producing blisters on the skin when roughly handled. One of the best-known 
species is the strii)ed blister beetle or the " old-fashioned potato bug." They are all 
rather long soft-bodied insects that feed in droves, and when abundant quicklj' de- 
stroy great quantities of plants. Their larvae are especially destructive to the eggs 
and young grasshoppers of Rocky Mountain locusts and where these are abundant 
the beetles may be expected. They may usually be driven off by whipping the in- 
fested plants or by catching in vessels by hand. Spraying with arsenites whatever 
plants they may be feeding on will kill them. (Iowa B. 15; Minn. B. 8 ; Nehr. B. 14, 
B. 16.) 

Blood, dried. — See Appendix, Tabic IV. 

Blue grasses. — See Grasses. 

Blue joint. — See Grasses. 

Blue thistle. — See Weeds. 

Bokhara clover. — See Melilotus. 

Bollworm (Heliothis amiigera). — The larva of this species is 1 to 2 inches long, 
and varies from j)ale green to dark brown in color, with light stripes along the sides. 
The adult is a dusky yellow moth, the fore Avings of which have a broad, dark mar- 
gin, with a row of small dark dots. The hind wings are similarly marked, but of 
lighter color. The moth measures an inch and a half across its txpjinded wings. 
The larva feeds upon quite a number of plants, being especiallj'^fond of corn, cotton, 
tomatoes, tobacco, and melons. On account of the number of plants upon which it 
nuiy feed, it is difficult to destroy. There are usually two broods each season. 

Fall plowing will aid in destroying the bollworm. Where iusecticides can be used 
arsenites. white hellebore, andpyrethriim may be employedto advantage. In the cot- 
ton belt planting corn with cottou is tried as a protection lor the cotton, the bollworm 
preferring the corn. Unless the crops are properly projiortioued the worms are lia- 
ble to exhaust the corn, and theu turn on the cottou in added numbers. The corn 
should be cut and fed, so as to prevent the transformation of the worms into moths 



36 BONEBLACK. 

{Arlc. B. 1889, p. 146, R. 1890, p. 73; Fla. B. 9: Ky. B. 1889, p. 9; N. J. B. 1890, p. 516; 
N. C. B., 78.) 

Boneblack. — The carltonaceous residue i%.'-ultiug from the calcination of bones in 
closed vessels. It is used for clarifying or defecating solutions, especially sirups, 
as a black pigment, and as a fertilizer either directly or after conversion to super- 
phosphate by treatment with sulphuric acid. In the latter case it is usually known 
as dissolved boneblack. For composition see Appendix, Table IV. {Conn. State li. 
1881, p. 67.) 

Bones. — Bones of animals, which have long been used as a fertilizer, are com- 
posed principally of phosphate of lime and gelatinous matter rich in nitrogen. 
They are therefore a nitrogenous as well as a phosphatic fertilizer. For composi- 
tion see Appendix, Table IV. The phosphate in bone is in the tri-calcic or insol- 
uble form. If, however, the bone is finely ground it rapidly decomposes in the soil 
and readily yields both its nitrogen and phosphoric acid to plants. The necessity 
for a good mechanical condition has led to the common practice of grading commer- 
cial bone and valuing it according to its fineness. The phosphoric acid in fine bone 
(smaller than one-fiftieth inch) is at present valued at about 7 cents per pound, 
while that in coarse bone (larger than one-twelfth inch) is valued at only 3 cents 
per pound (see also Fertilizers, valuation), 

"The terms bone dust, ground bone, bone meal, and bone applied to fertilizers, 
sometimes signify material made from dry, clean, and pure bones ; in other cases 
these terms refer to the result of crushing fresh or moist bones which have been 
thrown out either raw or after cooking, with more or less meat, tendon, and grease; 
and if taken from garbage heaps, with ashes or soil adhering; again they denote 
mixtures of bone, blood, meat, and other slaughterhouse refuse which have been 
cooked in steam tanks in order to recover grease, and are then dried and sometimes 
sold as tankage; or finally, they apply to bone from which a large share of the nitro- 
gen has been extracted in glue manufacture. The nitrogen of all these varieties of 
bone when they are in the same state of mechanical subdivision has essentially the 
same fertilizing value." (Conn. State B. 1890, p. 28.) 

Bones mixed with meat scrap, blood, or other slaughterhouse refuse (tankage) are 
richer in nitrogen and poorer in phosphoric acid than pure bone, while the products 
from bones which have been subjected to rendering for glue are poor in nitrogen and 
rich in phosphoric acid. 

The Pennsylvania Station has studied the difference in comiiosition of particles of 
bone of different degrees of fineness {Pa. B. 1889, p. 190). Samples of bone were 
sej)arated into four diftereut grades by means of sieves and each grade was analyzed 
separately. It was found in general that the percentage of both phosphoric acid and 
nitrogen increased with the coarseness of the particles, but " for the purpose of val- 
uation any bone may be assumed to be identical in comi)osition in all its grades of 
fineness." The Connecticut State Station {B. 1887, p. 91) has reached a similar con- 
clusion. 

For methods of composting see Ashes and Composts. For field trials in comparison 
with other phosphates see Phosphates. 

{Conn. State B. 1887, p. 91; Mass. State B. 1891, p. 309; N. J. B. 74, B. 1890, p. 91; 
N. C. B. 61, B. 1881, p. 68; Pa. B. 1889, p. 190.) 

Bordeaux mixture. — See Fungicides. 

Borecole. — See Kale. 

Botany. — Under this head are included the scientific investigations on plants, as 
distinguished from the more pi-actical work in agriculture and horticulture. The 
work in botany may be classified in three divisions — systematic, structural, and phys- 
iological. Systematic botany includes the collection and classification of plants; 
structural botany has to do with their structure; physiological botany relates to the 
processes of their development. In many of the States, particularly in the South and 
West, so little work in systematic botany has been done that it is important for the 



BRAN. 37 

stations to make collectious of the native plants witli a view to finding ont which 
of tliese are likely to be of use or injnry to the fanner. The work on grasses done 
liy the Colorado, Mississippi, North Carolina, and Tennessee Stations, and that on 
weeds by the California, New Jersey, and West Virginia Stations are examples of 
useful work in systematic botany. Comparatively little work in structural and 
|ihysiological botany has as yet been done by the stations, except that in connection 
with investigations of the diseases of plants. Eelatively expensive apparatus and 
specially trained workers are required for successful investigations in these lines. 
Among the stations which are well equipped for this kind of work are the Indiana, 
Massachusetts State, and New York CJornell Stations. An of6cer with the title of 
botanist is employed at 27 stations. 

Botfly of oxen {Hypoderma bov'is). — The fly is about one-half inch long, black, 
and thickly covered with fine yellowish hairs. The front of the head is dirty ashen, 
the wings smoky-colored and the naked black thorax (or body) twice broadly banded 
with yellow and white. From June to September the flies lay their eggs on the backs 
of cattle, and it is generally stated that when the eggs hatch the grubs bore beneath 
the skin of the animal and live there during the winter and spring. It has been 
claimed, however, that the grubs get into the oesophagus by the animals licking 
themselves, thence bore their way out and appear under the skin in a short time 
(Curtice). The nres.ence of the hot is made evident by the appearance of lumps of 
varying size along the animals' backs. These are usually called "warbles," or 
in some places "wolves" and " wormals." Upon reaching full size the grub comes 
out, tail first, and falls to the ground, where it buries itself, soon to come out a full- 
fledged fly. Great damage is done both to the hides and flesh of animals by warbles 
and th§ annual loss is considerable. 

One form of preventive treatment consists in coating the backs of cattle with 
keroyene, train oil, or fish oil, thus preventing the laying of the eggs. Better meth- 
ods are to squeeze the grubs out of the warbles and destroy them, or to smear over 
the warbles with grease in which sulphur is mixed, or with any thick greasy matter 
which will choke the breathing pores of the bot. {Ky. B. 1889, p. 21, B. 40; Miss. 
B. 14; Ohio B. vol. Ill, 4.) 

Botfly of horses {Gastrophihis eqni). — The horse botfly in its perfect state is pale 
yellowish, spotted with red, with grayish-yellow hairs. The thorax (or body) is 
usually banded with black hairs. The wings are banded with red. The flies appear 
from June to October, and deposit their eggs (commonly known as "nits") on the 
horses, usually where the animal can reach them with his tongue or lips,"* and, by 
biting or licking, the nits obtain access through the mouth to the stomach. The 
larva; hatch out and when mature hang by their mouth hooks on the edge of the 
rectum, whence they are carried out in the excrement, and complete their transfor- 
mation into flies on the ground. The use of medicinal agents to destroy or expel 
bots is as a rule unsatisfactory. The most rational treatment is care of the general 
health and condition of the animal; thorough grooming and cleanliness to destroy 
nits, and stinmlatiou of aj)petite and digestion by tonics such as gentian, ginger, 
cinchona bark, etc., given either in food or as drenches. {La. B. 15, Sd ser.) 

Box elder {Acer negtindo lyegundo aceroides']) . — This tree has been much planted 
on the AVestern prairies for shade, protection, etc., notwithstanding its small size, 
low trunk, and inferior wood. It is easily obtained and propagated, grows rapidly 
when young, and has a dense foliage. When planted in groves its dense leaf 
canopy soon supjiresses vegetation beneath and takes away the necessity for further 
culture {S. Dak. B. 20). It is better fitted for a nurse tree for other species than any 
other native tree {S. Dak. B. 23). {Gal. B. 18S0,p. 68, B. 1890, p. 236; Nebr. B. 18; S. 
Dak. B. 12, B. 15, B. 20, B. 23, B. 1888, p. 22, B. 1889, p. 35.) 

Bran. — For composition see Appendix, Tables I and II, under Cockle, Bice, Bye, 
Wheat. See also Wheat bran. 



38 



UKAZILIAN FLOUK CORN. 



Brazilian flour corn. — See also Corn. A small and delicate variety of maize, pro- 
lific in suckers, and producing an abundance of leaves. The kernels are soft and 
easily destroyed by weevils. Tliey make a white meal resembling wheat flour. To 
mature corn it requires a warm climate. At the Michigan, New York Cornell, Ohio, 
and Pennsylvania Stations it did not ripen, and was inferior to other varieties of 
corn as a forage crop (Mich. B. 47; N. Y. Cornell B. IG; Ohio B. vol. Ill, 3; Pa. B. 6, 
It. 1SS8, ]}.45). At the Kansas Station in the favorable season of 1891 it tasseled 
July 31 and was ripe September 15. The stalk was 10 feet high and the ear 5 feet 
above the ground. It yielded 65 bushels of corn, while the best yields of other kinds 
of corn that year at the same station were from 80 to 90 bushels. In 1889 it yielded 
green forage at the rate of 17 tons per acre. In 1888 and 1890 the size of the plant 
and the yield of forage were materially reduced by drought {Kans. B. IS, B. 30, li- 
lS89,i).50). At the Alabama Canebrake Station (Z>. 7) Brazilian Hour corn yielded 
25 to 30 bushels of corn per acre. At the Georgia Station it yielded from 8 to 12 tons 
of green forage and 3 to 3tV tons of dry fodder per acre {Ga. B. 12, B. 13, B. 17). 

CoMPOSiTiox. — The following analyses are from &a. B. 13: 



Kernels 
Cob.... 
Stover . 



Water. 



Per cent. 
13.28 
11.25 
34.62 



Ash. 



Per cent. 

3.26 

10.87 

6.11 



lu dry matter. 



Protein. 

Per cent. 

12.55 

1.66 

6.38 



Fiber. 

Per cent. 

2.26 

41.59 

29. 42 



Nitrogen- 
Iree ex- 
tract. 



Per cent. 
79.06 
44.87 
56.33 



Fat. 



Per cent. 
2.87 
1.01 
1.76 



The ear taken for analysis weighed 567 grains, the kernels 446.51 grains, and the 
cob 120.49 grains; percentage of kernels 78.75, of cob 21.25. 

Breeding. — Information regarding the breeding of domestic animals has been pub- 
lished by the stations as follows: Milch cows, Ala. College B. 24, n. ser.; Pigs, Minn. 
B.U. 

Breeds. — See Coivs and Pigs. 

Brewers' grains. — See Feeding farm animals. For composition of wet and dry 
grains and of silage see Appendix, Tables I and II. 

Broccoli. — This is a vegetable of the cabbage group, closely resembling the cauli- 
flower, in which the young flower-cluster is converted into a low, fleshy head sur- 
rounded with leaves. From 1 to 10 varieties were planted at the New York State 
Station each year for four years (7^. 18S2,p. 133, R. 1S83, p. 188, R. 1884, p. 213, R. 1885, 
p. 132). As grown in 1883 it differed from the cauliflower chiefly in being more hardy 
and rather less delicate in flavor. In 1885 it was judged to have little value for the 
New York climate. 

Germination tests of broccoli seed are reported in N. Y. StateR. 1883, 2)p. 67, 270; 
Ghio It. 1884, p 197; Ore. B. 2; Ft. R. 1889, p. 101. 

Brome grassed. — See Grasses. 

Broom corn {Sorghum vnlgitrcvar.). — A tall reed-like grass (variety of non-saccha- 
rine sorghum), growing to a height of 8 or 10 feet. Its branched panicles are made 
into brooms and brushes. But few experiments with broom corn have been made 
at the stations. In 1887 the Colorado State College (B. 2) reported tliat after sev- 
eral years' experiments with 6 varieties, Evergreen was selected as the best for 
improvement. Careful selection of seed of this variety made it much better, the 
brush becoming longer, flner, straighter, and brighter in color. The improved 
plants were also healthier. At the Nebraska Station (P. 19) broom corn was planted 
May 1 in hills 3 by 4 feet apart, 2 to 6 grains in a hill, ploAved three times and hoed 



liUFFALO BERKY. 39 

twicpi. Both varieties grown. Wilson Kvergrecn and Tennessee, were of extra fine 
([uality. Krooiu corn did fairly well at the Nevada Station (E. 1S91, p. 10). 
Broom rape.— See Weeds. 

Brussels sprouts.— A form of the cabbaoo in which numerons small heads are de- 
veloped along the stnmp from the axils of the leaves instead of a terminal head. A 
plantation of this vesietable is noted in N. Y. State It. 1SS2, p. 133. Germination 
tests of its seed art; recorded in N. Y. State B. 1883, pp. G7,2G1; Ore. B. 2; Vt. II. 1889, 
p. 101. 

Buckeye trees {J<:scuh(s, s\).).—^Escnhis pavia of the South is noted in Aht. Col- 
lege /)'. 5,H. so-., as ornamental, but of poor quality as wood. 

Buckthorn {Bimella laniioiiiosa).—A small tree with hard wood, somewhat use'ful 
for hedges and in other ways, is described under this name in Ala. CoUcfje B. 3, n. ser. 
Buckwheat {Fagopyntm esculentiim).— The work of the stations on this grain has 
been confined to a few tests of varieties and analyses. The Japanese Imckwheat, 
introduced in recent years, has been found generally preferable to the common vari- 
eties. Its flowers furnish excellent food for bees (see Bee plants). 

Composition.— See Appendix, Tables I and II. See, also, Mass. State B. 1890, p. 181: 
N. J. B. 87; and for Japanese buckwheat, Vt. B. 1888, p. 74 (at-fivo stages of growth), 
Vt. B. 1889, p. 89. At Connecticut Storrs Station {II. 1888, p. 31)it was found 
that the roots and stubble of buckwheat, to a depth of 1 foot, calculated in 
pounds per acre, contained dry matter 483, nitrogen 4.4, phosphoric acid 1.3, pot- 
ash 3.8. 

{Colo^E. 1888, p. 37, B. 1889, p. 6, B. 1890, p. 11; Iowa B. 7; La. B. 22, B. 8, 2d ser.; 
Mich. B. 1889, pp. 99, 182, 270; Minn. B. 11; Nev. E. 1891, p. 16; Ore B. 4; Ft. E. 
1888, p. 73, E. 1889, p. 85.) 

Buckwheat mildew {Eamularia rnfomacHlans?).—A fungous disease recently 
observed upon buckwheat, where it does considerable damage. It attacks the lower 
leaves and spreading upwards stunts the growth of the plant, impairing the quality 
and diminishing the quantity of the seed. 

Burning of the stubble and refuse and rotation of crops seems the best way to 
prevent its ravages. As it grows upon other memliers of the buckwheat family 
{Polygonacea') all smartweeds and wild buckwheats should be looked after to pre- 
vent infection from them. {Conn. State E. 1890, p. 98.) 

Bud moth {Tmetocera ocellan a). —Thin moth is of an ashy gray color, with some 
darker markings, and is one-half to three-fourths of an inch across its wings. It 
lays its eggs in the summer. These soon hatch and the small caterpillar feeds on 
the leaves under a web which it Aveaves and in which it spends the winter. In the 
spring it finds its way to the leaves and flower buds of the apple, plum, blackberry, 
and other hosts. It destroys the bud by eating out the center, and thus often inter- 
feres very seriously with the plant's growth. 

This pest may be destroyed by gathering and burning the leaves in the fall and 
spraying trees and bushes with Paris green, 1 pound to 150 gallons of water, just 
before the buds begin to swell and after they open. 

The life history of this insect is given, so far as known, in If (tss. Hatch B. 12; 
Me. E. 1888, p. 169, E. 1890, p. 128. The former contains a report of original inves- 
tigations of considerable value. 

Buffalo berry {Shepherdia «r,(/e»fea).— Notes on this shrub are made in Minn. B. 18, 
with reference to its ciiltivation for fruit. Attempts hitherto have failed in conse- 
quence, as believed, of its being ditecious. As described, it is a pretty ornamental 
shrub, not suitable for hedges, slow of growth, prolific, and highly prized for its 
fruit in the drier portions of the Northwest; the fruit is small, quite acid, scarlet in 
color, containing small seed. The buffalo berry is noted in Sclr. B. 18 as the only 
one of the shrubs and trees from the Rocky Mountains which has spread over the 
entire State. 



40 BUFFALO GRASS. 

Buffalo grass. — >See Grasses. 

Bugloss. — See Weeds, 

Buhach. — See Pyrethrmn. 

Buildings. — See Farm hiiildhigs. 

Bunt. — See Wheat, sUnlinij smut. 

Bui' clover (Medicago maculata). — An nnminl forage plnnt, somotiincR cnlled Cali- 
fornia clover, wliicli is a native of a warm climate. It throws out long, slender, 
vine-like runners, and bears its seed inside of spirally coiled pods drawn together 
like a Lur. It is a winter-growing plant, aflbrding early spring pasturage in the 
South. It seeds in May and from the seed a new growth springs up early in the fall. 
It may he sown on Bermuda grass sod, and the two plants will afford almost con- 
tinuous pasturage {Miss. B.20; N. C. B. 73). The seed is expensive. From 2 to 5 
bushels of the burs or 20 pounds of clean seed are sown to the acre {N. C.B.73). 
If not too closely pastured it reseeds itself. At tirst animals refuse it but soon learn 
to relish it. The burs, in which the seeds are contained, may get into the wool of 
sheep and prove troublesome. {Cal. B. lS90,;p. 242; La B. 1891, p. 11; Miss. B. 20, E. 
lSS9,p. 32; Nehr. B. 6; N. C. B. 63, B. 73.) 

Burdock. — See Weeds. 

Bur grass. — See Weeds. 

Butter. — See also Buiter-malc'mr;. 

Composition. — For average comjjosition see Dairy products. For composition of 
sweet-cream butter see Butter from sweet and sour cream. {Ala. College B.2&,n. ser.; 
Ark. B. 1889, p. 5; Conn. State B. 1888, p. 105, B. 1891, p. 122, B. 106; III. B. 9; lowaB. 
1890, p. 501 ; Kans. B. 1888, p. 161; Mass. State B. 1890, p. 311 ; Miss. E. 1890, p. 40 ; 
N. H. B. 13, B. 1888, p. 54; N. Y. State B. 1887, p. 372, B. 1891, p. 307; Tex. B. 11; Vt. 
B. 1888, p. 19; W. Va. B. 1890, p. 29; Wis. B. 1885, p. 43, B. 1888, p. 136. 

Butter extractor [also called Extractor-separator]. — An apparatus designed to 
make butter directly from sweet whole milk, and essentially a separator and a con- 
tinuous churn combined. The time required for creaming and churning any particu- 
lar drop of milk is probably not over a second. The butter made is of course sweet- 
cream butter. The Delaware Station (/>'. 9) has made the most thorough study of the 
efficiency of this machine. It was found to give a smaller yield of butter from a 
given amount of milk fat than the ordinary methods, part of this deficiency being 
due to churning the cream sweet. The mechanical loss was larger than in making 
Bweet-cream butter by ordinary means. Comparisons of the extractor with the sweet- 
cream and sour-cream processes, raising the cream by separator, showed it to give 
3.80 per cent less butter than tlie sweet-cream process and 8.75 per cent less than the 
sour-cream process. 

The quality of the butter from the extractor was about the same as that of sweet- 
cream butter made by ordinary methods. (See Butter from sweet and sour cream.) 

Tests of this machine have also been reported in Vt. B. 27 and Pa. B. 22. 

Butter from colostrum. — See Colostrum. 

Butter from sweet and sour cream. — For yield of butter from sweet and sour 
cream see Chnrning. 

It is generally agreed that the flavor of sweet-cream butter is somcAvhat different 
from that of sour-cream butter, aud that while most persons might learn to like 
it, some object to it at first. At the New Hampshire Station {B. 1888, p. 62) the 
sweet-cream butter was believed to be of superior grain to that from sour cream, 
owing to the lower temperature at which it was churned. This was also true in tests 
at New York State Station {E. 1889, p. 207). In the tests at the Texas Station those 
who tasted the sweet-cream and sour-cream butters without knowing their nature 
rated the sweet-cream butter sliglitly higher. The grain and body of the latter but- 
ter was also rated a little higher. The Delaware Station {B. 9) found the sweet- 



r.UTTER-MAKING. 41 

cream butter lackiusj; in firmness. At tlie Illinois Station (B. 9) tlie butter from 
stron<>ly acid cream was rated of better quality than that Irom barely ripened cream. 

Comparative analyses of butter from sweet and sour cream have shown that iu 
gemiral sweet-cream butter contains rather less Avater and curd (casein) than sour- 
cream butter (Vel. B. 9; N. H. U. ISSS, p. 63; N. Y. Siate R. 1889, p. 207; Win. R. 
1888, p. 113). This would suggest a rather better keeping quality for the former. 
The only observations reported on the keeping ((uality of sweet and sour-cream but- 
ter are by the Iowa Station {B. 8, B. 11). Both butters were made December 14, 1889, 
at a creamery in Iowa. Until June 20, 1890, the two tubs were kept together iu a 
cellar without ice, being examined about once a month; later they were placed iu 
an ice chest, where they were kept to the close of the trial, August 20. The author 
sums up the results in the following words: "There was no nuirked difference iu the 
keeping quality of the two butt(r8; what diiference there was was iu favor of the 
sweet-cream product. As to flavor, for the first two oi- three months most of the 
tasters preferred the ripened-crcam butter, declaring that made from sweet cream to 
be comparatively 'fiat,' 'insipid,' or 'flavorless'; but the longer the butters were 
kept, even while both were still sweet, the less ms.rked became the differeuce between 
them in this respect." (See also Biifter-making and Milk fermentalions.) 

Butter-making. — Under this head will be discussed (1) the losses of fat iu butter- 
making, (2) distribution of ingredients in butter-making, (3) the effect of food on 
chnrnability of the fat, (4) eflect of food on the quality of the butter, (5) effect of 
ripening cream. References will be given to other points not discussed. 

For cream-raising by different methods see Creaming of milk. For churning see 
Churning. For extractor's, etc., see Dairy apparatus. For effect of food on yield of 
butter see Milk, e^ect of food. For cost of making butter from the milk of dift'ereut 
breeds see Cotvn, tests of dairy breeds. 

Losses of fat ix uutteu-makixg. — The principal sources of loss of fat in the 
process of butter-making are the skim milk, the buttermilk, and washings, and 
mechanical losses from butter sticking to the vessels and implements. A certain 
amount of loss is unavoidable, but "the variation in the amount of fat recovered 
may make all the difference between a paying and a losing business." As a rule the 
loss is greater when the fat globules are small than when relatively large, as the 
smaller globules separate more difficultly in creaming and in churning (See Milk 
and Creaming of milk). Careless methods in butter-making may result in very heavy 
losses. It was stated by one of the stations several years ago that there were proba- 
bly few dairies or creameries where the loss of fat was less than 10 per cent of the total 
amount in the milk and that iu iirivate dairies the loss might be 30-35 per cent. Tlie 
Vermont Station (R. 1888, p. 145) found by actual tests at several creameries iu that 
State during the summer that in nearly every case there was a loss of 1 pound of biit- 
ter fat for every 10 pounds saved. The same station fouud {R. 1891, p. 70) in a more 
recent study at one creamery where the milk was creamed by a separator-, that the 
average loss of fat in the skim milk and buttermilk was 7.5 pounds for each 100 pounds 
of fat in the whole milk, or 7.5 per cent. The station believes that this can be im- 
proved njion. It calculates the distributiou of the fat in butter-makiug, with a loss 
of 8 per cent, as follows : 

Pounds. 
Fat in 1,000 pounds whole milk 40.0 

Fat in 800 pounds skim milk 2. 4 

Fat in 187 pounds buttermilk 0. 8 

Fat recovered iu 43.3 pounds butter 36.8 

40. 
The Delaware Station {R. 1889, p. 164) found in a single day's test at a creamery 
where the milk was creamed by a separator that 6 per cent of the total fat of the 
milk was lost iu butter-makiug, 3.17 per cent beiug lost iu the skim milk, 0.7 pei 



42 BUTTER-MAKING. 

cent in the buttermilk, and the remaining 2.13 per cent through mechanical ancjl 
other losses. 

The Wisconsin Station (7?. 1883, p. 139) has determined the losses where the creai 
was raised by deep setting as follows : 

Pounda. 

Fat lost in skim milk 12. 48 

Fat lost in buttermilk 13. 43 

Fat recovered in butter 74. 09 

100. 00 
That is, for each 100 pounds of fat in the whole milk there was lost in the skim i 
milk and buttermilk 25.91 pounds of fat, or oue-qnarter the total amount. Those i 
losses are believed to be higher than usually occur in careful raauagement. 

There are undoubtedly breed and individual characteristics which affect the ■ 
thoroughness of the recovery of fat in butter-makiug. The Maine Station {R. 1890, , 
p. 17) has calculated the actual losses of fat in skim milk and buttermilk in the case i 
of dilfcrent breeds and individuals. The following are the average percentages off 
total fat lost in buttermilk and skim milk during two years: 

Per cent. 
Holstein No. 1 20 3 

Holstein No. 2 jg 4 

Ayrshire No. 1 13 j 

Ayrshire No. 2 26. 3 

Jersej^ No. 1 35 

Jersey No. 2 Y ^ 

The New York State Station (7?. 1891, j). 307) reports average results in the same 
line, with cows of diflPerent breeds. During one period of lactation the percentage 
of the total fat in the whole milk which was lost in butter-making was as follows: 

Per cent. 
G uernseys 9 q 

.Jerseys 20 1 

American Holderuesses lg_ 4 

Devons 27 7 

Ayrshires 20. 9 

Holsteins 25. 4 

In both of the above experiiuents tlie milk friuu tlic diflcrcut cows or breeds was all 
treated alike, beiug creamed in cold deep setti ng. The New York State Station says, 
in commenting on the results : " The question arises as to the best method of getting 
the fat of the Holsteins from the milk to the butter without such serious loss. This 
can be accomplished satisfactorily by using a centrifugal machine for separatino- 
the milk." " 

{Ala. College B. 7; Conn. State E. 1891, p. ISO; Del. B. 9; Me. B. 1890, p. 43; N. H. E. 
1888, p. 64; N. T. State B. 1883, p. 113; Tex. B. 14; W. Va. B. 1890, p. 29, B. 6; Vt 
B. 16, B. 1890, p. 92; Wis. B. 1883, p. 122, B. 1888, p. 51.) 



BUTTER-IMAKING. 



43 



DisTRiRUTiON OF IXORF.DIEXTS IN BUTTKU-MAKiXG.— The Ycmiont Station {R. 
'891, l>. ll'J) has oahuihitetl tho avera<,re (li.stributiou of milk aud Icrtiliziny iiigi-cdieuts 
n iiiakiug butter from 1,000 ponmls of milk as follows: 

Distribution of milk ingredients in buttei'-maliiifj. 



Total 
solids. 



Fat. 



,000 poniitls of whole milk . 

100 poimils of sliim milk 

;00 pounds of cream 

87 pounds of buttermilk . . . 
:3.3 pounds of butter 



Founds. 
130.0 

78.0 
.'•2. 
14.01 
37. 09 



Pounds 
40.0 

2.4 
37.0 

0.8 
30.8 



Casein. 



Pounds. 

26.0 

22.0 

4.0 

3.77 

0.23 



Albu- 
men. 



Milk 
sugar. 



PoundsJ Pounds. 



7.0 
6.0 
10 
0.9 
0.06 



49.5 

41.2 

8.3 

8.3 



Asli. 



Pounds. 
7.5 
C.4 
1.1 
1.1 




6 
94 

2 
92 



Distriiution of fertilizing ingredients. 



1,000 pounds of whole milk 
iOO pimnd.s of skim milk . . . 

200 pounds of cream 

187 pounds of buttermilk . . 
43.3 pounds of butter 



Nitrogen. 



Pounds. 
5.3 
4.5 

0.8 

0.75 

0.05 



Phos- 
phoric acid. 



Pounds. 
1.9 
1.0 

0.3 

0.27 

0.03 



Potash. 

Pounds. 
1.75 
1.50 
0.25 
0.24 
0.01 



It will be seen that a very large proportion of the valuable fertilizing ingredients 
remain in the .skim milk, and a much smaller proportion in the buttermilk, so that the 
butter contains only a trace of tliese ingredients. Valuing the fertilizing ingredients 
at the average prices for these ingredients in commercial fertilizers, " the total fer- 
tilizing value of the milk for a year from a dairy of twenty cows giving 4,000 pounds 
of milk apiece will approximate $86.80, all of which is lost to the farm if the whole 
milk is sold, one-sixth ($13.20) if butter is sold and the buttermilk left at the fac- 
tory, and one-hundredth (.$0.86) only if butter is sold and both slcim milk and butter- 
milk fed upon the farm." (See also Wis. li. 1SS5, p. 139.) 

Effect of food on chuknability.— By churuability is meant the proportion of 
fat in the milk which is recovered in the butter— not merely the proportion of fat in 
the cream which is recovered by the churn, but the fat recovered from the milk by 
the two processes of creaming and churning. The character of the food has been 
supposed to have an influence on churnability, and the work of some of the stations 
bearing on the point is here given. Earlier experiments at the Wisconsin Station 
{B.18SS,p. 51), at Houghton Farm, by Prof. H. E. Alvord (^Proc. Soc. for rrom. ofAgi-'l 
Science, 1SS3-'S4, pp. 23, 24), and at the New York State Station {li. 1SS3, p. 9-5), indi- 
cated that succulent foods, as silage and grass, improved the churnability. Later 
experiments at the Wisconsin Station (7?. 1SS9, pp. 93, 116, R. 1890, p. SO) have not 
confirmed the earlier observations, and point to the conclusion that '' succulent foods 
do not change the chantcter of the milk so as to cause its fat to be more readily re- 
covered in the butter." Tiie Maine Station concluded (i?. 1SS9, p. ISO) that if there 
was any difference between the effects of dry food aud silage on churnability "it was 
so small as to be obscured by other influences." The Verniout Station (7?. 1890, p. 70) 
sums up the results of its trials bearing on this question with the statement that "if 



44 



BUTTER-MAKING. 



tlioro is any difference in cliui-naLility on account of food it is in favor of dry food. 
A trial at tlie New Hampshire Station {B. 13) of bay ?»s. silage gave conflicting.- resultr 
as to effect on cburnability. In tbe ligbt of tliese experiments and tbose made else. 
wbere it seems extremely doubtful if succulent foods actually increase tbe tborougbl. 
ness witb wbicb tbe milk fat may be recovered in the butter. 

Tbe New York State Station {It. 1883, p. 115) noticed that gluten meal seemed t*( 
decrease the cburnability and bran to increase it. Thus, when bav and bran, witll 
or without corn meal, were fed, from 95.66 to 98.4 per cent of tbe total fat of th<i, 
milk was recovered in the butter, and wbeu bay and gluten meal were fed onlyi 
74.73 per cent was recovered. An experiment at tlie New Rampsbire Station {B 13\ 
pointed iu the same direction, iudicatiug that tbe feeding of gluten meal tended to 
decrease tbe cburnability of tbe fat as compared with corn meal or cotton-seed meal 1 
The Texas Station J,B. 14) studied tbe effect on tbe creaming of milk of cotton-J 
seed and cotton-seed meal as compared with corn-and-cob meal, using cows in dif-t- 
ferent stages of the milking period. It was fouud that in deep setting at either 70^^ 
or at 4.5° F. (ice water) tbe milk from tbe cotton seed and cotton-seed meal feedino - 
creamed more completely than that from corn-and-cob meal, that there was practically r 
no difierence between cotton seed and cotton-seed meal in this respect, and that iai 
centrifugal creaming there was no difference due to food. 

At the Vermout Station {B. 1890, p. 88) the results of a comparison of mixture83 
of bran with buckwheat middlings, and corn meal with cotton-seed meal and lin- 
seed meal " add testimony to tbe belief that milk from such foods creams less thor- 
oughly than that from heavier meal." In another trial at tbe same station " the 
milk creamed less successfully on bran and rye than on any other feed." The Kansas < 
Station (/^. 1888, p. 95) found that ground oats added to a ration invariablv im-- 
proved the cburnability of the fat. 

{Me. E. 1889, p. 106; Pa. B. 17; N. Y. State B. 1889, p. 92.) 

Effect of food on quality of BUTTER.-The New York State Station (Z? 1889 
p. 117) m summarizing the results of experiments for two vears reports that -the' 
character of tbe food did largely influence both tbe yield and tbe quality of butter " ' 
Ihe bu ter made on linseed meal was too soft. Oats gave the best colored audi 
the hardest butter, but it was rather crumbly. With reference to tbe effect of cot- ■ 
ton seed and cotton-seed meal on the character of butter, several experiments have 
been made in this country which are of interest, showing that the melting point of 
butter was higher and the ].ercentage of volatile fatty acids lower with cotton seed 
or cotton-seed meal than without it, i. e., that a firmer, harder butter was produce<l 
when these foods were fed. This observation was first n.ade by the Texas Station 
{B. 11), and was couhrmed by experiments by tbe U. S. Department of Aoriculturo 
in couperation with tbe Maryland Station {Proc. Socy. Prom. Agfl Science, 'l889), and 
at the Alabama College Station {B. 25, n. ser.). In the latter case the meltaio- poi„t of 
the bu ter increased 120 to 14° F. when cotton seed or cotton-seed meal was fed 
In trials at the Pennsylvania Station {B. 17) tbe melting point only was determined' 
but tins was irom3oto90F. higher on the cotton-seed meal ration than on tbe bran 
ration. Tbe melting point on the former ration ranged from 96o to 102° and aver 
aged 99°; on tbe bran ration it ranged from 91° to 97° and averao-ed 93" 

In the trials at the Texas and Pennsylvania Stations samples of tbe butters were 
submitted to a board of judges to be rated. In all cases tbe butter produced on 
cottonseed or cotton-seed meal was rated considerably lower than that made on 
rations without these foods. In Texas it was stated that these foods affected the 

ltZ'4ew'H""'V" "rf"" ""^ '" overworking, and gave a colorless butter. 

At the New Hampshire Station comparisons of butters made on gluten meal corn 
meal, cottou-.eed meal, or skim milk, with a basal ration, showed the butter o'n the 
gluten-meal ration to be softer than any of the others. It was also found that silage 
produced a somewhat softer butter than bay. "The iodine absorption of butter 
froni gluten-meal rations was greater than that of butter from cotton-seed or corn- 
meal rations." {N. Y. State B. 1888, p. 292.) 



CABBAGE. 45 

There seems, then, little doubt that certain qnalities of butter are influenced by 
the character of the food, and that cotton seed and cotton-seed meal tend to tlie pro- 
duction of a relatively hard butter. 

Effect of ripenixg cukam. — For the relative completeness with which the fat 
is recovered from sweet and from sour cream see Churning ; for the (juality of sweet 
'aud sour-cream butter see Butter from sweet and sour cream and MUk fermentations. 

Other points in butter-making. — The following subjects are treated in station 
J)ublications : Relation between per cent of cream and yield of butter {Kans B. ISSS, 
p. 60); quality of butter not affected by heating milk before setting {N. Y. Cornell 
B. 5); effect of stage at which churn is stopped on quality of butter ( Vt. B. 1890, p. 
'110; W. Va. B. 1890, p. S9); washing aud salting butter (Minn B. 7); comparison 
between the amount of butter indicated by test aud that yielded by the churn 
(Kans. B. ISSS, p. 149; III. B. 9, B. 18; Minn. B. 19; W. Va. B. 1890, p. 29). 

Buttermilk. — See Butter-making. For composition and fertilizing ingredients see 
Dairy jyroducts. For value for feeding pigs see Pi/jrs, /tt'rfi«f/. 

Butternut trees (Juglans cinerea). — The butternut, also known as white walnut, 
has been planted as a nut tree at the California (B. ISSS- 89, p. 196), New Mexico {B.4), 
and Rhode Island Stations {B. 7) ; and as a forest tree at the Minnesota {B. 1890, p. 
SS) and South Dakota Stations (/?. 4, B. 12, B. 15, B.20, B. 23; B. 1890, p. 16). The 
tree appears to endure the Dakota climate, aud to make a satisfactory, though not 
rapid growth. It is recommended for planting in that State, It failed to grow at 
the New Mexico Station. 

Cabbage {Brassica olcracea). — The station work on this plant has consisted chiefly 
of tests of varietieSj but culture and manuring have also been considered. 

Varieties. — Tests of varieties are reported as follows : Colo. B. 2, B. 1888, p. 126, 
B. 1S90, p. 49; Fla. B. 14; Ga. B. 11; Eans. B. 19; Ky. B. 32, B. 38; La. B. 3, 2d ser.; 
Md. B. 1S89, p. 60; Mich.Ji. 57, B. 70, B. 79; Minn. B. 5, B. 10, B. 1888, p. 259; Nev. 
R. 1891, p. 12; K. Y. State B. 1882, p. 130, B. 1883, p. 186, B. 1884, p. 208, B. 1885, p. 125, 
B. 1886, p. 179, B. 1887, p. 326, B. 1888, p. 118, B. 1SS9, p. 331, B. 1890, p. 291; Ohio 
B. vol. II, 7; Ore. B. 4, B. 15; Pa. B. 10, B. 14, B. ISSS, p. 142, B. 1890, p. 160; Tex. 
B. 16; Utah B. 3, B. 1891, p. 52; Va. B. 11. 

In Minn. B. 1888, p. 267, the original plant from which the cabbage has been de- 
veloped is noted, as also the source of the cauliflower, brussels sprouts, kohl-rabi, 
kale, and the cow cabbage of the Jersey Islands. 

A scheme for the classification of cabbages, following that of De Candolle, is ad- 
vanced by the New York State Station {B. 1886, p. 193) and applied to 85 varieties. 
The jirimary division is based on the surface of the leaves as smooth or " blistered," 
corresponding to a common distinction of cabbages and savoys. The secondary 
division rests on the form of the head according to 5 types. In view of variations 
in plants from seed of the same name the necessity was felt of adhering in descrip- 
tions to an ideal type based on the majority of specimens. But it was also deemed 
necessary to recognize subvarieties or strains. 

The ash constituents of cabbage, as compared with greasewood, are given in Cal. 
B. 94. 

The rooting habit of the cabbage was observed at the New York State Station (B. 
1884, p. 313). The taproot extended to a depth of 20 inches, and the horizontal roots to 
a distance of about 18 inches on all sides; the fibrous roots lay chiefly in the ujiper 
layers of the soil. A test of the (question whether transplanted plants headed better 
than others gave a negative answer {N. Y. State B. 1886, p. 1S9). 

The influence of deeper and shallower setting on the heading of cabbages was 
investigated at the N. Y. Cornell Station (B. 15, B.25, B. 37). The results were con- 
flicting, but indicated that the dei)tili at which strong plants are set is immaterial. 

Fertilizing experiments on cabbages are reported from the Massachusetts Hatch 
Station ( B. 1SS8. p. 43) and the New York State Station {B. 1884, p. 211). In Fla. B. 14 
methods successfully used in growing cabbage are described, with recommcudations. 



46 CABBAGE BUG, HARLEQUIN. 

The opinion that spring and summer cabbages can not be raised in that State was 
refuted by an experiment in wliich insect enemies were met with Paris green. Id 
K. C. B. 74 a discouraging view is taken of the culture of late cabbages in that State. 

Methods of culture for early and late cabbages are detailed in Minn. R. 18SS,p. 268. 
The Tennessee Station (B.voJ. F, 1) gives a full account of methods successfully pur- 
sued in growing early cabbages. 

Seeds. — Germination tests of cabbage seed are recorded in Ala. College B. ?; 
Ark. R. lSS9,p. 94; Me. R. lSS8,p. 139, R. 1889, p. 150; Mich. B. 67; N. Y. R. ISs:;, 
pp. 68, 187, R. 1887, p. 39; Ohio R. 1884, p. 198, R. 1885, pp. 157, 173, R. 1886, p. .?:/, 
R. 1887, p. 284; Ore. B. f, B. 15; Pa. B. 4, B. 8, R. 1889, p. 164; S. C. R. 1888, p. 04; 
Vt. R. 1889, p. 101. 

At the New York State Station {B. 30, n. ser., R. 1890, p. S88) comparative tests were 
made of cabbage and cauliflower seed imported from Euroi>e and grown on Long 
Island and at Puget Sound. No advantage was shown for the foreign seed. The 
Washington seed averaged heavier and had the advantage in a quicker and more 
vigorous vegetation, resistance to insects, etc., but not otherwise in the final result 
A compaiison of Puget Sound and Eastern seed at the Ohio Station {B. vol. II, 7 
gave the same conclusion. Atrial of large vs. small seed at the New York Stat 
Station {R. 1885, p. 128) was inconclusive. Another trial indicated that seed froa 
the lower branches of the main stalk is even better than that from terminal poda 
Trials at the same station of slightly green as compared with ripe seed {N. Y. Stat 
R. 1884, p. 211, R. 1885, p. ISO, R. 1886, p. 190) indicatetlat first an advantage for thi 
green seed, but at the last trial the advantage was strongly the other way. An ea 
periment was also made in growing plants from leaf cuttings {N. Y. Slate R. 1886, ^ 
190). Thrifty plants were obtained in this Avay more quickly than from seed, bu 
not nearly all grew, and those which grew were less hardy and less variable tha; 
seedlings. 

Cabbage bug, harlequin {Mnrgantia his1rioi)ica).— This is a small, gaudily colorei 
bug, which feeds on cabbages, turnips, mustard, and allied plants. The adult insec 
is about one half inch long, bluish black in color, Avith yellow or orange spots am 
stripes. On the under side of its body are seven transverse lines with orange-colore( 
spots. It lays its eggs iu two rows of six or seven each, usually attaching them ti 
the under side of the leaf. The eggs are marked with two black lines. They hatcl 
in a feAv days into a young insect, resembling the adult, except that it is Avithou 
Avings. There are from two to six broods each season. This insect is so far mosrly 
confined to the southern part of our country. It feeds by sucking the sap from tlie 
leaf. On this account poisons do not alTect it. Destruction of eggs, hand picking, 
aiwi catching under little piles of rubbish early in the morning are about the only 
meansknoAvn for its repression. (Del. B. 12; Ga. B. 3; N. C. B. 7S;S. C. R. 188S,p. 2J.) 

Cabbage butterfly, imported (Pieris rapw).— The mature insect measures about 2 
inches across its expanded Avings. The wiugs are Avhite, becoming darl'.er near tlio 
body. The tips of the fore Avings are black. The male has one and the female two 
spots on the upper side of the Avings, and both have two spots on the under side (.£ 
the fore wings. On the upper side of the hind wings is an irregular dark spot about 
in line Avith the spots on the fore wings. Underneath they are pale lemon color, 
without spots. The eggs are laid singly, usually on the under side of the leaf. They 
hatch in about a week and the small Avorm begins to eat holes through the leaf. 
When full grown the Avorms are about an inch in length, green in color, with jiale 
yellow stripes along the back and a row of yellow spots along the sides. When fully 
developed they Avandcr oif under a board, fence, or elsewhere, and there are trans- 
formed into butterflies. There are tAvo or three broods in a season, but as the eggs 
are laid singly they hatch irregularly, so that the broods seem continuous. 

Among the best means for destroying this pest are pyrethrum either in decoction or 
mixed Avith flour, kerosene emulsion, hot water (140" to IGO^ F.) sprayed over the 
heads, lye wash, salt Avater, and Paris green or Loudon purple {1 ounce to 6 pounds cf 



CABBAGE PLUSIA. 47 

flour) spriiiklecT over the plants. The. last two must not he used after the plants 
begin to he;»d. Fresh air-slaked lime is also recommended. ( Corni . Slate 11. ISOO, p. 97; 
Bel. B. 4; Fla. B. 9; Ga. B. 3 ; Ey. B. 40, li. 18S9, p. 9; Iowa B. 5, B. 12; Mass. 
Batch B. 12; N. J. B. 1S89, p. 302, B. lS90,p,511; N. C. B. 78; Ohio B. vol III, 4, 
vol. IV, 2; S. C. E. 1SS8,}).3J.) 

Cabbage butterfly, Southern {Pieris protodicc). — This diti'ers from the imported 
cabbage bntterHy principally in its coloring. The male has three black spots and 
a narrow black tip on the fore wing; the feyiale has quite a number of irregular 
spots of black on its wings. The treatment for this insect is the same as that for 
the imported cabbage butterfly. {Colo. B. 6; Iowa B. 6; Ey. R. 1889, p. 9; N. C. 
B. 78; Ohio. B vol. IV, 2; S. C. B. 1888, p. 34, R. 1889, p. 97; S. Bak. B. 13, B. 22.) ' 

Cahhagecluhioot (riasmodiophora hrassico'). — A fungous disease most abundant on 
cabbage, but liable to attack any member of the same family, as turnips, radishes, 
and mustard. This fungus is of a very low order and multiplies with great rapidity 
in the cells of the host. In some cases it attacks the young plants in the hotbed, 
causing their roots to become rotten and swollen. In such cases all plants shouldbe 
destroyed, for the disease is piobably present in all and will sooner or later prevent 
their development. It usually attacks the older roots, causing their decay, and as 
younger ones are put out above, these are attacked and assume swollen and distorted 
shapes, from which filename is derived. This continuing, the plants are so weakened 
that they do not head and the croj) is worthless. This pest works underground and 
is out of the immediate reach of fungicides. Selection of healthy plants, and care 
that the soil be not infected a^re the principal means for its rei)ression. If cabbages, 
turnips, radishes, or mustard are not grown in infected ground for several years tlie 
fungus will gradually die out, (Mass. R. 1891, p. 230; N. J. R. 1890, p. 348; S. C. R. 
1888, p. 15.) 

Cabbage maggot (Aiithomyia hrassicw). — This is the larva of a small fly, and 
infests young cabbage, turnip, and cauliflower plants. The maggot is very small 
and easily escapes notice in the crown or roots of the plant. When once infested, 
the ground should not be used for such crops for a season or two. The maggots may 
be killed in tlie hotbed with carbon bisulphide inserted into the soil. Upon trans- 
planting puddle the roots m sulphur and sprinkle afterwards with the same. Kainit 
used as a fertilizer is said to kill the maggots in the ground. (jV. J. B. 75; N. Y. State 
R. 1888, p. 147.) 

Cabbage mildew (Feronospora parasitica). — A fungous disease which has caused 
considerable damage in some localities. It spreads a white, webby mass over the 
surface of the leaves, causing them to wilt and die. It is also found occasionally 
upon the seed pods of the radish. (N. J. R. 1890, p. 349.) 

Cabbage mold, black {Macrosporinm hrassicw). — When abundant this fungous dis- 
ease does great damage to the cabbage crop, causing the leaves to turn black and 
drop off. Both this and the mildew would probably be prevented by early spraying 
with the Bordeaux or other mixtures, although no report is given of their trial. {N. 
J.B. 1890, p. 849.) 

Cabbage plusia (Plusia hrassicw). — The adult insect is a night or twilight-flying 
moth, of a dark-gray color, having a silvery spot near the middle of each fore wing. 
The eggs are laid singly or in clusters upon the cabbage leaves. The larva bears some 
resemblance to that of the cabbage butterfly, but may be distinguished by its small 
head, with the body gradually increasing in size towards the hind end, and its habit 
of looping, after the manner of the si)an worm or measuring worm when in motion. 
The larva is about an inch long, pale green in color, witli several lighter longitudinal 
stripes. It infests cabbage, celery, turnips, tomatoes, clover, caulitlower, lettuce, 
and several other plants. 

It may be destroyed with kerosene emulsion or pyrethruiu (Ipart to3x>arts flour). 
(Ohio B. vol. IV, 2, R. 1888, p. 160; S. Bak. B. 13, B. 22.) 



48 CALIFORNIA STATION. 

California Station, Berkeley.— Organized in 1876, in connection witli the Colloo(3 
of Agriculture of the University of California; reorganized in 1888 under the act of 
Congress of March 2, 1887. Outlying stations have heen estahlished as follows: 
Southern Coast Range at Crestou, San Joaquin Valley at Tulare, Sierra Foothill at 
Jackson, South California at Chino, West Side Santa Clara Valley at Menlo Park, 
Fresno at Fresno, and East Side Santa Clara Valley at Mission San Jose. The staff 
afc Berkeley consists of tlie president of the college, director, geologist, and chemist; 
.superintendent of agricultural grounds; hotauist; agricultural geologist and chem- 
ist; assistant in agricultural laboratory; assistant in charge of viticulture and olive 
culture; assistant chemist in viticulturallaboratory; inspector of stations; foreman 
of grounds; foreman of cellar; and clerk to director. There are also seven patrons 
and four foremen at the outlying stations. The principal lines of work are soils, 
composition and cultivation of field crops, grapes, and orchard fruits, diseases of 
plants, seeds, composition of feeding stuffs, entomology, technology (i)articulai]y 
wine and olive oil), drainage, and irrigation. Up to January 1, 1893, the station had 
published 105 bulletins, besides annual or biennial reports. Revenue in 1892. $26,160. 

Calves.— For experiments in raising and in fattening see Cattle, feeding for htcf 
and for grotvth. For dehorning see Dehorning cattle. A deformity in a calf attrib- 
uted to injury to mother is described in Minn. B. 19. Conditions affecting the 
strength of the stomach of the calf for rennet are discussed in Mans. Hatch B. 11. 

Camomile.— The German camomile {Matricaria chamomiUa) was found to do well 
in the climate of Berkeley, California, seeding freely each year {Cal. li., 18S5-'S6,j). 
126). Tbe Roman camomile (Anthamis nobllis) is stated to be of easy cultivation 
and perennial. The field camomile {A. arvensis) is noted as a weed (V, Y. Coriull 
B. 37). 

Camphor trees (Ciniiaviomnm camphora [Camphora officinarum']). — This tree h;is 
been tested in California, and seems well adapted to that Sta^te {li. ISSrd, p. 106 1!. 
1SS5-'S6, p. 118, E. lS88-'89 pp. 87, 110, 138). A tree is instanced 4.5 feet hi'gli| 
branched low, and fully 3 feet through at the base, at an age of about 20 years! 
''There is no doubt that the tree will be found adapted to a large portion of the 
State and will grow without irrigation wherever a pear tree will succeed without it." 
Extracts from correspondence show that the camphor tree has given satisfaction in 
many localities in the State. The camphor tree is " an excedingly handsome ever- 
green, belonging to the laurel family," and is the source of the gonnine camphor of 
commerce. Aside from the value of the drug, the wood, which generally does not 
enter into its manufacture, has a high value for a number of purposes, and perhajis 
would alone compensate for the cost of rearing the plantation, leaving the root, 
young branches, and foliage (the camphor-producing material) at a nominal cost.'' 

Canada thistle. — See Weeds. 

Caiiaigre (Rnmex hi/ menosejmlus).— This plant, considered as a source of tannin, 
has recently been under investigation at the California and Arizona Stations (AriJ. 
B. 5; Cal. B. 98, li. 1890, p. 123). The plant is related to the dock and rhubarb, 
and grows wild in Texas, Arizona, New Mexico, Southern California, and parts of 
Mexico. The root ''has long been used for tanning purposes by the Indians, and 
also of late years by the tanneries of those districts." The roots bear some resem- 
blance to sweet potatoes, growing in an upright cluster from 3 to 12 inches beneath 
the surface, the number varying from two to a dozen, the single roots varying froju 
2 ounces to 1 pound or more in weight. Tannin assays of several samples grown in 
California were made at the station of that State, and the internal structu're of the 
root, the location of the tannin, and related points were studied. Of 8 samples ex- 
amined, 6 of which were grown on the station grouuds, the tannin percentage proved 
to be fully as high as that of the native plant in Texas. The average tannin content for 
the 8 samples was 32 per cent; analyses of 2 Texas samples cited show 26 and 38 per 
cent. As stated in Ariz. B. 5, one-year old roots when dried contain from 25 to 30 
per cent of tannic acid— twice as much as oak or hemlock bark. At the California 



CARNATIONS. 49 

Station it soomed to be proved tli;it the tauiiin is contained in the solution in the 
sap of the root. 

At the Arizona Station a study is in jtrogrcss relating to the economic culture 
of the plant. It was considered doubtful whether growing in its natural condition 
it can be placed on the market in large enough quantity and at low enough cost 
to make it of commercial importance, owing to its being scattered over large areas 
and requiring to be dug by hand. Inquiry was therefore instituted .as to its response 
to cultivation, its need of irrigat ion, the effect of irrigation on the quantity and 
quality of tannin, and the best-adapted soils. " The canaigre root has been tested in 
the manufacture of leather in this country and abroad sufficiently to show that the 
tannin extracted from it, either alone or with tannin from other sources, will make 
good leather, but much r<}mains to be done to open up a market." 

In CaJ. B.9S (Dec, 1892) a report is noted "that gatherings of the wild root 
have.been so large during the last two years that it is difficult to obtain it in quantity, 
and plantations recently made in New Mexico have proved profitable, $5 per ton being 
paid for the green root, which is worth $G0 to $80 per ton dried and delivered in 
Europe. The yield in cultivated land is said to reach 16 tons to the acre of green 
root." 

Canary grass. — See Grasses. 

Canker-worms {Anlsopta-iix vernafa and A. pomefaria). — The principal difference 
between these two species (known as spring and fall canker worm, respectively) is in 
the time of laying their eggs, the former laying them in the spring and the latter in 
the fall. In each species the nuxle is a moth of a grayish color, about an inch across 
the wings. On the fore wings are irregular bands of color. The female is about ^ 
to I inch long and wingless, and is said to look somewhat like a spider. The eggs 
are laid upon the twigs and hatch as soon as the leaves appear. At first the worms 
are very small and are easily overlooked. When full grown they are about an inch 
long, of color varying from gray to brown, with lighter stripes and dark-brown heads. 
From their looping mode of motion they are called measuring worms. They eat the 
leaves of ai)ple, pear, peach, and otlu>.r fruit trees, as well as of the elm. 

Preventive treatment consists in smearing the trunks of the trees with tar or 
printer's ink mixed with oil to prevent hardening, at intervals from early spring until 
July. This will prevent the wingless females from climbing up the trees to dei»osit 
their eggs. Another metliod of treatment is to place inverted cones about the trees, 
in which oil or something similar is put. The worms may be killed by one or two 
early sprayings with Paris green or London purple (1 pound to 150 gallons of water). 
{Me. li. 1S8S, p. 152, E. ISDO, p. 137; N. C. B. 7S; X. Y. Stale B. 35; Ohio B. vol. II, 
1, R. lSSS,p. 132; Ore. B. IS; R. I. B. 15; Ft. R. 1SS9, p. 152). 

Cantaloupe. — See Muskmelon. 

Cape gooseberry. — See I'hy sails. 

Caper bush {Capparh spinosa ; alfio var. incrmis). — This was grown at the Cali- 
fornia Station at Berkeley, but is better adapted to a warmer locality, and a sandy, 
rocky, and dry soil {Gal R. 18S0, p. 66, R. 1SS2, p. 107). 

Capons. — See Poultry. 

Carbohydrates in feeding stuffs. — See Feeding farm animals. 

Cardoon {Gynara cardimciilus). — A vegetable closely resembling and related to 
the true artichoke. For brief mention of varieties and seed tests, see N. Y. State R. 
1S8S, pp. 68, 263, R. 1884, p. 287. 

Carica. — See Melon tree. 

Cainations (Dianfltm caryopliylhis). — In Ind. B. SO experiments arc recorded in 
cross-fertilizing these flowers. The results indicated that crossing of different stocks 
is essential to the production of varieties distinct in color, and that " a clear, sunny 
day, of relatively high temperature and dry atmosphere, gives the best condition 
for this work." 

2094— :^o. 15 i 



50 CARNATIONS, DISEASES. 

At the Massachusetts Hatch Station {B. 10, B. 15) several special fertilizers were 
tested upon carnations under glass. In a trial of single fertilizers results favored 
dissolved honeblack and sulphate of potash (applied in liquid form) as conipartd 
with muriate of potash, nitrate of soda, sulphate of amuiouia, and ordinary liquid 
manure. Out of thirteen combinations of fertilizers, sulphate of jjotash with sul- 
phate of ammonia gave the best results. In a second test of six single fertilizers 
nitrate of potash gave the best results, sulphate of potash the next best, and dissolved 
boneblack the poorest, perhaps owing to its insoluble condition. 

Carnations, diseases. — Septoria dianihi and Vermiciilaria siibeffif/urata are the 
leading fungous diseases of carnations. The first is observed on the leaves as piuk 
discolorations, which soon turn brown. The ailected portion of the leaf becomes 
dotted over with dark pimples and then dies, Mhile the decay spreads until tlie 
whole leaf is iavolved. In the second the base of the leaf is attacked or the stem 
between the bases and soon black specks appear, bearing an abundance of spores. 
Often the two diseases act together. In bad cases the plants lose their green color 
and fail to bloom. Some varieties are more liable to attack than others. The car- 
bonate of copper and ammonia compounds have been used with good results, but all 
depends upon taking the work in hand early in the season. 

A kind of anthracnose is also troublesome. When present on carnations the af- 
fected parts present a pale appearance, except that the surface is dotted with minute 
nearly black specks that are seen to be bristly, with small stiff hairs. This does 
most damage to "slips." Upon examination, the cuttings will be found infested 
with the minute black rosettes. Eecent experiments with ^ ounce sulphide of po- 
tassium to 1 gallon of water used as a spray have given good results for both this 
and the above-mentioned diseases of carnations. (N. J. B. lS90,p. S63, B. lS91,p. 300.) 

Carnations, rust ( Uromyces caryopliyU'mus). Althoxigh long known in Europe, 
the disease has been but recently discovered in this country and is doing considerable 
damage to plants, especially in greenhouses. It may be distinguished by medium- 
sized plump gray blisters upon the leaves and stems. Like all the other rusts, when 
these blisters appear the fungus has completed its growth, and is coming to the sur- 
face to scatter its spores. The spores arc light brown and exceedingly numerous. A 
plant once infected should be removed and burned. Healthy ones may be kept so 
by spraying with some of the solutions of copper salts. {Ind. B. lS91,p. 28; N. J. B. 
1891, p. 302.) 

Carob {Ccratonia siliqua). — This tree has excited considerable interest at the Cali- 
fornia Station, and data resi)ecting its value and the success of plantations in Cali- 
fornia may be found in Cal. B. 1880, f. 66, B. lSS2,p. 107, B. 1884, p. 100, B. 1885-86, p. 
108, B. 1890, p. 230. In Cal B. 1884, p. 100, a description is given of the tree and its 
uses, of the conditions favorable to it, and of the method of its propagation and 
culture. It is found in nearly all countries around the Mediterranean, and its fruit, 
known as St. John's bread, a pod 6 to 10 inches long and three-fourths to IJ inches 
broad, is an important product and article of export. It is largely imported into 
England, where it is used as an admixture m cattle feed. Detailed directions are 
given for its propagation by seed. | 

In 1890 from experience in California the conclusions reached were: "No treedis- | 
tributed by the station is more likely to make a popular shade and ornamental tree 
for dry, rocky situations than is the true carob of southern Europe and Asia Min<n-. 
Aside from the fruit, whose well-attested economic value ought to induce more plant- 
ing, the tree is of striking and attractive appearance. In rich valley soils it does , 
not bear early nor yield so abundantly as in its own home, the warm, rocky hill ' 
country" (Cal. B. 1890, p. 230). It is held proved that the carob will grow with less 
water than any other fruit, the olive not excepted. In some localities it yielded to 
frost. Superior varieties are secur(^d by graftiug and budding, and by these means 
the tree is brought into bearing earlier, 



CATTLE, FEEDING FOR BEEF. AND FOR GROWTH. 51 

Carrot (Daiicus carota). — Va1!IETIi:s. — Tests of variotics aro recorded ns follows: 
Colo. li. 2, K. ISSS, p. 145, K. ISSO, pp. 41, 09, R. 1S90, p. 101; Md. B. 1SS9, p. GO; Mich. 
B. 46, B. 60; Minn. B. ISSS, p. 345; Xehr. B. 12: N. Y. State B. 1882, p. 122, B. 1S83, p. 
179, B. ISS'i, p. 193, B. 1SS5, p. 121, B. 1886, p. 235, B. 1887, p. SIS, B. 18S9,pp. 275, .126; 
Ohio B. 1884, p. 132, B. 1SS5, p. 121, B. 18S7, p. 224; Ore. B. 4; Pa. B. 14, B. 1888, 
p. 142; Ft. B. 1SS9, p. 129. 

In iV. Y. State B. 1887, p. 133, a classification is made of 28 varieties according to 
the form of the root end, length of the root relative to its thickness, and its color. 
The varieties are fully descrihed, English and foreign synonyms given, and the 
names indexed. 

Composition. — For food constituents see Appendix, Table I. Compiled analyses 
(food and fertilizing constituents) of carrots, root and dried tops, are given in Mans. 
State B. 1890, p. 293, B. 1891, pp. 317,318. For sugar content of the root see Minn. 
B. 18S8, p. 103. 

Skkd. — Germination tests are reported in Me. B. 1888, p. 141, B. 1889, p. 150; N. Y. 
State B. 1883, pp. 68, 179; Ohio B. 1884, p. 200, B. 1885, p. 175; Ore. B. 2; Vt. B. 1889, 
p. 102. 

Feeding experiments. — See also Silage. Carrots were used in feeding experi- 
ments with milch cows at the Massachusetts State Station each season from 1887 to 
1889 {B. 1887, p. 11, B. 1888, p. 11, B. 1889, p. 37). The special object was to com- 
pare the feeding value of carrots (and sugar beets) with that of corn silage. In 
B. 1888, p. 17, it is stated that " the nutritive feeding value of carrots, taking 
into consideration pound for pound the dry matter they contain, exceeds that of 
corn silage as an ingredient of the daily diet, in j)lace of a part (one half) of the 
hay fed." 

Caseiu. — See Milk and Cheese-makinfj. 

Cassava. — Cuttings of the sweet cassava (Manihot aipi) were offered for distribu- 
tion by the California Station (B. 95). Attention has been attracted by its approval 
in the Southern States, but no wide success in California is predicted on account of 
the dry conditions of that State. Some account is given of its adaptations as repre- 
sented in Florida, and of the method of culture. It has been commended as a 
kitchen vegetable, the root being used like potatoes. As a food for cows, both leaves 
and roots thus used, the latter being regarded as far superior to sweet potatoes for 
milch cows. 

Catalpa.— The Catalpa hitjnonioidcsot' the South is noted (Ala. College B. 3. 1889) as 
a handsome tree, of rapid growth, reaching a height of 60 feet or more. The wood is 
gray-white, fine-grained, and takes a high polish. 

The C. speciosa (showy or hardy catalpa) as noted in S. Dak. B. 1888, p. 24, has been 
more extensively experimented with in the West than almost any other tree. In 
South Dakota it appears to be out of its latitude. Likewise at the Minnesota Sta- 
tion {B. 24) it has been found very unreliable, and is not regarded as valuable for 
timber in any part of the State, though it may be made to Hower in some sheltered 
locations. In Cat. B. 1885-86 p. 119 it is stated that it will be at a disadvantage as 
compared with the eucalyptus in the coast region, on account of the Avinds tearing its 
soft leaves, but will find a suitable location inland. A note in Cat. B. 1890, p. 235, 
indicates that the catalpas sent out to all parts of the State had doue very well. 
Among the species of catalpa grown in the collections of several States is the Jap- 
anese C. ka'mpfcri. 

Cattle, feeding for beef and for growth.— Under this head will be included ex- 
periments in feeding cows, calves, steei's, and oxen for beef and for growth. 

Cows EEU FOR BEEF. — The Maryland Station [B.8) reports a comparison of the 
cost of fattening cows nine to ten years old and five to six years old, feeding 
corn meal, wheat middlings, linseed meal and Hungarian hay or corn stover. In 
eight weeks tUo two older cows gained 105 pounds, at a cost for food of $20.65 or 



52 



CATTLE, FEEDING FOR BEEF AND FOR GROWTH. 



nearly 20 cents per pound of gain, and the two younger cows gained 209 pounds, at 
a cost of $21.95, or about 10^ cents per pound. 

A cow fed at the North Carolina Station {B.81) for 57 days on cotton hulls and 
meal, with a small addition of other coarse fodder, gained 111 pounds live weight, 
giving a profit, exclusive of manure, of $6.37. 

Wide vs. narrow nutritive ratio, N. Y. State II. 1SS7, p. 23. Fattening old cows on 
cotton-seed products, Tex. B. 6. 

Calves fed for beef and for growth. — The New York State Station {B. 1SS5, 
p. 25) fed two calves five weeks old for 100 days in periods as shown below: 

Average gains in live weight of calves, and cost of the same. 



Perioas. 



July 14-31 

Aug. l-Soi)t. 6. 
Sept. 7-Oct. 6 . . 



Food. 



Whole milk , 

Whole milk and grain . , 
(irain and green clover . 



Oct. 7-21 ! Grain and grass 

[ 

Average.s ■ 



Average 
daily gain 
iu weight. 


Cost of . 
food per lb. 
of gain. 


Poimds. 


Cents. 


1.39 


12 


1.52 


9i 


1.30 


H 


1. .^T 


*l 



The grain consisted of a mixture of linseed meal, ground oats, and bran, valued at 
current jirices. The milk was valued at 1 cent i^er pound and the clover at $4 per 
ton. 

A short comparison of whole milk and separator skim milk at the Mississippi 
Station {B.lSSS,p.43) was favorable to the latter. The calves receiving 10 pounds 
of skim milk made nearly as large gains as those receiving 8 pounds of Avhole milk. 
W^hole milk and skim milk from deep setting were also compared at the Iowa Sta- 
tion (/?. 14), 1^ pounds of fiaxseed meal per day being added to the skim-milk ration. 
The lot on whole milk made the largest gain in 91 days, but the result is regarded 
as very favorable to the skim-milk ration, for the calves on that ration appeared in the 
best condition and were fed more cheaply. Estimating whole milk at %1^ cents and 
skim milk at 15 cents per 100 jiounds, flaxseed meal at 3^ cents per pound, etc., the 
cost of food per pound of gain was 7.6 cents for the whole-milk lot and 5 cents for 
the skim-milk lot. The above trial included a Shorthorn and a Holstein in each 
lot. The Holsteius in each case made the larger gain in weight. 

Two calves fed together on skim milk, linseed meal, and ground oats at the Wis- 
consin Station {B. 1SS3, p. 37) averaged 1 pound of growth for 13 pounds of milk, J- 
pound of linseed meal, and ^ pound of oats. The same station noticed that the 
skim milk from centrifugal creameries was often thrown away because it soured so 
rapidly, and made experiments bearing on the value of curdled skim milk ( Wis. B. 
1SS6, p. 21). Skim milk was curdled by heating with liquid rennet and the whey 
Avas poured off. The curd with the whey remaining with it constituted about 60 per 
cent by weight of the whole. In two trials calves were fed on this curd a month 
and then for a month following on sweet skim milk. The gains were nearly as large 
on the curd as on skim milk, and larger amounts of grain were eaten with the skim 
milk. 

A trial of raising scrub stock at the New York State Station {B. 1S90, p. 359) 
brought out the undesirability of feeding late-maturing animals or those wliich do 
not consume food cnoiigh to make a profital)le growth. 

In a trial of fattening a large numl)er of calves on various foods the Mississippi 
Station (7i. 6') observed that the grade Jei'seys increased in weight more rapidly 
than the grade Holsteius. (See also Cotton seed and cotton-seed meal for beef itrodnc- 
tioii.) (2lo. College B. 27; N. Y, Slate B. 1SS7, p. 23; Pa. B. 17.) 



CATTLE, FEEDING FOR BEEF AND FOR GROWTH. 53 

Steehs kki» I'OK heef and ecu growth.— The expcrimeTits on this subject are dis- 
cussed below under the following heads: (1) Feeding steers of different breeds, (2) 
feeding for fat and for lean, (8) age as a factor in determining the cost of gain, (1) 
sheltering beef cattle, (5) wiiole corn, corn meal, and corn-and-cob meal, (G) cotton 
hulls, (7) feeding grain to steers at pasture, (8) hay vx. straw, and (9) miscellaneous. 
. In addition to this, exijeriments in feeding steers are reported elsewhere under the 
following heads: Cotton seed and cotton-need meal for beef production and. I'asturage. 

(1) Feeding steer.^ of different breeds.— 'Vhe Maine Station (R. 1S90, p. 71) compared 
the relative gains during 233 days of Holstein, Shorthorn, and Hereford steers, all 
between five and eiglit months old. The Holsteins made an average daily gain of 
1.78 pounds, the Shortliorns 1.63 pounds, and the Herefords 1..51 pounds per Lead. 
In two experiments in growing Shorthorn, GalloAvay, Holstein, Jersey, Hereford, 
and Devon steers from cah es to maturity the MicBigan Station {B. 44, li. 69) ob- 
served no breed differences affecting the cost per pound of gain. The age and 
"type" of the animals seemed to be the controlling factors. Those of the "meat 
type" of stocky form, made more economical gains than those of the "dairy type." 

The Ontario (Canada) Station {B. 70) compared grades of Galloway, Shorthorn, 
Aberdeen, Angus, Hereford, Devon, and Holstein breeds with natives, all under two 
months old at the beginning of tke test, for a period of one year. The largest profit 
was with the Galloway. The grades were valued by an expert at from 4.75 to 5.5 
cents per pound live weight while the native was valued at only 3.75 cents. 

(III. B. lSS6,p.216; Mich. B. 24, B. 30; Miss. B. 8; N. Y. State B. 1SS9, p. ISG, R. 
1890, p 20.) 

(2) Feeding for fat and for lean, nitrogenous vs. carbonaceous ration. — The theory has 
been advanced that the relative production of fat and lean meat can be largely in- 
fluenced by feeding. Experiments bearing on this question have been mainly with 
pigs (see Pigs, feeding for fat and for lean), but two are reported with cattle. At 
the Missouri Ctdlege {B.27) Prof. Sanborn fed calves on a ration containing different 
proportions of protein (nitrogenous material). The nutritive ratio (ratio of nitrog- 
enous to non-nitrogenous nutrients) of the food of one lot was 1: 2.4 (narrow) and 
of the other lot 1 : 5.5. Both lots gained ])ractically the same amount in weight, but 
the character of the growth was quite different. There was nearly one-fourth more 
fat on the intestinal and vital organs of the lot on the wider ration (1:5.5) than in 
case of the othwr lot. "The meat of lot 1 [ratio 1: 2.4] was distinctly more fibrous 
in character and showed a denser fiber without the light streaking of fat." In a 
trial with two-year-old steers at the Pennsylvania Agricultural College {R. 1SS6, p. 
227) an increase in the amount of protein fed "does not seem to have increased the 
nitrogen in fresh muscle." 

The New York State Station (B. 1S89, p. 117) compared rations with a wide nutri- 
tive ratio (carbonaceous) and a narrow ratio (nitrogenous), the difference in propor- 
tion of nitrogen or jiroteiu heing brought about by substituting a i^art of the corn 
meal in the carbonaceous ration with cotton-seed meal, linseed meal, or gluten meal. 
"In general appearance the lot fed the nitrogenous ration was much the better, 
havhig a cleaner, brighter coat of hair. The photographs of the meat show little if 
any difference in the proportion of fat and lean." The meat of the animals fed on 
the carbonaceous ration (corn meal largely) was thought to be "much the tenderer 
and sweeter." 

The Arkansas Station (/»'. lSOO,p. 134) found " no difference in appearance between 
the lot fed cotton-seed meal and hulls, and the lot fed corn and pea-vine hay, and no 
detrimental effects from the cotton-seed products fed the animals." 

(3) Age as a factor in determining the cost of gain. — In the case of steers, as in that 
of pigs, the cost of producing a pound of gain increases wuth the age and weight of 
the animal. This emphasizes the demand for early-maturing animals for profitable 
fattening. On this point the Massachusetts State Station (B. 40, R. 1891, p. 110) 
found that two-year-old steers consumed nearly twice as much food per pound of 



54 CATTLE, FEEDING FOR BEEF AND FOR GROWTH. 

gain in weight as yp<irling8. Taking the value of the manure into account, the net 
cost of food pel- pound of gain was 2| to 3 cents with the yearlings and 4^ to 4J cents 
with the two-year-olds. The same was indicated by trials at the Pennsylvania Agri- 
cultural College (li.lO), but in a repetition of the trial the f(dlo\viug year the cost 
of gain per pound was practically the same for two-year-olds as for three-year-olds 
iB.lSS6,p.l7!)). 

The Michigan Station (B. GO) reports age as the "all-controlling circumstance thtit 
decides the rate of gain. The ration necessary to sustain the gain increases with 
age. " * * The superiority of beef breeds is largely in their early maturity." 
(Mich. B. 44.) 

At the Wisconsin Station (7?. lSS6,p. 44) a lot of steer calves from four days to four 
weeks old Avere fed for two years. At current prices the cost of food jier 100 pounds 
of gain in weight was $4.19 during the first ]»eriod, 308 days, and $6.13 during the 
second period, 422 days (see also Wis. li ISSS.p. 91). 

(4) Shclteriuf/ beef cattle. — At the Iowa Station (7>. 6) the cost of making 100 pounds 
of gain in live Aveight was $3.89 for barn-fed steers, and $5.10 for steers fed the same 
food in the yard with only an open shelter. The barn-fed steers ate 1,184 pounds of 
dry matter and the yard-fed steers 1,361 pounds of dry matter for each 100 pounds 
gained. 

At the Texas Station (B. 6) the cost of gain under shelter and out of doors was 
compared during January, February, and March, the same food being fed to both 
lots. For every 100 pounds gained, the cost of food eaten was $4.17 with the shel- 
tered steers and $6.83 Avilh those out of doors. 

At the Utah Station (B. 11) steers kejtt out of doors ate considerably more food 
than those fed in the barn. Blanketing steers in the barn was found to be of no 
advantage. 

(.5) Whole corn, corn meal, and corn-and-coh meal. — As to the value of grinding corn 
for steers, in a trial at the Missouri Agricultural College (B. 2) steers made much 
better gains on corn meal than on whole corn. At the Virginia Station {B. 10) the 
results agreed with tliis, wlicther silage or liay was fed as coarse fodder. Allowing 
the same price for whole corn and corn meal ($20), the average cost of food per pound 
of gain ranged from 7.35 to 9.35 cents for the corn meal lots and from 9.3 to 17.5 cents 
for the whole corn lots. Allowing one-seventh for toll for grinding the corn, " the 
balance is still much in favor of the meal-fed lot." 

Two experiments on the subject made at the Wisconsin Station {R. ISSS, p. 91) 
were contradictory. The results of one experiment favored corn meal and those of 
the other whole corn, though the advantage was slight in either case. Wheu hogs 
ran in the pasture with the steers the combined gains of the hogs and steers were 
favorable to Avhole corn in both trials. 

A comparison of whole shelled corn with corn-and-cob meal was made at the Iowa 
Station (/?. 6), feeding each with corn fodder to two steers. Valuing shelled corn 
at 38 cents, corn-and-cob meal at 34 cents per 100 pounds and corn fodder at 
$2. 50 per ton, "shelled corn produced gain more cheaply than corn-and-cob meal," 
and at a smaller cousumi)tion of dry matter per pound of gain. (See also Tex. B. 6.) 

Corn-and-cob meal Avas compared Avitli coarse ground corn meal at the Kansas 
Station {R. 1S85-SG, p. 101) Avith a result quite favorable to the corn-and-cob meal. 
About the same amount of each meal Avas eaten, but the lot on corn-and-cob meal 
gained the most. The gain in Aveight from a bushel of corn ground with its cobs 
Avas 9.56 pounds and from a bushel of ground shelled corn 7.04 pounds. The 
author believes the result shows corn-and-cob meal to be worth more, pound for 
pound, than corn meal, for steers. 

At the Texas Station {B. 2, R. ISSS, p. 19) steers gained slightly less on coarse 
ground corn than on the same amount of corn ground with the co1>s and husks, 
although it was considered doubtful whether the extra gain would jjay for grinding 
the cobs and husks. 



CATTLIC, FEEDING FOR BEEF AND FOR GROWTH. 65 

At till" ^r:iiiio Station (li. 1SS7, p. OS) "the substitution of cotton-soed meal or lin- 
seed meal for ii jiortion of the corn meal of a nujdcratc! ration diminished the cost of 
production." 

At the Now York State Station (R.1SS9, p. 117) tlio substitution of cotton-seed 
meal, linseed meal, or gluten nu^al for a part of the corn meal of a ration "was not 
followed by any advantage so far as tlie increase in live weight indicated," although 
the general ajipearance of the lot so fed was superior to that of the lot fed corn 
meal. See also Cotton seed and cottonseed meal for bei-f production. 

(6) Cotton-seed hulls are fed to steers quite commonly in the South in connection with 
cotton-seed meal. The ration ordinarily fed to a steer of 700 to 1,000 pounds is from 
15 to 20 pounds of hulls and from 4 to 8 pounds of cotton-seed meal per day. An 
experiment made at the Texas Station (B. 6, Ii. ISSf), p. Ill) indicated that hulls luid 
a higher nutritive value than corn silage. In another experiment at the same station 
(B. 10) the addition of silage to a ration of cotton-seed meal and hulls increased the 
total gain, but did not change the cost of gain per pound. As compared with hulls, 
steers fed on silage gained 2,54 pounds per day and on hulls 2.29 pounds, cotton-seed 
meal l>eing added in each case. The cost of food per 100 pounds of gain witli hulls 
at $3 and silage at $2 per ton. was $3.83 on silage and $3.73 on hulls, indicating that 
silage causes a more rapid but a more expensive gain than hulls. The addition of 
hay to a ration of cotton-seed meal and hulls increased the total gain and .also in- 
creased the cost per pound of gain. A half pint of molasses per day caused an 
increased consumption of cotton-seed meal aiid hulls, and consequently a more rapid 
gain. 

At the North Carolina Station {B. SI) 4 steers fattened on cotton hulls and cotton- 
seed meal made an average gain of 148 pounds each in 84 days, at a cost of $7.25. 
The net profits for the feed ranged from $6.89 to $10. .57 with different animals. A 
comp.arison at the same station of the eflfect of adding corn fodder and silage to the 
ration of cotton hulls and cotton-seed meal showed little difference in the gains, 
although the best financial result was from adding the fodder or silage. 

A bull stag of 880 pounds fed at the same station in summer on cotton hulls and meal 
gained 141 pounds, at a cost of $5.24, leaving a fair profit. From its experiments the 
station concludes that steers do best when about 1 pound of cotton seed meal is fed 
to each 4 pounds of cotton hulls. (Ark. B. 9, 11. 1SS9, p. 7S, B. 1S90, p. 134; N. C. 
B. 80c.; Tex. B. 15, B. lSS9,p. 107.) 

(7) Feeding grain to steers at pasture. — Two trials made at the Missouri College ( B. S) 
of feeding a daily ration of 4 poundvS of meal or ship stuft" to steers on good jjasture 
resulted in a financial loss. The results of two years' trials at the Illinois College 
{B. Sept., 1SS5, B. 1SSG,]}.311) indicated "that a grain ration fed to young steers on 
good pasture is not usually profitable. * * * It is doubtful if at present in most 
I»arts of Illinois cattle can be maintained or an increase of weight be secured at so 
low a cost in any other way as by allowing them to get all their food during the 
best of the grazing season from good pastures, fully, but not overstocked." An 
experiment on this subject at the Maine Station {B. 1SS8, p. 22) was a fiiilure. 

(8) Hug vs. straw. — An experiment at the Maine Station (B. 1S86, p. 73) indicated 
that steers made a eheajier gain on oat straw^ (at $6 per ton), with a little cotton- 
seed meal and corn meal, than on mixed hay (at $14), with corn meal, although the 
hay-fed lot gained slightly more. 

In another trial at the same station {B. 1SS7, p.S9) the gain in weight was nearly 
a pound more per day and per steer on 10 pounds of hay than on 12 pounds of oat 
straw, feeding the same grain ration in both cases. The total cost of food per pouud 
of gain was also more on the straw ration. 

(9) Miscellaneous experiments with steers. — A short experiment at the Minnesota 
Station (R. ISSS,}). 1J3) resulted favorably to bran as compared with corn. "Part 
bran instead of all corn as a grain feed to supplement corn silage proved the better 
for fattening steers." 



56 CATTLE FOODS. 

At the Missouri College {B. 2) " crushed corn fodder gave as good results, when 
grain was fed in moderate quantities, as hay." In a number of trials at the same 
place (B. 11) less clover hay and straw than of good timothy hay was required for 
a pound of gain. In a comparison of timothy hay cut when in bloom and after the 
seeds were quite fully formed, the amount of digestible matter in hay consumed per 
pound of gain in weight was 3.18 pounds of the late-cut and 3.30 of the early-cut 
timothy, indicating " practicallj^ no difference in the fee<ling value of the two lots 
of hay." 

The Tennessee Station {B. vol. IV, 1) found that steers did not eat second-crop . 
clover hay as readily as first-crop hay, and gained oulj^ one-sixth as much in weight 
as on first-crop; in other words, tliey could not be induced to eat much more than a 
maintenance ration of it. In a trial at the Indiana Station (/>. J7) steers made a 
much more rapid growth on cut than on uncut clover haj'. 

At the Minnesota Station {B. 4, B. 1S88, p. 126) steers were more thrifty on cold 
than on heated water. 

{Ark. B. 9; Mass. State B. 40, E. 1891, p. 107; Miss. R. 1889, p. 36; K. Y. State B. 
1889, p. 186; Pa. B. 1888, p. 77; Va. B. 3; Wis. B. 1886, p. 61.) 

Work oxen fed for beef. — A trial at the Alabama CaTiebrake Station (B. 8) of 
fattening work oxen on hay, corn meal, cotton seed and cotton hulls resulted in a 
financial loss. 

At the Maryland Station (B. 8) two work oxen made profitable gains on corn meal, 
cotton-seed meal, hay, rye straw, and molasses, gaining 600 pounds in 116 days. 
The calculated profits from the transaction, reckoning the food at current prices 
and allowing for the manure produced, was $33.42, or a net profit of 15 per cent on 
the investment in four mouths. 

Four oxen were fed at the North Carolina Station (B. 81) to compare cotton hulls 
with corn silage, feeding cotton-seed meal Avith each. "In this experiment silage 
at $1 per ton would about equal cotton hulls at $2.50 per ton, without cost of trans- 
portation." 

Cattle foods. — See Foods. 

Cauliflower (Zfrasstca oZeracefflvar.). — Variety tests are reported as follows: Arlc. 
B. 1S89, p. 103; Colo. B. 1890, p. 190; Mass. State B. 1889, p. 172; Mich. B. 57; Minn. 
B. 1888, p. 259; JSf. Y. State B. 1882, p. 133, B. 1883, p. 187, B. 1884, p. 212, B. 1885, p. 
130, B. 1888, p. 119, B. 1889, p. 331, B. 1890, p. 288; Ohio B. vol. II, 7; Ore. B. 4, 
B. 7, B. 15; Fa. B. 10, B. 14, B. 1888, p. 144; B. I. B. 1890, p. 159; Utah B. 3, B. 1891, 
J). 57; Va. B. 11. In Fla. B. 1 a note is made on the feasibilitj' of growing cauliflower 
in that State. 

Germination tests of cauliflower seed are recorded in Mich. B. 57; N. Y. State B. 
SO, n. ser., B. 1882, p. 133, B. 1883, pp. 68, 188; Ohio R. 1884, p. 197, B. 1885, pp. 166, 
175; Ore. B. 2; Fa. B. 4; Vt. B. 1889, p. 103. 

Comparisons have been made between European and domestic and Puget Sound 
and Eastern cauliflower seed, together with cabliage seed, with inconclusive results 
{Ohio B. vol. II, 7; N. Y. State B. SO, n. scr.). See Cahhage. Cauliflower seed from 
Washington State and from Europe compared at the Minnesota Station {B. 12) were 
of nearly equal value, which would give the preference to the cheaper American 
seed. A trial of large vs. small seed at the New York State Station {B. 1885, p 131) 
showed for the latter heads an inch thicker and about sixteen days later in maturing. 
At the New York State Station {B SO, n. ser.) it was found that only about half of I 
the early cauliflowers developed heads, while 96.12 per cent of the late ones did so. 
The early varieties were more remunerative. 

Cedar trees. — The red cedar or juniper {Juniperns virgimana) is noted {Kavs. 
B. 10) as the favorite couiler for planting in Kansas, not so much from its 
beauty as from its hardiness in all parts of the State where conifers will survive. 
It is native on river bluffs south and east from the middle of the State. It is found 
growing also in many i)arts of Minuesota {B. 24). "It does well in the driest 



CELERY BLIGHT. 57 

and most exposed as well as in the njosst sheltered localities, and forms an admi- 
rable wind-bieak/' especially when grown in alternate rows with white or Scotch 
jiine. Plantations at tlie Sontli Dakota .Station are noted {B. 12, B. 15, B. i'S, U. 
1S8S, p. 26). In B. 23 it is stated that this, with Scotch pine and white spruce, can 
be grown in any part of the State. 

The Japan cedar {Reti)iosj)ora pltimo-sa) was found at the Minnesota Station (li. 24) 
too tender to be grown in that State. This sjiecies is brielly noted in Cal. IL ISSO, 
p. 69. 

For white cedar see Arhor-vitce. 

Celeriac. — A form of the celeiy plant in which the root is nsed for food instead of 
the blanched stems. A variety test is noted in ^V. Y. State R. 18S4, p. 219 and in B. 
lfiS7,p.215 a full description of 5 varieties is given, with an index of synonyms and 
general notes. " The varieties are few in number and differ chiefly in the amount 
of foliage and the size and neatness of the roots, the latter being almost entirely 
enveloped in side roots in less improved varieties, and tolerably free from them in 
those more improved." Wlien lirst introduced the root was much larger than now. 
Germination tests of celeriac seed are recorded in N.Y. State Il.lSS3,p.6S; Vt.R. 
1889, p. 104. 

Celery (Jpiuin graveolens). — This vegetable has been planted at several stations 
for comjiarison of varieties and for testing methods of culture. InJU. Y. State K. 1SS7, 
p. 217, an account is given of 25 nominal varieties, only about 10 of Avhich were found 
to be well distinguished. An index of synonyms is also given. Variety tests are 
also reported in Ark. B. 1889, p. 103; Colo. B. 1889, p. 39, B. 1890, p. 212; Ey. B. 32; 
Mass. State B. 1891, p. 195; Mich. B. 79; Minn. B. 1888, p. 259; JSf. Y. State B. 1882, p. 
136, B. 1883, p. 191, B. 1884, p. 218, B. 1885, p. 177, B. 1886, p. 241, B. 1890, p. 2S7; Ohio 
B. 1882, p. 62; Ore. B. 4; Pa. B. 10; Ft. R. 1889, p. 130. Atrial at the Florida Station 
(B. 1) indicated success in the culture of celery in that State. At the New York 
State Station {R. 1883, p. I'X), R. 1884, p. 218) comparative tests were made of trench 
culture with a large amount of manure and level culture with juoderate manuring. 
The first year no advantage was shown for trenching; the second the advantage was 
considerable, taken a-s indicating under the conditions which existed that injuries 
resulting from drought may be in some measure averted by growing in trenches. An 
article occurs in N. C. B. 83 representing the possibility of growing celery in that 
State during the winter and giving full directions for its management. It is not 
thought that Southern celery can compete with Northern in the Northern market. 
Notes are made on celery culture in Ohio R. 1885, p. 125, and Colo. B. 1889, p. 38. 

Germination tests of celery seed are on record in Mc. B. 1888, p. 140, B. 1889, p. 150; 
A'. Y. Slate B. 1883, pp. 68, 191; Ore.B.2; Ft. B. 1889, p. 103. 

Celery, bacterial disease.— This disease is of recent discovery and seems to be 
most prevalent on the Golden Plume and similar varieties. The affected leaves are 
badly blotched witli brown and have a watery appearance. The disease spreads 
iai>idly in the presence of moisture and is not confined to the growing crojis, but 
may manifest itself in the market, the heart of the stem melting away into a watery, 
worthless mass. In the market celery should be kejit perfectly dry or completely 
covered with pure water, either method preventing the spread of the bacteria. 
Spraying with the solution recommended for celery blight (see below), if begun 
early and frequently re]ieated, will save the crop. (N. J. B. Q, R. 1891, p. 257). 

Celery blight (Cerco-ipora apii). — A fungous disease causing spots of an ashy color 
more or less scattered over the leaves. The filaments of tJu^ fungus are irregularly 
scattered through the tissues of the leaf. Opinions vary somewlisirt; as to the condi- 
tions under which it makes most headway. Some claim it disappears with the hot 
summer days, others that it is worse upon the coming of the autumn rains. 

This difference of opinion may be due to the confounding of several of the celery 
diseases, or to the fact that the growth of the host has been so vigorous, as to over- 



58 CELEEY LEAF SPOT. - 

come the fungus. In sprayiug experiments the standard solution of carbonate of 
copi)er gave the best results. In one case the treated plants were not free of the 
blight, but the harvested product of a 25-foot row Avas about double that of an un- 
treated row by ils side and the difference in quality was still greater. Perhaps an 
earlier application while the plants were small, would have completely prevented 
the disease. 

Am)ther blight {Sci^foria peiroselini var. ai)ii) has been found recently in consider- 
able .quantity, which causes tlie v/hole leaf to become brown and dead. A plant at 
all aifccted is liable to slu»w all the fidiage diseased and dying, witli small black 
dots plentifully sprinkled over its surl'ace. The treatment recommended is the same 
as in the former case. {N. J. B. Q, 11, 1S91, p. 255.) 

CeVsry leaf spot (Phyllosticfa a/pii). — A fungous disease first recognized by a 
light brown spot, which increases in size .and becomes darker in color, causing the 
whole affected portion to become brown and lifeless, and giving to the leaf a torn 
and ragged appearance. A single spot may be all that one leaf will show, the rest 
being bright and green, but the torn appearance will indicate its presence. This 
disease flourishes best in shade and moisture and is especially severe on the young 
leaves. Early spraying with the same solution as recommended for celery blight, 
(see above) is suggested as a preventive treatment. (N. J. B. Q. It. 1891, p. 25S.) 

Celery rusts (Puccinia htiUata and P. castagne'd). — These rusts are common in 

Europe, the first wherever celery is grown, the other only in France. They have not 

been reported on celery in this country yet, but may be expected at almost any time. 

They may be recognized by their small and numerous spots followed by the ajjpcar- 

auce of masses of spores. The application of Bordeaux or animoniaciil carbonate of 

copper compounds would probably be found beneficial. {N. J. B. Q, 1{. 1891, p. 25G.) 

Cellulose in feeding stuffs. — See Feeding farm animals, and ^j>jje«riix, Tables I and II. 

Chapman honey plant. — See Bee plants. 

Charbon. — See Anthrax. 

Chard. — "A plant of the beet family in which the foliage instead of the root has 
been develoiied through selection." The bleached leafstalk and midrib are used for 
the table. An examination of the root syiteni of the "Swiss chard" showed that it 
was more extensive than that of the garden beet. A branch was traced horizontally 
a divstance of 3^ feet, and the taproot at a depth of 2 feet had the thickness of a 
wheat straw. ( X. Y. State R. 1884, pp. 191, 311.) 
Cheat. — See Weeds. 

Cheese, composition. — Analyses of cheese have been reported, among others, in 
Colo. R. 1888, p. 151; Meiss. State R. 1889, p. 312, R. 1890,p. 311, R.-1891, p. 331 ; Minn. 
B. 19; N. Y. State B. 37, R. 1891, p. 233; Ft. R. 1891, pp. 90, 97, 119. 

For a summary of American analyses of cheese, with reference to both food and 
fertilizing ingredients, see Dairy products. 

Cheese factories. — Paying for milk at cheese factories on the basis of quality 
rather than quantity has been advocatedforreasous similar to those which conuuend 
the jiractice at creameries (see Creameries). The New York State Station {B. 37) 
among others has advocated the fat content of the milk as the basis for paj'ment for 
the reasons that "(1) the milk fat appears to exercise a greater influence upon the 
conii)osition and yield of cheese than any other constituent, and therefore forma a 
just basis for estimating the cheese-producing efliciency of factory milk; (2) it 
induces dairymen to pi'oduce a better quality of milk; and (3) it removes any temp- 
tation to adulterate milk." The Vermont Station, on the other hand, proposes [B. 
SI) to take account of both the fat and the casein, contending that " it is not a fact 
that twice as much cheese can be made from milk containing 6 per cent of fat as 
from milk containing 3 per cent." It suggests that the matter may be adjusted by 
paying a certain amount for the milk by weight without regard to its quality and a 
certain additional amount for each pound of butter fat it contains. Thus, if 30 



CHEESE-MAKING. 59 

cents per 100 pounds is paid for .'ill milk and 10 (^cnts a pound for hntter fat, a milk 
with 3 per cent fat would bring- GO cents y)er 100 pounds; one with 1 per cent fat, 70 
cents, etc. P'roni later experiments (li. 1S9I, p. S'S) it concludes that the payment 
according to fat content "gives substantially correct I'esults." 

For details of the method, see Creameries and Milk tents. 

Cheese making. — The New York State Station has commenced quite extensive 
experiments to study the processes of cheese-making, accounts of wliich have thus 
far been published in B. 37, n.ser., B. 43, n. ser., B.45,n.ser., 11.1891, p. 220, 364. Tliose 
studios embrace the following subjects: Losses of milk constituents in cheese- 
making; effect of composition of milk on yield and comjiosition of cheese; com- 
parisons of Cheddar and stirred-curd processes, of commercial and homemade ren- 
net extract, and of using difterent amounts of rennet; and the changes taking place 
in the ripening of cheese. The investigations are still in progress and no definite 
conclusions are attempted as yet. Some of the indications from the experiments 
thus far are as follows: The amount of fat lost in the whey per 100 pounds of milk 
was fairly uniform under like conditions of manufacture and seemcvl not to be in- 
fluenced to any great extent by the percentage of fat in the milk. This loss was in 
genera] between ^ and ^ of a pound of fat per 100 pounds of milk. From 23 to 24 
per cent of the casein and albumen in the milk was lost in the whey. The yield of 
cheese appeared to be considerably influenced by the percentage of fat in the milk 
increasing generally as the percentage of fat in the milk increased, although not 
uniformly. An increase of casein and albumen in the milk was generally accom- 
panied by a slight increase in the yield of cheese and an increase in the amount 
of casein and albumen recovered in the cheese per 100 pounds of milk. The 
anu)unt of water retained in the cheese was quite variable and generally increased 
when either the fat or casein and albumen in the milk increased; that is, apart 
of the increased yield was due to water. During May 11.4 pounds of cheese-fac- 
tory milk or 8 8 pounds of the station milk was required to make 1 pound of cheese, 
and during June 10.1 pounds of factory milk or 9.76 pounds of station milk. In 
general the fat in the milk exercised a greater influence upon the composition of 
the cheese than any other constituent of the milk. The proportion of fat in the 
cheese increased as a rule when the percentage of fat in the milk increased, but 
this increase was not proportional to the increased fat content of the milk. The 
effect of a change in the proportion of casein and albumen in the milk was less 
marked, although the percentage of casein aud albumen in the cheese generally in- 
creased when the milk was skimmed, and decreased when cream was added to the 
whole milk. 

The results of analyses by Goessmann in 1875 {Mass. State B. ISOl, p. 337) of 
cheese made from whole milk and from milk skimmed after standing 12, 24, 36, and 48 
hours showed that as the percentage of fat in the milk diminished, the percentage of 
total solids and of fat in the cheese decreased regularly, while the curd increased. 
Experiments at the Minnesota Station {B, 19), using milk containing from 3.5 to 5.4 
per cent of fat, confirmed the results at the New York State Station as to the eft'ect 
of the percentage of fat in the milk on the loss of fat in the whey and the yield of 
cheese, showing that the loss was apparently independent of the percentage of lat 
in the whole milk and that in these trials the yield of green cheese increased as the 
percentage of fat in the milk increased. The percentage of fat in the whey was a 
little less than 0.4. The addition of cream to milk, giving mixtures containing 5.4 
to 6 per cent of fat, involved no additional loss of fat in the whey, although there 
was a small increased loss of fat in pressing the cream cheese. 

The Vermont Station {R. 1891, p. 88) reports trials of making cheese from milk 
with 3, 4, and 5 per cent of fat, respectively. The per cent of fat in the whey front 
these trials was 0.17, 0.25, and 0.3, respectively, aud the loss of casein aud albumen 
amounted to about one-fourth of the amount in the milk. The cheese from the 3 per 
cent milk was rated by commission merchants as poorest; that from milk with 4 aud 



60 



CHEMISTRY. 



5 per cent of fat was rated as about equal in quality and worth 1 cent per pound 
more than the other. The station concludes that "rich milk containing mfich ovw 
4 per cent of fat can be more proiitably made into butter than into cheese." 

The same station has calculated from its experiments the distribution of the ingred- 
ients of milk in cheese-making, with the following result: 

Distrihution of ingredients in cheese-making. 





Total 
solids. 


Fat. 


Ca.sein 

and 

albumen. 


Milk 
sugar. 


Ash. 


Cheese 


Per cent. 

54.2 

0.9 

44.9 

100 


Per cent. 
90.6 
0.4 
9.0 


Per cent. 

11. i 

O.G 

22.0 


Per cent. 

5.0 

1.5 

93.5 


Per cent. 
36 
1 
63 




Whey 




100 


100 


100 100 



It has also calculated the average distribution of fertilizing ingredients iu making 
cheese from 1,000 pounds of milk as follows: 

Distribution of fertilizing ingredients in chcese-maMng. 



1,000 pounil.s of whole milk 

900 pounds of whey 

100 pounds of cheese 



Kitrogen. 



Pounds. 
5.30 
1. 35 
3.95 



Phosphoric 
acid . 



Pou7ids. 
3.90 
1.23 
0.65 



Potash. 



Pounds. 
1.75 
1.63 
0.12 



It will be seen that a large proportion of the nitrogen goes into the cheese. Valu- 
ing the fertilizing ingredients at the average prices in commercial fertilizers " the 
total fertilizing value of the milk for a year from a dairy of 20 cows givino- 4 000 
pounds of milk apiece, will ap])roximate $86.80, two-thirds ($56.80, of whichis lost 
to the farm if cheese is sold aud whey retained." See also Ga. B. IS- N. H. B.9- 
Tex. B. 5. For cost of cheese per pound see Coivs, tests of dairy breeds. 

Chemistry. — The science of chemistry has been of the greatest service in explain- 
ing the laws of animal and plant nutrition, the physiology of plants and aninuils, 
the economic use of fertilizers and feediug stuffs, and in short in elaborating the 
theories which now prevail in the various branches of agricultural science. The 
development of agricultural science is due in a larger measure to chemistry than to 
any other single science. With this development has grown up a special branch of 
chemistry known as agricultural chemistry, as distinguished from general chemis- 
try. The total number of chemists engaged iu station work is 11.5, distributed among 
52 stations. The chemists have an organization called the Association of Official 
Agricultural Chemists, which meets annually and decides upon methods of analysis 
for the ensuing year. This Association also carries m cooperative studies of meth- 
ods of analysis during the year. 

The work of the station chemists covers a very broad field and consists of analyses 
of feediug stufts, fertilizers, plants, soils, milk and dairy products, and materials of 
every description; studies of the growth of plants, the ripening of fruit, the best 
time for harvesting crops for feeding, aud the preservation of crops; digestion ex- 
periments, feediug experiments with various farm animals, field experiments in 
some cases, and other more strictly scientific investigations. The station chemLsts 
have been instrumental in pointing out the injustice of paying for milk at cream- 



CHEKRY. 



61 



erios and cliccse factories on tlio basis of the volume or weight of milk or cream with- 
out regard to its composition, and have devised several now methods for rapidly 
testing milk, which have found wide application. They have also done much valu- 
ahlti work in improving methods of analysis and devising laboratory apparatus. 

Cherimoyer {Anona cherimolia).— This fruit, related to the custard apple and 
sometimes called by tha,t name, thrives in a few sheltered localities in California 
{Cat. li. 18S0, p. 67, K. 1SS2, p. 106). 

Cherry.— Varieties of common cherries {Frnnusccrasus, P. avimn) have been quite 
generally planted in the experiment orchards of the stations. Such plantations are 
noted in Cal. R. lSSS-89, pp. S6, lOS, 1S7, 184, It. 1890, p. 269; Colo. R. 1890, p. 199; 
Ga. B. 11; Ind. B. 10; Iowa B. 2; Me. R. 1889, p. 255; Mass. Hatch B. 4; Mich. B. 
55, B. 67, B. 80; Mo. CoUef/e B. 10, B. 26; N. Y. State R. 1889, p. 353, R. 1890, p. 347; 
X. C. B. 72; Ohio R. 1883, p. 147; R. I. B. 7; Tcnn. B. vol. Ill, 5, B. vol. V, 1, R. 
1888, p. 12; Tex. B. 8, B. 10; VI. R. 1S8S, p. 117, R. 1889, p. 121 ; Fa. B. 2. 

In 1882 Prof. Budd, of the Iowa Station, studied the cherries of Europe on the 
groimd from east France to the Volga in Russia, and the next spring one-year-old 
trees were imported of the varieties which appeared most promising for the North- 
west. In Iowa B. 2 descriptions are given of varieties which after severe testing 
during unfavorable summers and winters were still found promising, numbering 26 
for northern Iowa, with 8 others for the southern part of the State. These varieties 
were more or less distributed among other Northern stations. In Mich. B. 67 and 
B. 80, respectively, 43 and 49 varieties are named and in a general way classified as 
sweet or Hazard cherries, including Bigerreaus from P. avium, and Dukes and Mo- 
rellos from P. cerasus, with Russian varieties of species undetermined. Descriptive 
notes are given on a, considerable number of varieties. The sweet varieties are com- 
paratively little grown in the State, though generally hardy in the southern part. 

In Iowa B. 10 the subject of stocks for the cherry, as also for some other fruits, is 
discussed at some length. Evidence is adduced that the Mahaleb stock, which is 
rein-eseuted to be very widely used for all varieties through the North, really fails 
to unite with their wood. There is at iirst a growth from mere contact of cells, but 
unless the scion itself roots the growth soon fails. The conunon varieties on the other 
hand unite with the Hazard stock, but this can only be used in Iowa by crown- 
grafting and planting down to the top bud. Directions are given for successlul crown- 
grafting with the cherry. Horello stock and the wild cherry (P. pcnitsylnviica) 
are commended. 

The sand cherry of the Northwest (P.pumila) had been found, contrary to what 
might be supposed, an upright and rapul grower, and as easily worked as the 
Hahaleb. Tlie work was still in the experimental stage, but it was found to nnite 
well with hardy sorts aud not to dwarf them during five years to a greater extent 
than does the Hahaleb. In Iowa B.3 deep setting of stocks and heading low are 
advocated; root-grafting is urged as far better than propagation by budding; late 
grafting is shown to bo successful if the wood of the stock and that of the scion are 
in the same condition, and the plan of alternating rows of ditl'erent varieties to 
insure pollination is favored. 

The sand cherry, according to Prof. Bailey (.V. Y. Cornell B. 38), includes three 
different forms, all perhaps species. The first is P. pamila, a prostrate or decumbent 
shrub, with straggling branches 3 or 4 feet high common in the Northern States; the 
second, P. cuneata, is of an erect habit, much more rare, reaching west to Hinnesota; 
the third belongs to the plains and Rocky Houutains, and differs from the ordinary 
P. ptunila, but is little known aud no botanical name is assigned. The first two are 
grown for ornament and the Iirst and third are receiving attention for their fruit. 
The first is considered in this view in Minn. B. 18 and S. Dak. B. 23 and B. 20, where 
it is described and looked upon quite hopefully as a sul)ject for improvement, espe- 
cially to meet the want of a perfectly hardy fruit for the Northwest. The fruit is 
yery abundant, aometiuies three-fourths of an inch in diameter, variable in color from 



62 CHERRY APHIS. 

red to black, and in quality from astringent to insipid. The sand cherry is also noted 
in Xehr. B. IS, the plant here meant being, according to Prof. Bailey, the Rocky INIonn- 
tain variety or species. This would seem to be still more promising than the other. 
"It is now in cultivation as the Improved Rocky Mountain Cherry." The P.pumila, 
as noted above, is looked upon favorably by the Iowa Station as a grafting stock. 

The Utah Hybrid cherry is a fruit of uncertain value and doubtful affinity. Two 
varieties, the black and red, are in cultivation. It probably comes from some part 
of the Western plains or the Rocky Mountain region, but its wild jirototype is un- 
known (iV^. Y. Cornell B. 3S). 

The wild black cherry (P. serotiiia) receives favorable notice from several of the 
stations for ornamental and forestry planting. Its wood is of a light red color, 
deepening with age, is close-grained, and well known among cabinetmakers and 
manufacturers of furniture, and the bark and roots have a medicinal value. In 
Minn. B. 24 it is considered as pretty at all times and especially so when in blossom 
or when loaded with ripe fruit. It is very hardy in tliflt State when grouped with 
other trees, and yields next to black walnut the most valuable wood there grown. 
In Cal. B. 1880, p. 68, it is noted as a beautiful and fast-growing tree, suitable to be 
planted in gardens and as an avenue and timl)er tree. Plantntions at the South 
Dakota Station {B. 12, B. 20, B. 29) are noted in a favorable light. 

The wild red cherry {P. pennsylvanica), growing in Wisconsin and eastward, as 
above noted, has been considered at the Iowa Station as a stock for grafting culti- 
vated cherries {Iowa B. 10). It is mentioned {Minn. B. 24) as "a small native tree 
of good form and habit that does well under cultivation." 

The chokecherry of the East is P. virginiana, a shrub or small tree with very 
astringent fruit of no horticultural interest. The plant so called in Nebraska is the 
P. f?c»( issa, the ''Western chokecherry," or the "dwarf wild cherry," noted in Nehv. 
B. IS aud N. Y. Cornell B. 38. "This shrubby plant promises to become important 
for its excellent cherries. They are often as large as the smallest of our cultivated 
cherries, and have an agreeable taste, closely resembling that of the wild Ijlack 
cherry." They are free from the astringoncy of the chokecherry, pleasant in the 
raw state, and used by the settlers for pastry, jellies, etc. 

The Eastern chokecherry is mentioned in Minn. B. 24 as a small native tree that 
does well under cultivation. An attempt to use it in a forestry plantation with 
larger trees to complete the shade is noted in S. Dak. B. 29. 

The ground cherry is a herbaceous plant, for which see Plujsalis. 

Cherry aphis. — See Plant lice. 

Cherry, leaf spot {Ciilindrosporinm padi). — A fungous disease which attacks the 
leaves of cherry, plum, and peach trees, causing them to fall prematurely. It seems 
to be especially destructive in newly planted orchards. About the middle of May 
in the nursery, reddish spots make their appearance upon the npjier side of the leaf. 
Upon the older trees their a[)pearance is a month or more later. At first the spots 
are very small ; later they become an eighth of an inch or more across, and by the 
blending of several a larger spot is formed. In a short time the spots turn brown, 
the leaves become yellow and fall, often nearly or quite prematurely denuding the 
tree. . Upon the lower side of the leaf, opposite a spot on the upi)or side, may be 
seen an elevated area of a yellowish color, or whitish on the border, if it be rup- 
tured. No experiments in treatment are reported, but the use of any of the more 
common fungicides would probably prove beneficial. {Iowa B. 13.) 

Cherry, black knot. — See Plum, black knot. 

Cherry, brown rot. — See Plum, brown rot. 

Cherry slug {Sdandria cerasi). — This slug is the larva of a small jet-black sawfly. 
The sing is about two-thirds of an inch long, dark green, and slimy. It eats the leaves 
of cherry, ^jcar, aud other trees, sometimes almost dofoliatiug them. There are usually 



CHICKEN CORN. 63 

two broofls each season. It cau be dostroyed by the use of arsenitos, pyrethrum, 
white hellebore, tobacco iiifiisiou, or air-slakt^d lime. The mature grubs may bo 
caught by jarring thetu from the tree in early morning or late oveuiug. {Me. It. 1S8S, 
p. 176; Nov. B. 10; Ohio B. vol. II, G; Ore. B. 5, B. lb'.) 

Cheshire pigs. — See I'igs, breeds. 

Chess. — See Weeds. 

Chester White pigs. — See Pigs, breeds. 

Chestnut (Castanea spp.). — American and foreign varieties have been planted for 
trial at several stations, cliiefly as nut bnt also as timber trees. Some study has 
been given to the economic value of the tree and its fruit, and the advisability and 
method of cultivation. Plantations are noted in Cal. B. 1880, p. 67, E. 1882, p. 102, 
B. 1885-'86, p. 120, E. 1888-89, pp. 87, 196; Fla. B. 1; La. B.22, B. 8 {U. ser.); Mich. 
B. 55, B. 67, B. 80; E. I. B. 7; S. Dak. B. 8, B. 12. Some comparison of varieties is 
made in Pa. B. 16. 

Besides the native chestnut, from which a very few varieties have been developed, 
the European form of the same species (C vesca), known as Spanish and Italian 
chestnut, has been introduced, as well as the Japanese chestnut. The latter has 
been planted especially in California, but also at the Florida, Michigan, and libode 
Island Stations. It is a dwarf tree, suited for hedges rather than independent growth, 
but yielding a nut which is larger than the largest Italian chestnut and bearing 
in four or five years from planting. At the Florida Station it was found to grow 
luxuriantly, doing better than the European chestnuts. It appears not to be hardy 
very far north. Attention is called by the California Station to the fact that the 
Italian chestnut, like many other trees from South Europe, is far better adapted to 
the climate of the State than its related species of the Eastern States. (See also 
Chinkapin.) 

The composition of chestnuts has been somewhat studied at the Pennsylvania 
Station {B. 16). Analyses were made of 8 samples from European and native stock, 
with which are given some foreign analyses of these and other nuts, and of wheat, 
corn, and beans (see Appendix, Table III). General conclusions are that chestnuts 
are starchy rather than oily nuts, the European closely ai)proaching wheat in com- 
position; that the uncultivated American chestnut is more oily tban the European 
and ccmtaius less starch; that European varieties grown in our climate, "though 
carefully cultivated and attaining normal size, apparently tend to become more oily, 
poorer in carbohydrates, and possibly less albuminous." On the other hand the nuts 
of "Moon Seedling" from American stock closely resemble in composition those 
from seedlings of Pkiropean origin. Data relating to the food value and actual use of 
the chestnut are also given. Analyses of chestnut wood and bark (as also of those of 
other trees) are presented in Ga. B. 2 (see Appendix, Table F). (See also Mass. State 
E. 1891, p. 319.) 

In Pa. B. 16 the subject of chestnut culture is somewhat fully discussed. It is 
believed that upon apjiropriate gravelly or sandy soils the ciiltivated chestnut may 
become by proper attention an important source of revenue as the native product 
already is in some measure. The value of the wood as well as of the fruit is noted. 
Directions are given for the treatment of the land and in general for raising the 
trees. The advantages of grafting in gaining time and securing fruit of a known 
character are noted, and a method of culture recommended. Ala. College B. 3, n. 
ser., contains a general acconnt of the chestnut from the economic point of view. 
A method of keejiing the nuts in good condition is described. The chestnut has 
been planted for forestry purposes at the South Dakota Station with results not 
yet reported. 

Chicken corn {Sorghum rulgare var.). — An annual uon-saccharine variety of 
Borghum, each stalk ol which bears one or more heads. It has become naturalized 
iu the prairio region of Alabama ami Mississippi and there grows wild. It pro- 



64 CHICKENS. 

duces a Targe amonnt of forage, which should be cut before the heads appear. Thej 
8eed, which resembles that of the saccharine varieties of sorghum, has cousiderable 
value as a concentrated carbonaceous feeding stuff. After a crop of grain a dense 
growth of chicken corn springs up voluntarily. This affords one or more cuttings] 
of hay. 

Chicken corn is a troublesome weed in localities where it grows wild. It is 
especially partial to corn fields where the seed of the year before is usually in the 
ground. It will spring up after the last cultivation in the summer and make a 
rapid growth, remaining green until frost. Chicken corn is a suitable crop for the 
silo. (Ala. Canebralce B. 9; Miss. B. S, B. 20.) 

Chickens. — See Poultry. 

Chick-pea {Cicer arietinitm).—T]ua is described in CaJ. B. 76 as the " species which 

is so highly esteemed in France and other countries of southern Europe for the same 

-purpose as the lentil." " It is the basis of the puree aux croutons, so popular in 

Paris." One or more varieties of the chick-pea are known as Chuna, which see. (See 

also N. Y. State B. 1883, p. IDS.) 

Chickweed. — See Weeds. 

Chicory (Cichorhim hitiibus).~FiYe varieties of chicory Avere tested at the New 
York State Station (R. lSS4,p. 2SG), including the Whitloof or large-rooted Hrnssels. 
Germination tests of chicory seed are on record in N. Y. B. 1883, p. 68 (of Whitloof, 
p. 71), and Ft. B. 1889, p. 104. 

China tree (Melia azedara('li).~T\nii tree, planted for ornament in the South, is 
briefly noted in Ala. College B. 2, n. ser. " The wood makes excellent furniture." 
The leaves, bark, .and fruit have medicinal properties. The fruit, called China ber- 
ries, Avas analyzed at the South Carolina Station {B. 1889, p. 150) with reference to 
its food and fertilizing ingredients (see Appendix, Table HI). Horses have been 
observed to eat these berries voraciously, and, as the analysis shows them to be nutri- 
tious and the nutrients appear to I»e in good condition for digestion, it is judged 
that if no evil is found to result from continuously feeding them they may become 
an important adjunct to the feeding stuffs of the country. 

Chinch bug (Blissus leucopterus). —Th\s insect is more or less known fchrougliout the 
entire country and the losses occasioned by it are sometimes very great. It spends 
the winter in a mature state under fallen grass or rubbish and appears again witli 
the warm spring days. Tlie female ?ays about .500 eggs upon the roots of wheat o^. 
some other plant. These soon hatch and the larva rtiseinbles the adult except in 
size and in having no wings. The adult insect is about one-seventh inch long, body 
black with white wings, each having a black spot about the middle. The young is 
at first yellow but becomes orange and then red. After molting a few times it has 
the size and wings of the adult. There are usually two, sometimes three broods in 
a season. The chinch bug has a peculiar odor. It feeds almost entirely upon cereals 
and grasses. It thrives best in hot, dry seasons. Protracted dampness is fatal to 
it, for at such times a plant parasite kills it off in great numbers and with great rap- 
idity. At the Kansas Station for Experiments with Contagious Diseases of the Chinch 
Bug (B. 1891) investigations relating to various bacterial and fungous diseases 
show that certain of these diseases, especially the white fungus infection {Sporo- 
trichum globuUferum), may be artificially introduced into fields infested with 
chinch bugs, with highly beneficial results during the nu)nths of the year (March- 
October) when the bugs are active. The destruction of the bug is rapid and effect- 
ive. Kerosene emulsion Avhere used has proved very effective. Burning and roll- 
ing them is often resorted to and when on the march trenches and boards set in the 
ground and covered with tar or kerosene will stop them. As they are sucking in- 
sects poisons have no efiect on them. {Ark. B. 1889, p. 158; III. B. 19; Iowa B. 
1888, p. 11; Kans. R. 1888, p. 55; Minn. B. 1888, p. 350; Miss. B, 1S91, p. 34; Ohio 
^, vol. m, ii, B. 1888, f. 164; S, C. R. 1888, p. 19.) 



CHURNING. 



65 



Chinch bug, false {Xi/sihs au;iiixt<ilii.'<).—Thh insect resembles tlio true chinch bug 
in size and odor only. It is of a rather uniform brown color and does not have the 
^Yhitc winj^^s bcarinj.- the black spot. It seems to choose the plants of the ninstard 
family behi--- worst upon radishes and turnips. Spraying with kerosene emulsion 
will kill this pest. {Colo. n. 6, li. ISSS, p. 100; loxoa B. 12, B. 15; S. Dal: B. 22.) 

Chinkapin {Castanca pHmi7«).— This is a dwarf species of the chestnut, native 
southward in the United States. The small acoru-liko nut is single in the bur. The 
shrub has been recently planted for trial at the ISlichigan Station (/>'. 67, B. SO). 
It was planted unsuccessfully at the New Mexico Station. The bark is noted (1/rt. 
College B.S, n. ser.) as used in medicine as an astringent and tonic in intornutteut 
fevers. 

Chirimoya.— See Cherimniier. 

Chorogi.— Under its Japanese name an illustrated account is given in .V. Y. Cornell 
B.37 of the Japanese and Chinese vegetable 5toc/ii/s skholdii (otherwise called S. 
tuherifei-a and S. affinis), introduced in recent times into Europe and this country. 
Other names proposed are the Croanes dn Japon, Chinese or Japanese artichoke, 
etc. It is a small perennial plant of the mint family, with the aspect of pep- 
permint or spearmint. It produces an abundance of small tubers, which can be 
eaten raw or fried, roasted, baked, pickled, preserved, stewed in cream, etc. The 
greatest fault with the vegetable is the fact that the tubers shrivel and spoil it ex- 
posed to the air for a few hours, but they can be kept in earth. The French market 
them in moist shavings or sawdust. This and further information is given iu the 
bulletin above referred to, and various testimonies concerning the plant are collated. 
It is estimated to be an important addition to our list of secondary vegetables. Sev- 
eral foreign analyses and one made at Cornell are given (see Appendix, Tabic HI). 
"All thesl analyses show that the chorogi rates fully as high as potatoes iu food and 
fertilizer value." 

Chokecherry.— See Cherry. 

Chrysanthemum.— In Ind. B. SO is given a record of the process used and the 
results attained in an attempt to produce new varieties of this flower. White and 
deep crimson flowers were used and several new colors and heads of increased size 
were obtained. An experiment showed that pollem kept iu a dry place would retain 
its vitality for five days, making it possible to send it by mail for use in crossing. 

Chufa (Cyperus escalentus) .—" The Spanish name for a ground rush nut that is 
really a noxious weed in every low, damp place on the college farm. The cultivated 
variety is a very fine-flavored edi ble nut when well dried or parched. For hogs it is said 
to be an excellent food" (N. Mex. B. 4). The nut is an underground tuber. Chnfas 
were planted at the Louisiana Station {B. 27) and "were a splendid success, giving 
a large yield, suggesting and proving themselves to be a splendid crop for hogs." 
At the Alabama College Station {B. 16) "half an acre of very thin, sandy land was 
planted in chufas in 1889 to bo gathered by swine." A portion of the product was 
picked by hand and found to measure at the rate of 172 bushels per acre while green, 
or when dry, assuming a shrinkage of one third, 115.24 bushels. This plant is called 
''earth almond" in a California list {R, 1889, p. 202). 

Chuna.— Under this name seeds of a plant used for cofi"ee were received at the New 
Mexico Station from Mexico. Itproved to be the brown and the white chick-pea ( Cicer 
arietinum) of Europe, and when planted seemed to be quite prolific. A plant called 
chuna was planted at the Colorado Station {B. 1890, p. 21). In Cal. B. 76 the chuna 
is described as a brown -seeded variety of chick-pea from India, eaten by the natives 
iu curries, cakes, etc., and very fattening for cattle. (See also Chick-pea.) 

Churning.— Geneual Principles.— The churning of cream to butter depends 

upon the fact that when cream is vigorously agitated for a time the globules of fat it 

contains unite by adhesion to form little irregular-shaped particles of butter. At first 

these are very small, and, like the globules themselves, can only bo seen with a micro- 

2094— No. 15^^.-^ 



G6 CHURNING. 

scope ; br.t as the process goes on these particles increase iu size until they are visible 
to the ej'e, when the churned cream is said to have grained or gathered. Churning then 
is a conglomeration of the globules of fat. Numerous theories liaA'e been advanced to 
explain tlie process. It was formerly supposed that the fat globules owed their 
shape and individuality to athin coating of solid casein which surrounded the individ- 
ual globnles and prevented their running together. This theory was also supposed to 
acconnt for the improved churning of sour cream over sweet cream, on the assump- 
tion that as a result of the souring the casein coating was dissolv^ed, allowing tlie 
globules to unite with each other readily to form butter. For reasons which can 
not be entered into here, this theory has been abandoned by scientists. The theory 
which has rejilaced it has very strong scientific evidence in its favor. It is supposed 
that the globules in milk and cream, the fat of which is in a liquid state, are sur- 
rounded only by a thin layer of liquid milk serum ; and it has been found that when 
cream is churned these globules, which are ordinarily circular and of regular out- 
line, harden and assume irregular shapes, with 'angular, uneven outline. This 
change takes place in the large globules first, and does not take place in the smaller 
ones until the churning has gone (m for some time. As a result of their irregular 
outline and of the agitation, the globules become attached to each other until lumps 
large enough to be seen are formed. It is thus that no change is preceptible in the 
cream until it has been churned for sometime, and that soon after the first preceptible 
change the butter "comes" almost suddenly. 

The chang(i of the fat from a liquid to a solid condition is a result of the shaking 
and agitation and is analogous to the changes in the globules when milk is frozen. 
When milk is frozen the fat in the globules solidifies and the globules take on the 
irregular form assumed in churning, and a little agitation suffices to unite them to 
butter. The shaking in the one case does what the low temperature does iu the 
other. The smallest globules remain liquid at the end of churning and can not be 
made to solidify by intense shaking. They are therefore lost in the buttermilk. In 
freezing, on the other hand, all of the globules, large and small, are solidified, and 
this has suggested the theory that the yield of butter might be increased by freez- 
ing the cream. 

The favorable results from allowing cream to sour before churning are explained 
in this theory by the fact that the coagulated casein of the sour cream does not 
■present as much resistance to the freedom of the globule as the liquid serum — that 
is, the capillary attraction of the fat glolniles is weakened as a result of the coagu- 
lation of the casein. 

Tkmperatuke of churning. — It will be evident from what has been said that 
the temperature at Avhich cream is churned will have much to do with the rapidity 
with which the butter " comes," aud with the proportion of the globules which 
unite to form lumps — that is, the yield of butter from a given amount of fat in 
cream. 

But it is impracticable to give any definite temperature Avhich is the best under 
all conditions. For instance, it is generally belieAed that sweet cream requires to 
be churned at a lower temperature than sour cream to secure the best results. Insuf- 
ficient experiments have been made to definitely settle the temperature to be used 
or even the range of temperature. A German authority places the temi)erature for 
sweet cream at between 52° and 53.5° F. and for sour cream at between 59 and 61° 
F. The New York State Station {li. ISSf), p. 207) recommends a temperature of 
58°-60° F. in summer and of 60°-64° in winter, although it cautions that this is only 
a general statement to which there are exceptions, and mentions cases in its own 
experience where 53°-56° F. has beeii required, and again where better results 
have been obtained by churning at 68°-70° F. until the first appearance of the butter 
and then lowering the temperature to 62°-6'i°. The same station {B, 1891, p. 369) 
found that iidvaucing lactation was generally accompanied by an increase in the 
relative number aud a diminution in the relative size of the fat globules ; that accom- 



CHURNING. 67 

panying this there was a general tendency toward an increase of temperature and 
of time required for clmrninfj; and tliat in a large number of cases there Avas an 
increased loss of fat in tlie skim milk. In the test of dairy breeds at the station the 
temperature used in churning was. Jerseys 62.3^; llolstcins, Guernseys, Ayrshires, 
and lloldernesses eS.S'^-GS.o^; and Devons (>6.6^ F. (Ji. 1891, p. 316). 

The New Hampshire Station {IL 1S80, p. 3D) found that in three trials GO" F. gave a 
slightly better yield of butter than 64o. At the Vermont Station {R. ISOO, p. 110) the 
yield of butter was larger from churning at 57"^ than at 67°, although the butter 
came much sooner at 67". 

The Texas Station {B. 11) found that when cotton seed or cotton-seed meal was fed 
in considerable quantit}' the temperature required for churning was raised in the 
case of sour cream from 4"-8" F. and of sweet cream l°-3° F. above that required 
when neither of these was fed. When cotton seed or cottou-seed meal was fed 
heavily the most advantageous temperature for churning was 68"-75° F. and tlio 
time required was about forty minutes. When these feeds were fed exclusively the 
best temperature for churning was 73"-80" and the time required about thirty-three 
minutes. 

CiUTKNS. — Comparatively little has been done at the stations in testing different 
kinds of churns. In general there seems to be a tendency to abandou the dashcj. 
churn for the box or barrel churns and between these little difference has been 
found. Comparisons at the Wisconsin Station (7v'. i&S'J, p. 45) of a rectangular, a 
barrel, and a dasher churn showed differences of less than 1 per cent of butter by 
the three churns, except in one instance. Comparisons at the New Hampshire Sta- 
tion (/). 7> showed very little difference between the butter yielded from three dif- 
ferent churne. At the Vermont Station {B. 27) both box and barrel churns were 
tested, but there was no perceptible difference in their work. The average per cent 
of fat in buttermilk was 0.14 with the box churn and 0.13 with the barrel churn. 

As to tutj ..mount of cream to be churned in a churn of given size, the Wisconsin 
Station {E. ISSS, pp. 120, 121) found that as the quantity of cream was increased 
there was ])ractically no difference in the relative yield of butter, but the time 
required for churning increased regularly and also the temperature at the end of 
churning. The last is a decided disadvantage, as it makes the butter softer and 
more difficult to handle. " If these items be taken into account there would have 
been less time required in making two churnings even if the time necessary for till- 
ing and emptying the churn be reckoned." 

For an account of the butter extractor, a conibinatioit separator and churn, see 
Bnlter extractor. 

( Wis. B. 1SS5, p. 43; Ga. B. IS; Kavs. E. ISSS, p. 95.) 

Churning sweet and souk cream. — The idea of churning cream sweet is not 
new. Danish butter, which has a high reputation for qualitj', is largely made from 
sweet cream; but the practice has lieen objected to on the ground that the yield of 
butter is smaller than from sour cream, and that sweet-cream butter is of inferior 
flavor and keeping quality. On the other hand it is urged that it is a more conven- 
ient method of handling cream than to allow it to sour and that a more even quality 
of butter is produced, as the butter from sour cream may be injured or siioiled by 
mischievous bacteria which get into the cream (see Fermentations of 7nilk and cream). 

Following is a review of the work done by the stations on the subject: 

The New Hampshire Station (E. ISSS, p. 54) found that when the cream from the 
mixed milk of a herd was churned sweet the resulting buttermilk contained from 
0.26 to 9.58 per cent of fat, and that the churning was more perfect between 50" and 
55° F. than at a higher temperature. It was concluded " that sweet cream may be 
churned and nearly, if not quite, the maximum amount of butter obtained if the 
churning be done at a temperature of about 50°."' 

The West Virginia Station (/^. 6') proposed to reduce the loss in churning sweet 
cream by running the buttermilk from it through the separator and churning the 



68 CHURN TESTS. 

cream thus obtained; and it t'laims to have brongbt the losses within very satisfac- 
tory limits. On an average of eight months at a creamery in its charge 3.95 pounds of 
sonr cream or 3.74 pounds of sweet cream were required per pound of butter. 

At the Illinois Station (/>. 9) it was found that up to a certain point the yield of 
butter increased with the acidity of the cream, but beyond that jioint there was no 
increase in butter yield, while there was danger of injury to the quality of the but- 
ter. As between strongly acid cream and cream barely ripe in 20 trials the churn 
yielded from 1.09 to 18.28 per cent more butter with the former. The time required 
for churning the former was a little less than for the latter. The yield of butter 
from sweet cream churned at 55" was but little below that of sour cream churned at 
60*^. No fat could be recovered by the se^iarator from the sweet- cream buttermilk. 
The Wisconsin Station {B. ISSS, 2>- HI) showed that "the ripening of cream before 
churning increases the yield of butter from 15 to 20 per cent, provided both are 
churned in the same way,'' and that ''ripening appears to have no marked influence 
ui)on the time of churning." No advantage was found from mixing sour cream with 
sweet cream for churning, the loss of fat from sweet cream being the same as if it 
wti.s churned separately. The results of trials on this jioiut at the Vermont Station 
(7i'. ISOO, p. Ill) were somewhat conflicting. When abimt ^ per cent of lactic or 
acetic acid was added to sweet cream and churned immediately, the yield of butter 
was practically the same as from sour cream ( Wis. B. ISSS, p. IIS). The Illinois Sta- 
tion (B. 9) found no advantage from increasing the acidity of barely ripened cream 
by adding acetic acid just before churning. 

Trials at the New York State Station {B. lSSO,p. 20Q) indie ited that if sweet cream 
was churned at the same temperature as sour cream (62°) the loss was excessive, 
but if churned at 50*^-54° F. "there was no further loss than with the same cream 
ripened."' 

The Iowa Station (/?. S) reports that when sweet-cream butter was made according 
to Prof. Myer's directions and the buttermilk run through the separator about 0.21 
per cent more butter was secured from sweet cream than from ripened cream. The 
Texas Station {B.ll) secured equal amounts of butter from sweet and ripened 
cream. At the Delaware Station (7?. 0) where tliis process was tested the percentage 
of fat in the wlude milk recovered in the butter was about 93.3 with sour cream and 
88.4 with sweet cream. The butter from tlie buttermilk was of poor quality. "The 
etficiency of the sour-creaui process is 4.93 per cent higher than that of the sweet- 
cream process." 

For quality of butter from sweet and sour cream see Batter from sweet and sour 
cream. 

Churn tests. — See Mill- tests. 

Cicada (Cicada septeiidecim) [also called 17-year locust]. — This well-known insect 
is remarka ble on account of the length of time the larva spends in the ground — seven- 
teen years in the North or thirteen j-earsiu the South. The adult lives about a month, 
eats little, and only daniJiges the small twigs in which it deposits its eggs. If the 
insects are numerous the twigs and sometimes even small trees will be killed. The 
female usually selects twigs one-fourth inch in diameter (preferably of oak), thrusts 
the ovipositor through the bark, separating it from the wood, and lays a pair of eggs. 
The larvte hatch out in about six weeks and drop to the ground, in which they live, 
feeding on the roots of trees, for periods of seventeen or thirteen years as the case 
may be, when they transform to the winged state and ascend to the surface. There 
are said to be twenty-two different broods in the United States, some of which over- 
lap. Frequent " locust years" are likely to be the result. There seems to be no 
good means of destroying them. (N. J. B. 18S9, p. 270; Ba. B. lS89,p. 1S2.) 

Cinchona trees {Ciuehona spp.). — Some planting tests have been made of cin- 
chona or Peruvian bark trees at the California Statiou at Berkeley, and under its in- 
tluence iu other parts of the State, of which account is given in Cal. B. 1879, p. 74, 



CLAY. 69 

R. ISSO, p. G4, B. 1SS3, p. 103, R. 1S85-'S6, p. 126, R. 1SS9, p. 9. A beginning was 
made with seed of four species and ono hybrid received from India. The station 
labored under groat disadvantages for lack of a])pliances and tlu^ cinchona is a very 
difficult tree to haudh;. Raising jdants from seedAvas found diflicult, but from those 
grown it was found feasible to ])ropngate by cuttings. Tested in the open air the 
first winter 2 varieties wen; killed )>y frost, 2 were attacked by a fungoid disease, 
and 1 (C. .succinihra) survived. Later it was fouud jxissible to maintain C. offn'itxt^is 
and a hybrid through the winter with some protection, but the cold wa-A'e of 1888 
killed down all. As rejjorted in Cal. R. 1SS5-'S6, p. 12G, trees of the red PeruN iau 
bark(C succirubra), not the hardiest species, were found flourishing on the hills near 
San Diego. 

Cinnamon trees (Clnnamomnm spp.). — Two Japanese species (C. glancum and C. 
serivcion) wcr(^ ]>l;inted at the C'aliforuia Station. The former had been tried in the 
open air and ai)pearcd as hardy as the camphor tree, which it closely resembles, 
l)esides being almost .as rapid a grower. It yields an inferior kind of cinnamon, 
classed with cassia bark. 

Clay. — Clay is the material resulting from the decomiiosition and subsequent 
hydration of feldspathic rocks, such as gneiss and granite. It is essentially a hy- 
drated silicate of alumina, and is found in nature in a comparatively pure state as 
kaolin porcelain clay containing 40 per cent of alumina, dGjier cent of silica, and 14 per 
cent of water. The uuiterial ordinarily knoAvn as clay is an impure kaolinite, being 
a mixture of this substance with sand, undecomposed rock, oxide of iron, organic 
matter, etc. The prominent features of clay are softness, firmness of texture, ab- 
sorptive power, and plasticity. It derives its agricultural importance from its value 
as au absorbent for uuxnures or other putrescent matter and from its peculiar action 
in soils. 

S'lils as a rule contain a comparatively small percentage of pure clay combined 
with a large percentage of sand {N. J. R. ISSS, p. 214), although the tine clay-like 
material designated clay in mechanical soil analysis may often run as high as 50 per 
cent. There is, according to Hilgard, rarely 75 per cent of clay in the purest natural 
clays; 40 to 47 per cent in the heaviest claj- soils; and 10 to 20 per cent in ordi- 
nary loams. The power of clay to absorb large amounts of water and assume a 
gelatinous condition enables a comparatively small amount to exert a powerful 
l)iudiug action on the particles of sand, thereby to a great extent modifying the 
physical condition and influencing the agricultural character of soils {Conn. State R. 
1SS7, p. 153 ; Amer. Jour. ScL, Oct., 1S73, and Mar., 1S74). The extent to which the 
peculiar properties of clay are manifested in soils is, however, determined largely by 
the size of tlie particles of sand, etc., with which it is associated. A soil contain- 
ing a large amount of tine silt or sand exhibits most of the characteristics of 
heavy or clayey soils when containing a proportion of clay which in a coarser tex- 
tured soil would have little effect ou its physical properties. 

In all methods of mechanical soil analj'sis much pains is taken to determine as 
accurately as possible the proportion of this valuable ingredient of soils. 

The principal fruit of the endeavors to perfect methods for this purpose in the 
United States has been the "churn elutriator" of Prof. E. W. Hilgard and the 
" beaker elutriation " method of Dr. T. B. Osborne {Conn. State R. ISSG, pp. 142, 150), 
(see Soils, analysis). 

Prof. Hilgard designates as clay the material remaining suspended in a 200 mm. 
column of water after twenty-four hours' sedimentation, the particles of which vary 
IVom 0.01-0 mm. in diameter. Prof. Whitney, on the other hand, gives as limits 
0.O05-0.0001, maintaining that the finest particles are still solid, compact masses, 
and that all the essential properties of clay can be explained on pui'ely physical 
principles {Md. R. 1S91, p. 270; U. S. Weather Bureau B. No. 4). 

It is well known that soils containing any considerable amount of claj' are reteu- 
tive of moisture and hinder its circulation {N. Y. State R. 1SS7, p. 103, R. ISSS, p. 



70 CLIMATOLOGY. 

194; Wis. R. ISOO, p. 151). They manifest a tendency to "puddle" and form cloda 
when improperly tilled ( Wis. B. 1891, p. 103). Especially is this true when the lime 
is deficient (Cal. R. 1882, p. 51) and alkali abundant {Cal. R. 1890, App.; N. J. R. 1890, 
p. 247). The weli-kiiown beneficial action of liine on clay soils is explained by the 
power which this substance possesses of flocculatinf", or rolling into balls the clay 
particles, thus opening the pores of the soil and permitting the free circulation of 
soil waters {Amer. Jour Set., Mar. ,1873; N. J. R. 1890. p. S42). Ammonia and the 
alkalies, on the other hand, break up these floccnles of clay and tend to make the 
soil pasty and difficult to till (see Alkali soils). 

Since clay is the result of the weathering of rocks we would expect the soils of 
regions of scanty rainfall to show a deficiency of this substance. Prof. Hilgard, of- 
the California Station, asa resultof extended studies of thesoilsof the United States 
points out ( U. S. Weather Bureau B. No. 3) " that the soils of the Atlantic slope are 
prevalently loams, containing considerable clay, and even in the case of alluvial 
lauds oftentimes very clayey or heavy, while the character of the soils of arid regions 
is predominantly sandy or silty, with but a small proportion of clay, unless derived 
directly or indirectly from jireexisting formations of clay or clay shales." Not only 
is the proportion of clay greater in soils of humid regions than in those of arid 
regions, but its distribution is very different. In the former case "the clay, becom- 
ing partially diftused in the rain water when a somewhat heavy fall occurs, perco- 
lates through the soil in that condition, and tends to accumulate in the subsoil, the 
result being that almost without exception the subsoils of the humid regions are 
very decidedly more clayey than the corresponding surface soils." 

In arid regions, on the other hand, the soils are practically without subsoils, the 
limited proportion of clay which they contain being in most cases distributed uni- 
formly throughout the soil to a great depth. 

{Ala. Collefje B. 38, n. ser.; Con n . Siate R. 1886, p. 140, R. 1887, p. 144, B. 1888, p. 154 ; Ind. 
Purdue Univ. R. 188-1, p. 348; Md. R. 1891, p. 376; JST. J. R. 1888, p. 213, R. 1890, p. 242; N. 
T. Stale R. 1887, p. 103, R. 1888, p. 194; S. C. R. 1889, pp. 13, 53, 64; Wis. R. 1890, p. 151, R. 
1891, p. 103; Amer. Jour. Sci., Oct. and Nov., 1873, Mar., 1874; V. S. Weather Bureau B. 3, 
B.4.) 

Climatology. — See Meteorology. 

Clover {Trifollum sjip.). — The most important species of clover are medium or 
comiiiou red clover (T.pratense), mammoth red or sapling clover (T.mcdium), crim- 
son or scarlet clover (T.iucarnatum), white cloy at {T.repens), and alsike clover (T. 
hybrldum). Among species of minor importance are buffalo clover (T. reflexum), 
low hop clover (T. procumbens), Carolina clover (T. caroliniannm), and running 
clover (T. stoloniferum). Other important plants closely related to the clovers are 
often spoken of as clover (see, for example, Lespedeza, MeUlotus, and Alfalfa.) 

These plants furnish a large amount of very nutritious forage. They are also 
prized as soil renovators. Their long and multitudinous roots penetrate deep into 
the soil, improving its drainage and friability. The clovers have also the power of 
a.ssimilating some of the free nitrogen of the air, and thus store up a large amount 
of expensive fertilizing material, which is returncHl to the soil with the decay of the 
clover roots and stubble. 

Owing to this power of appropriating nitrogen from the air, clovers do not require 
expensive nitrogenous fertilizers, but thrive when fertilized with cheaper mineral 
elements. When clover and grass are sown together, the effect of nitrogenous fer- 
tilizers has been to decrease the proportion of clover by stimulating the grass {N.Y. 
State R. 1889, p. 380). The forage of clover is highly nitrogenous and is capable 
of replacing in part the more expensive concentrated food stuffs, such as bran, lin- 
seed meal, and cotton-seed meal. 

{Ala. Canebrake B. 9; Conn. Slorrs B. 5, B. 6, R. 1890, p. 9; Del. B. 5 ; III. B. 5, B. 
15; Iowa B. 11, B. 13, B. 14; Ky. B. 6, R. 1888, p. 57; La. R. 1891, p. 11 ; Me. R. 
1889, p. 166 ; Mass. State R. 1888, p. 114 ; Mich. B. 68, B. 77 ; Minn. B. 8, B. 12, R. 
1888, p. ISS; Miss. B. 20, It. 1889, p. 34, R. 1890, p. 33 ; Nebr. B. 6, B. 17, B. 19 ; Nev. 



CLOVEB. 71 

n. ISQO, p. 13; N. J. R. 1SS9, p. 121 ; N. Y. State B. SO It. 18S9, p. SSO ; N. C. B. 63, 
B. 73, R. 1S8S, p. 134, B. ISSO, p. 84 ; Ore. B.4; S. Dak. B. 1SS9, p. 20, B. 1890, p. 13; 
Tenn. B. 1886, p. 134; Tex. B. 4; Wijo. B.l.) 

Kjcd clover {Trifoliwm pratcnse) . — A forage plant niakiu<>; a deuse growth of 1 to 2 
feet. Its short leaves are marked above with a pale three-angled spot. It is a bien- 
nial or perennial, according to locality. Red clover has been cnltivated for centu- 
ries. It succeeds best in a temperate climate not deficient in moisture. In the cen- 
tral and eastern part of tlie United States it constitutes one of the most important 
hay crops. Though not generally grown in the Gulf States, it succeeds on the strong 
clay lauds and black prairie soil of the South. It may be grown as far north as 
Minnesota, but frequently does not thrive in newly settled sections {Minn. B. 12). 
It has been successfully grown all over Nebraska, where it is recommended for early 
pasture as well as for hay and where it withstands drought {Kchr. B. 12, B. 17). It 
has proved valuable in South Dakota {S. Dak. B. 1890, p. IS). Most of the stations 
give favorable reports of this plant. In Nevada, however, without water the growth is 
light. As a green manure it is probably more extensiveljuised in the United States 
than any other plant. It is also a valuable crop for soiling and for the silo. 

Composition. — See Appendix, Tahles I and II. 

Culture. — Twenty pounds of seed per acre is the quantity usually recommended. 
The seed is frequently adulterated with weed seed. At the Mississippi Station light- 
colored and dark seed germinated alike in the ground. Clover is sown broadcast. 
In cold climates spring sowing is customary. The Connecticut Storrs Station rec- 
ommends sowing after grain in the latter part of July, in order to secure an early 
crop the next season. In the South seeding in September or October and in Febru- 
ary is successful. In Kentucky, seed sown between February 2 and March 1 nearly 
all germinated. 

Red clover ripens about tlie same time as orchard grass, and hence these two plants 
are suitable for sowing together. Although timothy ripens from two to three weeks 
later than red clover, these two are frequently sown as a mixture (9 pounds of tim- 
othy seed and 6 pounds of clover) {III. B. 15). Studies of the root system of red 
clover grown at the IMiunesota Station showed that the amount of roots and the 
depth to which they penetrate varies greatly, depending on the character of the 
land. In a favorable soil a plant one month old had a root extending 7 inches into 
the ground; at two months old it had reached a depth of 2 feet; at five months its 
length was 5 feet 8 inches. As the restorative value of clover depends largely on 
the amount of roots, it is important to drain clover land, thus securing the most 
perfect root development. The stand is better on drained than on undrained soils. 

Manurinf]. — Experiments in New Jersey tend to show that in that State barnyard 
manure produces the heaviest yield, that a combination of superphosphate and 
muriate of potash gives good results, while plaster has given no increase {N. J. B. 
1889, p. 127), For most localities plaster is generally recommended. 

Harvesting. — Clover is usually cut just after full bloom, or when one head in three 
is brown. At the Illinois Station {B.5) the yield of hay was heavier when cut while 
one-fifth of the heads were brown. The quality was better in the earlier stage than 
when three-fourths were brown. It is cut two or three times in a season, yielding 
from 2 to 4 tons of hay. The last crop is frequently threshed for seed. The seed is 
worth from 5 to 7 cents per pound and the yield of seed is from 300 to 500 pounds 
per acre (AT. C. B. 73). In the South the fall-sown crop is first cut about the middle 
of May. In the North the first crop is seldom ready before the middle of June. 
Red clover hay should be cured in cocks and handled as little as possible. 

The yield of hay at the Connecticut Storrs Station has been about 3i tons per acre. 
In the Gulf States weeds more or less choke the growth of clover the second or 
third year unless they are prevented from seeding by fre(iueut mowing. 

On the black prairie lands of Alabama the yield has been as high as 7.200 pounds 
of hay per acre. 



72 CLOVER. 

Eolation. — A New Jersey rotation is corn, sweet potatoes, clover and millet, and 
clover. Red clover may follow almost any crop. Its special value in a rotation is 
in furnishing a large amount of vegetable matter to the following crop (usually 
corn). A field is usually left in clover for two seasons, intlie South frequently forthree 
years. 

{Ala. Canehrake B. 9; Conn. Starrs B. 1890, p. 13; Colo. B. 2; Del. B.5; Hl.B.S; 
Iowa B.ll ; Eans. R. 1884, p. 115; Ey. R. 188S, p. 57 ; La. B. 1891, p. 11 ; Me. B. 1889, p. 
166; Mass. State B. 1888, p 112; Mich. B. 68, B. 77; Miss. B. 1889, p. 34, B. 1890, p. S3, 
B. 20; Nebr. B. 6, B. 12, 17 ; Nev. B. 1890, p. IS; N.J.B..1S88, p. 83, B. 1889, p. 127 ; 
N. C.B. 73; Ore. B.4; S. Dale. B. 1889, p. 26, B. 1890, p. 13; Tenn. B. 1889, p. 8). 

Mammoth red clovek {TrifoUum medium). — A forage plant closely resemhliug 
common red clover except in size. Mammoth clover makes a larger and coarser 
growth and ripens a few weeks later than common red clover. Its heavy growth 
gives it a high maunrial value. At tlie Illinois Station this plant gave a larger yield 
of hay than did red clover. In Minnesota the weights were practically identical. 
Ripening at the same season as timothy, it succeeds when sown with this grass. 
The growth being rank and the stems large, curing is frequently difficult. (///. B. 5, 
B. 15; Mass. Slate B. 1889, p. 158; Mich. B. 77; Minn. B. 12). 

Composition. — See Appendix, Tables I and II. 

Crimson clover {lYifolium incarnatiim) [sometimes called Italian or German 
clover]. — An annual forage i)lant growing from 1 to 2 feet high, with flower heads 
from li to 2 inches long and of a bright crimson color. Though not generally grown 
in the North, it made a growth of 26 inches at the Maine Station. It thrives on soil too 
light for other clovers. In the South it is valuable on non-calcareous, sandy, or light 
clay soils. It affords early spring pasture and a good quality of hay and lias much 
value as a green manure for light soils. Good silage has been made from crimson 
clover. It is largely used in Delaware as a green manure for orchards, and has been 
found valuable there in jirotecting and keeping clean apples beaten oft" by wind. 

Composition. — Crimson clover is rich in fertilizing elements and in food constitu- 
ents (see Del. B. 1890, p. 36). 

Culture. — In Delaware crimson clover is sown in the latter part of .Inly or during 
August. In the South the seed may be sown from August till the middle of Septem- 
ber or even later in extreme southern latitudes. It is important that considerable 
growth should be made before winter. On the other hand, to obtain a good stand 
one must wait for a suitable season. The quantity of seed varies from 10 to 15 
pounds jier acre, sown broadcast. It is not necessary to prepare the land especially 
for the clover crop, but the seed may be sown in fields of cotton, corn, or vegetables 
immediatelj' after the cultivation and without covering. If clover is the only crop 
a light brushing or rolling is in order. The seed may also be sown among the vines 
of a pea crop. Crimson clover begins its growth as the peas die, and these two 
renovating crops supply a very large amount of organic matter to the soil. 

Failure to secure a stand of crimson clover is freijuent, due sometimes to the seed 
and sometimes to the season. The newly germinated plants are easily killed by a 
scorching sun. On stubble land a catch may be secured by harrowing deeply and 
then sowing the seed and rolling or harrowing lightly. 

Harvesting. — In Delaware crimson clover can be cut for hay or for silage early 
in May. In the South it blooms in April. A yield of from 1 to 2 tons of excellent 
hay may be secured from very thin land. The hay is taken off in time to allow the 
use of the field for other summer crops. In Delaware some farmers, while plowing 
under the green crop in orchards, so turn the furrows as to leave the heads of clover 
above ground. These heads bear seed and thus aftbrd a stand the next year. In 
cutting for liay in orchards other fanners Ic^ave strips of uncut clover along the rows 
of trees. From these strips the seed is scattered ibr the next year's crop. 



CLOVER ROT. 73 

Growing seed of crimson flovor iss a profitalilo industry. Tlio yield is from 5 to 15 
bnslu'ls per acre, ■\vortli from $4 to $<S per bnslicl. The seeds s])ront very easily and 
rains on the hay cause a heavy loss of seed from sprouting and sultsequent sliattcr- 
iug. Some growers have hulled from stacks with success. 

notation. — Crimson clover may follow grain or grass as well as cultivated crops. 
After cultivated crops it usually makes a good catch with slight expense. Orchards 
on thin soils may be benefited by plowing in crimson clover for several years in suc- 
cession. On rich soil and for some crops it is possible to incorporate too mucli or- 
ganic matter with the soil. Crimson clover leaves the land in good condition for a 
crop of cotton, corn, or vegetables. It has been found an excellent substitute for 
uitrat(* of soda in growing sweet potatoes in Delaware. 

{Del. B. 16, E. lS90,p. SO; Fla. B. 6; III. B. 15; La. R. ISOl, p. 11; Me. R. 1SS9, p. IGG; 
Miss. B. 20; N. J. R. 1891, p. 143; N. C. B. 73; Ore. B. 4; Tex. B. 4; Wijo. B. 1.) 

Whitk clover (Trifuliitm repens). — A low, creeping, perennial clover with a white 
bloom, valuable only for grazing. It is sometimes called Dutch clover, from its hav- 
ing been grown in Holland for a long time. It affords grazing early in the season. 
When in blossom it salivates horses, and hence is objectionable in pastures where 
horses graze. 

It thrives best on moist, calcareous loams, and succeeds better than any otlier 
clover on soils containing iron (N. C. B. 73). 

One acre requires 13 pounds of seed sown broadcast. It is best to sow white 
clover as part of a mixture. It is hardy, and in a closely -grazed pasture overruns 
more valuable plants. The Iowa Station recommends it for early sunmier and fall 
pasture, but advises that animals be kept off in midsummer drought. In Maine it 
grows 12 inches high. In Minnesota on dry land it affords good pasturage for only 
a few weeks in the spring and fall. In Nevada without water it failed. 

The yield of seed is 200 to 300 pounds per acre, worth 10 to 12 cents per pourid 
{N. C. B. 73.) 

Composition. — See Appendix, Tables I and II, 

(Iowa B. 11; Me. R. 1SS9, p. 166; Mich. B. 68; Minn. B. 12, B. 1SS8, p. ISl; Miss. 
R. 1SS9, p. 35; Nehi: B. 6, B. 17; Nev. R. 1S90, p. 14; N. C. B. 73; R. I. R. 1890, p. 156.) 

Alsike clover {TrifoUnm hyhridKm). — A forage plant growing about 2 feet high, 
with a pinkish white blossom. It is a perennial and thrives best in a cool climate. 
In Minnesota it has proved less valuable than red and mammoth clover. It grows 
Avell in Maine and in most of the Northern and Central States. It makes a lighter 
crop of hay than red clover. It is also a pasture plant and thrives when sown with 
the grasses. It prefers a moist soil. The Michigan Station recommends it for light 
sandy soils in that State. It has not succeeded well in the South. In a mixture on 
stiff clay soils in Michigan it was overrun in a few years by other jilants. An acre 
requires 15 pounds of seed. The yield of seed is 200 to 300 pounds per acre {N. C. 
B. 73) ; the yield of hay varies greatly. 

Composition. — See Appendix, Tables I and II. 

{III. B. 15; loiva B. 11; Kans. R. 1SS4, p. 112; La. R. 1801, p. 11; Me. R. 1889, p. 166; 
Mass. State R. 1889, p. 158; Mich. B. 54, B. 68, R. 1888, p. 41; Minn. B. 12, R. 1888, 
p. ISO, Miss. R. 1889, p. 34; Nehr. B. 6, B. 17; Nev. It. 1890, p. 34; N. Y. State II. 1889, 
p. 280; Tex. B. 4.) 

Clover rot {Sclerotinia tri/oUum). — A fungous disease so far reported only on the 
scarlet clover in this country, although in Europe its attacks are very bad on red 
and other clovers. Its presence is usually marked by the ("omplete killing of the 
clover in patches 1 to 4 or more feet in diameter. In the fall the infected plants will 
be found badly wilted and upon examination of the stem near the ground there will 
be found small black bodies, varying in size from that of a turnip seed to a small pea, 
Avhile inside the stems will be found the fungus threads to which these small black 
bodies are attached. In the spring from each of these small bodies will be found 
emerging a small mushroom-like body (usually about a half inch in length). This 



74 CLOVER RUST. 

is the fruiting form of the fniious, which, if detached, can live in the ground as well 
as on the clover. This fungus can lead a dual life, either wholly as a parasite on the 
living clover plant, or as a saprophyte on the decaying one, or even as both — as a 
parasite until the host is killed, afterward upon the decaying stems as a saprophyte. 
This two-fold nature of the fungus makes it very difidcult to eradicate. Rotation of 
crops is the only eftective remedy, (Del. B. 1890, p. 84.) 

Clover rust {Uromi/ees trifolii). — The most important fungous disease affecting 
clovers. It is said to have come to us from South America by way of Europe, where its 
ravages are very severe. It infests the leaves, leaf stalks, and stems. In general 
appearance the spots of the rust are definite iu outline, rather oblong, brown in color, 
and somewhat powdery on the surface. This rust passes through three stages in its 
life cycle. The first, the cluster cup stage, seems to be passed, at least for the most 
part, upon the white clover, where in minute cups are born myriads of orange- 
colored spores, through which it seems to go to the red clover where the two other 
phases are passed. These are commonly called the red and black rusts, but they are 
phases of the same. The first has been fouu<l upon the red clover, but not abun- 
dantly, while the others are common on it. 

The red-rust phase is the most abundant, the cool damp weatlier of summer being 
best for its raiiid sjiread. It is not abundant upon the first cutting of the red clover, 
but may be very i>lentiful upon the later cuttings or "aftermath," where from 5 to 
20per centof the plants may be destroyed. Itpasses the winterby means of the black- 
rust spores, and it is very probable the filaments live from year to year in the tissues 
of the wliite clover. The application of fungicides to prevent this disease does not 
seem practicable. The burning over of an infected field in the fall would undoubtedly 
destroy mauy spores in the dead stalks and tlius lessen the spread of the disease the next 
season. However, when a field becomes badly inlested the best way would be to turn 
the clover under and plant some other crop for awhile. {Conn. State B. 1889, p. 174, 
B. 1890, p. 98; Iowa B. 13; Mass. State B. 1891, p. 232; N. Y. Cornell B. 24; Vt. B. 
1800, p. 143.) 

Clover-seed midge (6VcWowi/ia Icfutmuiicola). — The adult insect is a very small 
two-winged fly, which lays its eggs in the opening heads of the clover. The eggs 
hatch into an orange-colored maggot. This feeds upon the forming seed and usually 
destroys every one in the head. Clover fields infested by this insect may be recog- 
nized by the green and dwarfed appearance of the heads. Early mowing of the 
first crop, when the heads are just appearing, will give a subsequent crop between 
tlie broods of the midge and when the plants will be sufficiently advanced to with- 
stand its attacks. If very badly infested, plowing under the clover is the only sure 
means of destroying this pest. {Iowa B. 13 ; Ohio B. vol. IV, 2 It. 1888, p. 133.) 

Clover silage. — See Silage. 

Cochran milk test. — See Milk testa. 

Cockle. — See Weeds. 

Cocklebur. — See Weeds. 

Codling moth {Carpocapsa pomonella). — The adult insect is a small moth one-half 
inch across its wings. The fore wings are gray, crossed by wavy brown lines. Near 
the outer margin is a larger brown area blotched with Inonze. The hind wings are 
light brown. It flies at twilight and night. The fenuile lays about 50 eggs, usually 
singly, upon the blossom end of the young apj)le. Upon hatching, the minute worm 
bores its way into the apple. It increases in size rapidly, attaining its full size in 
ten or twelve days, when it is the pinkish-colored worm about three-fourths inch 
long seen so often in apples. It burrows around the core and cats a hole to the out- 
side, usually xipou the side of the apple. In about a month it leaves the apple by 
this hole and falls to tlie ground. It then usuaMy seeks the trunk of the tree, up 
which it crawls a little way and in a crevice of the bark is trnnsfornied into an adnlt 
moth ready to lay eggs for a second brood. The round of the second brood is the 



COLOSTRUM. 75 

same except tliat tlie wonns do not alwiiys leave tlie apples hut spend tlio winter in 
them in the cellar or bins. The insect is a native t)f Europe, whence it was brought 
nearly a century ag;o,and is now to be found in every State where apples are j^rown. In 
addition to the apple it infests the pear, haw, and sometimes peach and plum. With 
care and attention the codling moth may be held in clieck by si)raying the ti'ees 
with Paris green or London purple, 1 pound to 200 gallons of water. The first appli- 
cation must be made within a day or two of the fall of the bloom from the trees. 
Two or three subsequent sprayings should be made at intervals of about ten days. 
In order to destroy any chance of a second brood bands of twisted straw, cloth, or 
cari)et paper should be placed around the trees. Under these the larvaj will collect 
while undergoing their change to moths. If examined every week or ten days and 
all larva' and cocoons destroyed there will be little danger from a second brood of the 
worms. (Ark. B. 1SS9, p. 147 ; Colo. B. 6, B. 15 ; Del B. 4, R. 18S9, pp. 110, 122, 133; Iowa 
B.7; Kans. B. lSSS,p. 165; Ky. B. 40; Me. B. lSS8,p. 172, E. 1SS9, p. 1S9 ; Mass. Hatch 
B. 12; Mich. B. 39, B. ISSS, p. S9; Miss. B. 14; N. J. B. lSS9,p. 292; N. Mex. B. 5; N. Y. 
State B. 35; Nev. B. 8 ; N. C. B. 78; Ohio B. vol. Ill, 11, It. 1888, p. 132; Ore. B. 3, B. 5, 
B. 18 ; S. C. B. 1888, p. 31 ; TV. Fa. B. 1890, p. 152. ) 

Coffee plant. — A note in Cal. B. 1890,p.235, indicates that coffee can not be suc- 
cessfully grown in California. 

Colic in horses. — A treatise on the causes, symptoms, diagnosis, treatment, and 
prevention of different forms of colic in horses has been published by the Ohio Sta- 
tion {B. vol. II, 2). The author believes that "the real predisposing cause of colic 
or the real cause why horses suffer so much more frequently than other animals 
must be found in the exceedingly frequent occurrence of aneurisms in the anterior 
mesenteric artery." The aneurisms are caused by small worms (Sclerostomum eqid- 
nitm or Stronyylus armatus). Such aneurisms were found in twenty out of twenty- 
one horses examined at the statiim. (See also Ohio B. 1886, p. 296, B. 1888, ]}. 178.) 

Collards. — A vegetable noted in N. C. B. 74 as "a tall-growing cabbage that does 
not make a hard liead, in the absence of winter cabbage much grown in the South." 
It is deemed worthy of study and improvement, said to bleach very tender when 
bent down and covered with earth in winter, to have many varieties, and appar- 
ently to be more exempt from insect pests than any of the heading cabbages. 
Varieties were grown at the New York State Station (B. 1885, p. 149), concernmij; 
which it is remarked that "judging from the samples grown the name collards is a 
very indefinite term." A germination test of the seed is reported in iV. 1'. State It. 
1883, p. 68. 

Colorado potato beetle. — See Potato hectle. 

Colorado Station, Fort Collins. — Organized under act of Congress February 21, 
1888, as a department of the State Agricultural College. Substations have been 
established as follows : San Luis Valley at Monte Vista, Arkansas Valley at Rocky 
Ford, Divide at Table Rock. The staff' consists of the president of the college, 
director and agriculturist, botanist and horticulturist, chemist, meteorologist and 
irrigation engineer, entomologist, secretary, assistant agriculturist, assistant hor- 
ticulturist, assistant meteorologist, assistant irrigation engineer, assistant zoologist 
and entomologist, stenographer, and superintendents of the several substations. Its 
principal lines of work are systematic botany, meteorology, field experiments with 
crops, testing of varieties of vegetables and fruits, entomology, and irrigation. Up 
to January 1, 1893, the station had published 4 annual reports and 22 bulletins. 
Revenue in 1892, $16,280. 

Colostrum.— The milk secreted by cows or other animals immediately after the 
birth of the young. Analyses of colostrum have been reported in N. Y. State B. 1882, 
p. 25; Vt. B. 1891, p. 104. The Vermont Station gives the composition of the colos- 
trum from the first four milkings after calving as compared with milk given three 
weeks later, as follows : 



76 



COLTS. 

Composition of colostrum. 



Average analyses. 


Specific 
gravity. 


Total 

solids 

(actual). 


Total 
solids 
(calcu- 
lated). 


Fat. 


Casein 

and 

albumen. 


Milk 
sugar. 


Ash, 


Colostrum : 


1. 0533 
1. 0415 
1.0380 
1. 0364 

1. 0330 


Per cent. 
19.37 
14.33 
12.98 
13.92 

13.52 


Per cent. 
17.96 
13.88 
12.60 
13.55 

13.77 


Per cent. 
3.86 
2.92 
2.58 
3.71 

4.60 


Per cent. 
11.44 
6.49 
5.01 
4.71 

3.34 


Per cent. 
2.40 
3.60 
4.16 
4.28 

5.00 


Per cent. 


Second milking 


1. 07 
1.33 
1.23 
1.24 

0.58 


Third milking 


Fourth milking 


Milk (three weeks after 
calving) 







It will be seen tliat llie colostrum is riclier in casein, albnnieu, and ash, but poorer 
in fat and milk sugar than the milk given three weeks later. 

COLOSTHUM BUTTER.— The Same station found that colostrum creamed as perfectly 
as milk, and that the cream on being churned gave a butter differing in composition 
from ordinary butter mainly in containing more curd. The colostrum butter " was 
vividly yellow, had the acrid, disagreeable colostrum taste, and became rancid much 
more rapidly than milk butter." 

Colts. — See Horses and colts. J 

Composite samples of milk.— See Creameries. 

Compost.— Composting is a convenient means of supplomoTif ing and conserving 
the various manurial resources of the farm. The value of peat for compo.sting with 
animal manures has long been understood. This value depends upon its ])ower to 
absorb moisture and anunonia and to promote fermentation, whereby the availability 
of both the peat and the manure i.s increased. 

The fermenting compost heap is also often used for the reduction of insoluble 
phosphates, such as floats and bone. In both these cases the desired results are 
brought about almost exclusively by the action of fermenting organic matter. 
There are various methods of composting in which practically the same changes are 
induced, largely, by purely chemical means. This is true of composts in^vhich 
caustic alkaline carbonates are used as reducing agents. An example of this class is 
the compost of peat with salt and lime, which has long been a favorite, and which 
has been thoroughly investigated by the Connecticut State Station (i?. ISSO, p. 5S, 
It. 1883, p. 81). A careful study of the action of several different decomposing 
agents on peat was made with the result of showing that lime slaked in brine (yield- 
ing by chemical reaction caustic soda and calcium chloride) is more effective in 
reducing this substance than either ashes or lime alone, and " where salt is cheap 
and wood ashes scarce the mixture may be applied accordingly to advantage." It is 
suggested that muriate of potash may be substituted for the salt, thereby^securing, 
in addition to the desired decomposition of the peat, an increase of the potash i^u 
the resulting compost. 

Numerous methods of composting and reducing bones have been proposed, of which . 
the following are esiiecially commendable: 

"A trench about 3 feet deep should be dug and a 6-incli layer of ashes placed 
at the bottom, followed by a layer of whole bones of the same thickness; next a 
layer of ashes, then of bones, till all the bones are covered. Each layer should, as 
soon as put down, be saturated with water. Stakes should be set in the mass at the 
beginning 3 feet apart, and withdrawn in nine or ten days and water poured into 
the holes to again satur.ate the ashes. In about two months the mass is forked over 
and moistened again, wlien the bones will be found quite soft. After live months 
and about three forkiugs they will, under ordinary circumstances, be entirely decom- 
posed." 



CONNECTICUT STORES STATION. 77 

Another plan somewhat, similar is reported by Prof. Johnson as desorihed hy Ilien 
koflt", as follows: "To 4,000 ])onn(ls of bono take 4,()()() ponnds of nnleachcd wood 
ashes, 600 pounds of fresh burned lime, and 4,500 ]toiinds of wati*. First slake the 
lime to a powder and mix it with the ashes, and placing a layer of boues in a suita- 
ble receptacle— a pit in the ground lined with boards, stone slabs, or brick— cover 
them with the mixture; lay down more bones and cover, and repeat tliis until halt 
the boue or 2,000 pounds are iuterstratitied with the ashes and lime. Then pour on 
3,000 pounds of water, distributing it well, and let it stand. From tinu> to time add 
w.nter to keep the mass moist. So soon as the bones have softened so that they can 
be crushed between the lingers to a soft, soap-like nuiss, take the other 2,000 pounds 
of bones and stratify them in another pit with the contents of the tirst. When tlie 
whole is soft shovel out to dry and finely mix with dry muck or loam (1,000 pounds, 
or enough to make it handle well). 

" This product may be used directly on the land, or, which is better still, mixed 
with stable manure as in a regular compost in the proportions of 600 pounds stable 
manure, 800 pounds decomposed bones, and 600 i)ounds of rich earth. From 400 
pounds upward, as desired, could be ap]>lied to each acre." (N. C. B. 61.) 

The method of fermenting bones with ashes has been investigated by the New 
Hampshire Station (/?. ISSS, p. 10) as mentioned under Ashes. 

Investigations by the Florida Station {B. 7, B. 13) have shown that the extensive 
bayheads and muck beds of that State " contain a superior quality of muck, which, 
with little expense or trouble, can be composted to be slightly inferior to a good 
grade of stable manure." Numerous fornmlas for composting this muck with stable 
manure, cotton seed, ashes, and various agricultural chemicals, are given in the 
bulletins. 

The Georgia Station (B. 15) has conducted experiments on corn which lead to the 
conclusion "that there is nothing gained by previously mixing and fermenting sta- 
ble manure, cotton seed (crushed), and superphosi>hate in the proportions given 
(346 lbs. each) in comparison with applying the same ingredients directly and sepa- 
rately to the soil." 

The preparation of composts has received considerable attention by the North 
Carolina Station (/.'. ISSO, p. 119, B. 1S81, p. 105, B. 1SS2, p. 79, R. ISSo, p. 48, B. 1SS7, 
p. 56, B. 61). In these publications the principles and practice of composting are 
very thoroughly discussed and numerous formulas and analyses are givcm showing 
how the various refuse fertilizing materials of the farm may be utilized to advan- 
tage. 

lAla. College B. S, B. 16; Conn. State B. ISSO, pp. 58, 65, B. 1SS2, p. 70, B. 1SS.3, p. 
81; Fla. B. 7. B. IS; Ga. B. 15; N. C. B. 61, B. 1S79, p. 59, E. 1S80, p. 119, B. 1881, 
p. 105, B. 1882, p. 79, B. 1885, p. 48, B. 1S87, p. 56.) 

Connecticut State Station, New Haven.— Organized under State authority at 
Middletown, October 1, 1875. as the first regularly organized station in the United 
States. Eemoved to New Haven in 1887 and reorganized under the same authority. 
Since the passage of the act of Congress of March 2, 1887 this station has annually 
received one-half of the appropriation granted to Connecticut under that act. The 
staff of the station consists of a director, vice-director and chemist, four chemists, 
meteorologist, grass agent, librarian and clerk, superintendent of buildings and 
grounds, and two laboratory assistants. Its principal lines of work are chemistry, 
including methods of analysis; analysis and inspection of fertilizers; field experi- 
meiits with fertilizers; analysis of feeding stuffs; chemistry of milk and its products; 
and tests of forage plants. Up to January 1, 1893, the station had published 16 an- 
nual reports and 114 bulletins. Eevenue in 1892. $18,799. 

Connecticut Storrs Station, Storrs.— Organized March 29, 1888, under act of 
Congress of March 2, 1887, as a department of Storrs Agricultural School. The staff" 
consists of the principal of the school, director, vice-director and chemist, agricultur- 
ist, assistant agriculturist, assistant chemist, and assistant in farm experimenta. Its 



78 COOLERS FOR MILK AND CREAM. 

jivincipal lines of -work are cliemistry of foods ami feeding stuffs, bacteriology of milk 
and its products, and iield experiments with erops. The chemical work of the station 
is done in the laboratory of Wesleyan University at Middletown. Up to January 
1, 1893, the station bad published 5 annual reports and U bulletins. Revenue iu 
1892, $7,853. 

Coolers for milk and cream.— See Aerator. 

Cooley system of raising cream. — See Creaming of milk. 

Copper compounds. — See Fungicides. 

Cord grass. — See Grasses. 

Cork oak. — See Oak trees. 

Corn (Zea mays) [also called Maize]. — See also Brazilian four corn, Pop corv, and 
Sivcet corn. This plant belongs to the grass family, and is distinguished by its 
pith-lilled stalks, by its ears (ovaries) on the side of the stem, and by its large 
growth. The different varieties are classified as dent, flint, pop, soft, sweet, and 
pod (see N. Y. State B. 60 for proposed classification). Only dent and flint varieties, 
which include all that are commonly grown in the United States as field crops, will 
be considered iu this article. Numerous investigations on corn have been made at 
the stations and elsewhere, but much still remains to be done before a complete 
account of the life history and requirements of this jdant can be given. The 8coi)e 
of this work jiermits only a fragmentary treatment of this subject. 

The roots of numerous corn plants at different stages of growth were dtig from a 
■^ich, sandy soil and examined at the Minnesota Station {B. 6). The results as pub- 
lished, with illustrations, show that in the spring, when the surface soil is compara- 
tively warm, moist, and rich in plant food the roots start out nearly horizontally 
from the lowest joints of the stem and sin-ead from 2 to 5 feet from the stalk, but as 
the upper soil grows dry they turn downward, attaining a length of from 3 to 8 feet 
or even more. The later roots from joints higher np are at first much larger in 
diameter than the earlier ones, but grow vertically downward and diminish in size. 
The larger diameter of these " brace roots" enables them to aid more efi'ectively in 
keeping the stalk erect. Many of the earlier roots often die before the stalk ripens, 
leaving the later and larger roots to supply the plant with nourishment. The 
primary roots branch into numerous secondary roots which have their greatest 
development near the surface of the soil, so that the principal part of the root 
system is within a foot of the top of the ground. 

The Illinois Station {B. 4, B. S, B. 13) has found that depth of planting has little 
to do with the depth at which the roots grow. At the New York State Station {R. 
188S, p. 171) on plats cultivated to depths of from one-half to 2^ feet more roots 
reached a depth of 2| feet witb the deep than witb the shallow cultivation. The 
proportion of shallow roots was greatest on the shallow-worked plats. While there 
was abundant moisture in the soil the shallow-rooted plants did best, but when dry 
weather came on the deep-rooted plants became the more vigorous. At the end of 
the season the tallest and least mature plants were on the deepest-worked plats. 

Notes on habits of growth of the stalk are given in Minn. B. 5. A tall and strong 
stalk usually develops from the seed, at the joints of which the leaves are formed. 
In the axils of the leaves buds are produced, though at many of the joints, especially 
in dent varieties these buds do not develop beyond the rudimentary stage. The 
buds from the lower joints may gi'ow into more or less perfect stalks (tillers, stools, 
or suckers) with tassels and ears. One to several of the higher buds produce the 
female flowers from which the ears are developed. The branched tassel at the top 
of the «talk bears the male flowers. All sorts of oddities and monstrosities are pro- 
duced by the irregular growtli of the shoots from the buds on the stalk. 

Observations on the leaves, tassels, silk, and pollen are reported in Iowa B. 2 am\ 
B. 7. It was found that in different varieties there was considerable variation in 
the thickness of the leaf and in the amount and distribution of the green coloring 



CORN. 79 

matter (eliloropliyll). "Tho tassels and tli(3 silks of tlie priiiinry ears appear c^en- 
erally alxmt the same time. The upper ceuti al 8])ikes of I he tassols .slicd tlieir poIhMi 
iisiially about twenty-four hours before the ])olleu of tludr lateral si)ikes is ready to 
fall. The first silks which protrude through the husks arc^ from the lower ends of 
the ears. Usually twenty-four hours elapse before silks are in a receptive condition, 
after their first appearance. * * * When well , thrown the best corn for Iowa will 
not exceed 9i feet in height, its ears will be 3^ feet from the ground, and each of its 
stalks will have 13 blades." Microscopical examinations indicated that in Living- 
ston Leamiug corn the pollen grains from the central spikes of the tassel were larger 
than those from the lateral spikes, the former averaging ^shi of an inch and the lat- 
ter ^K]^. 

At the New York Cornell Station (B. 40) it was found that "an average of six 
stalks gave 7.02 grams of anthers and 3.49 grams of pollen." 

Measurements of leaves made at the Missouri Station (/?. 5) gave a total leaf 
surface (including one side of the sheath). of 3,480 square inches on one plant taken 
July 9. 

The kernels are described by Profs. Morrow and Hunt, of the Illinois and Ohio Sta- 
tions, respectively, in The Soils and Crops of the Farm, as follows: 

"The structure of the corn kernel is in general like that of the wheat kernel. There 
is the outer covering, which corresponds to the pod of the jiea or edible part of the 
cherry. Inside there is the testa, or true seed coat, which contains the coloring mat- 
ter and gives the kernel its color. Inside the testa is the row of irregular cubical 
cells, the so-called embryonic envelope. These cells are not so large as in the wheat. 
Inside this row of cells is the gei'm or embryo and the endosperm. The endosperm 
consists of thin walled cells of cellulose packed full of starch grains and very little 
nitrogenous material. In sweet corn instead of the cells of the endosperm being 
packed full of starch grains, the latter are changed to glucose, and the shrinking 
caused by the transformation makes the sweet-corn kernel wrinkled. * » * 

"The types of corn are as follows: 

" (1) Dent corn is that type in which the s^ilit kernel shows the germ, the glossy 
fftarch on each side, and the white stai'ch extending to the top of the kernel. The 
kernel is indented on the top, evidently because the softer starch shrinks in the cen- 
ter, while the denser starch on the sides holds the sides in a straight line. The 
kernels of dent corn are more or less wedge-shaped. 

" (2) Flint corn is that type in which the split kernel shows the germ, the white 
starch, and the glossy starch surronnding. The surrounding dense starch prevents 
the kernels from indenting. The kernels are hard, smooth, and more or less oval. 

" (3) Pop corn is that typo in which all, or almost all, the endosperm or starch is 
glossy. The kernel is an elongated oval in outline and extremely hard. 

" (4) Soft corn is that type of corn in which the endosperm is entirely white. The 
shape of the kernel is similar to that of the flint corn, and the starch grains in the 
endosperm being loosely arranged the kernel is easily crushed. 

" (5) Sweet corn is that type in which the endosperm is translucent and horny 
in appearance, the starch having been more or less reduced to glucose. The kernels 
are wedge-shaped and usually very much wrinkled. * * * 

"A good ear of dent corn should be as nearly cylindrical as may be, so that it may 
hold the largest amount of corn in proportion to the size of the junction witli the 
stalk. Ears that taper rapidly also have usually less corn in proportion to the cob. 
Both the tip and butt should be well filled. 

"A good sized ear is 8 to 9 inches long and from 6J to 7 inches iu circumference at 
twb-lifths its length from the butt. Ten inches is rather long for an ear of dent corn, 
while 7 inches is a good length for smaller varieties. It is a good ear that weighs 
three-fourths of a pound. It takes about 100 good ears to make a bushel of shelled 
corn. A good size for the circumference of the cob is from 3f to 4^ inches." 

Illustrations of ears of corn of different varieties, showing the arrangement of the 
kernels on the cob, are given in N. Y. State B. 1SS4, p. 425. 



80 CORN. 

Observations at the Pennsylvania Station (/'. /.9.W, p. W?) sliowefltliat corn wliich 
was planted 1^ inches deep May 8, 1888, and spronted May 22, grew from 1 to 4.7 
inches each day from June 19 to August 3. In 1887 corn i)lanted May 12 reached its 
aA^erage maximum height of 80 inches by July 23, a period of sevent^^-two days, dur- 
ing which there was a mean daily temperature of 70'- F., a precipitation of 8.3 inches, 
thirty-one days on which rain fell, and a mean daily cloudiness of 4.2 on a scale of 
10. In 1888 corn planted May 8 grew to 81 inches in height by Aunnst 8, ninety -two 
days, with a mean daily temperature of 67°, a precipitation of 11.5 inches falling on 
twenty-eight days, of which thirteen were before June 1, and a mean daily cloudi- 
ness of 4.9 on a scale of 10. Under these conditions temperature seems to be the con- 
trolling factor to determine the rate of the growth of corn. Reference is made to 
somewhat similar observations by Prof. Plumb {Agricultural Science, vol. Ill, p. 1). 
The New York State Station {li. 1S86, p. 42) reports observations indicating that 
corn requires a high maximum as well as a high mean temperature of soil and air. 
The influence of local conditions of soil and climate on the coru plant are st.ated in 
Eaus. R. lSSS,p. SS, as follows: 

"We have here almost universally the rich, deep, friable soil which the experience 
of all corn-growing communities has shown to be necessary to the perfect growth of 
the great staple. Moreover, here are the fervent summer heats and great length of 
growing season so well calculated to bring the corn plant in all its parts, leaf, stalk, 
and ear, to the greatest perfection. As a result of these natural influences the corn 
plant in Kansas assumes the largest proportions; the stalks are coarse and very tall, 
the leaves are broad and long, if not numerous, while the ear is large and lifted far 
above ground, often above the tassels of the small-growing sorts, as was shown 
in our experiments. Small-growing, dwarfish corn is never seen in Kansas, except 
in cases where the seed used or its immediate ancestors has been introduced from 
the North; and even these small-growing foreign sorts, when grown for a series of 
years in Kansas, tend rapidly toward the normal type. A variety of King Philip 
corn, grown on the college farm since 1876, and in this vicinity since 1872 or 1873, 
and kept pure meanwhile is no longer a flint corn, while in size and habit of growth 
it more nearly resembles a medium dent sort than the familiar New England variety 
from which it is descended." 

Many observations have shown that there is relatively little dry matter in corn in 
its early stages (see III. B. 20 and under Time of cutting, below). When the crop is ma- 
ture about one-half the dry matter is in the ears. The leaves and husks contain one- 
fourth to one-third of the total dry matter, the stalk about one-fourth, and the cob 
nearly one-tenth. The butt of the stalk contains much more dry matter than the 
top (Pa. B. 11; S. C. B. S; Wis. B. 1SS9, p. 143, B. 1S91, p. 220). 

Varieties. — Tests of varieties of coru have been made at about thirty of the sta- 
tions. The following are among those which have been most productive varieties 
in different localities : 

Dent varieties. — Yellow — Edmonds, Golden Beauty, Leaming, Legal Tender, Mur- 
dock, North Star, Piasa Queen, Riley Favorite. White — Blount Prolific, Burr White, 
Champion White Pearl, Mammoth White, Mosby Prolific, Normandy Giant, Southern 
Horse-Tooth. 

Flint varieties. — Pride of the North, King Philip. 

The Illinois Station {B.20) makes the following general statements regarding its 
tests of varieties of corn : 

" In 1891, 36 varieties were tested on .52 plats. About 86 per cent of a full stand of 
stalks was secured. About 12 per cent of the stalks produced no ears. This is nearly 
the same result as found in 1888 and 1890. In 1889 there was less than 2 per cent of 
barren stalks. While the percentage of stalks does not seem to depend on variety, 
there were great differences in difl'ereut plats — from 3 to 29 per cent. 

"As had been the case in each of the three preceding years, the varieties maturing 
about September 20 gave a larger average yield than those maturing either earlier 



CORN. 81 

or later. In 1891, 13 early varieties averaged 56, 19 modiiim averaged 66, and 6 late- 
maturiug varieties averaged 57 bushels of air-dry corn per acre. For the four years 
the early varieties gave an average yield of 61, the medium 73, and the late 68 bush- 
els of air-dry corn. 

"In some cases marked differences were found in the yield of adjacent plats of the 
same variety. In the case of one variety there have been extraordinary variations in 
yield in different years. In each of the four years varieties little known and witli- 
out more tlian a neighborhood reputation have given large yields of good corn. The 
yield does not seem to depend on the color or the smoothness or roughness of the 
kernels, although in 1891 tlie white varieties gave an average of 4 bushels larger yield 
than the greater number of yellow varieties." 

Tabulated data for 22 varieties grown at the Indiana Station {B. 39) during from 
two to five years showed important differences illustrating the need of careful selec- 
tion of varieties by the farmer with reference to the conditions under which his crop 
is grown, as follows : 

"(1) A range of twenty-eight days in the time of ripening; (2) a range in yield 
per acre of nearly 35 bushels of corn and almost 700 pounds of stalks; (3) a range of 
from 27.5 to52.5 per cent in the proportion of ears to 100 pounds of stalks and ears; 
(4) a difference of nearly 4 per cent in the proportion of shelled corn to weight of 
ears; (5) a marlied range in the amount of shrinkage in curing fi'om 3.2 to 23 per 
cent; (6) striking differences in the per cent of smutted stalks that did not produce 
ears, the range being from norliiug to 50 per cent. " 

{Ala. Caneirake B. 7, B. 10; Ala. College B. 1, w. ser., B. 16, n. ser., B.32, n.ser.; Ark. R. 
188S, p. 120, R. 1889, p. 23, R. 1890, p. 6; Colo. R. 1889, p. 93, R. 1890, p. 206; Ga. B, 
10, B. 15; III. B. 4, B. 8, B. 13, B. 20; Ind. B. 14, B. 23, B. 39; Iowa B. 2, B. 7; Eans. 
B. SO, R. 1888, p. 14, R. 1889, p. 6; La. B. 3, B. 21, B. 22, B. 26, B. 7, 2d ser., B. 8, 2d 
ser., R. 1891, p. 146; Md. R. 1889, p. 124; Mass. State R. 1889, p. 168; Minn. B. 7, B. 11, 
R. 1888, p. 90; Miss. R. 1889, p. 14, R. 1890, p. 20; Mo. College B. 3; Mo. B. 14; Neh: B. 
6, B. 12, B. 19; Nev. R. 1891, p. 14; N. H. B. 3; N. Y. Cornell B. 16; N. Y. State B. 60, R. 
1882, p. 38, R. 1883, p. ISO, R. 1884, p. 93, B. 1889, p. 71; Ohio B. 12, B. vol. II, 3, B. vol. 
Ill, 3, B. vol. IV, 1, R. 1882, p. 38, R. 1883, p. 53, R. 1884, p. 64, R. 1885, p. 23, R. 1886, 
p. S3, R. 1887, p. 113 ; Ore. B. 4 ; Pa. B. 7, B. 11, R. 1888, p. 26, R. 1889, p. 30, R. 1890, 
p. SO; S. C. R. 1SS6, R. 1888, p. 162, B. 1889, p. 210; S. Dak. B. 24, R. 1888, p. S2, B. 
1890, p. 14; Tenn. B. vol. Ill, 2; Utah R. 1891, p. 59; Ft. E. 1889, p. 89, B. 1890, p. 
153; Wis. B. 9, B. 13, B. 17, B. 19, B. 1889, p. 123.) 

Crossing. — Since the wind often carries the pollen from one stalk to the silks of 
the ears of otlier stalks the offspring of different varieties grown on one farm or in 
one neighborhood is very likely to be of a mixed type. The ease with which varie- 
ties of corn can be cross-fertilized has led to numerous experiments with a view to 
determining the laws which control the mixing of varieties in order that we may 
better understand how to produce improved varieties. Many interesting facts have 
been brought out, but the results do not as yet admit of definite general conclusions. 

At the Kansas Station {B. 17, B. 27, R. 1888, p. 316, R. 1889, p. 288) of the crosses 
made in 1889 to improve varieties 20 were harvested in 1891. Eight of these gave 
no indications of a cross. Of the remaining 12 some showed exactly intermediate 
characteristics between the parents and others resembled one parent more than the 
other. Of 43 crosses made in 1890 and harvested in 1891 eight showed no interme- 
diate characteristics between the parents. Of this number 3 resembled the female 
parent, 2 the male parent, and 3 showed no resemblance to either parent. Twenty- 
five of the others showed intermediate characteristics, 5 in color, 10 in the character 
of the kernels, and 10 in both color and character of the kernels. In one case of a 
cross of the fourth year between Early White Dent and Golden Popcorn the uni- 
formity of the ears produced indicated that the crosses had become a distinct vari- 
ety. Some blue kernels found on ears of corn whose immediate parents were known 
to have shown no kernels of this color were planted and one of the resulting ears 
2094— No. 15-^ 6 



82 COEN. ~ 

-was artificially fertilized "witli pollen from the same stalk under conditions -svliich 
kept it free from any possible intermediate cross. This ear contained 370 kernels. 

" Of these 206 were blue, 71 pink, 71 orange-yellow, and 22 pure white. 

"This result seems to be conclusive evidence that the bliie of the grains planted 
■was the product of atavism, and from the fact that all the planted grains -were blue, 
the pink, yello-w. and -white grains in like manner must have reverted to other varie- 
ties. Five other ears from the same seed, but not inclosed — thus being exposed to 
the pollen of other varieties — showed the same variation in color with a slightly 
smaller per cent of blue. 

" To show the prepotency of the blue corn a large number of ears from other plats 
growing within a radius of 25 yards were examined. About half the number of 
uninclosed ears had from one to five blue kernels, while not one of the inclosed gave 
any traces of blue." 

Descriptions and illustrations of the several crossed ears obtained in these ex- 
periments are given in the reports. In illustrated accounts of similar experiments 
at the Minnesota Station {B. 7, B. 11) interesting data are given. The tendency to 
revert to more or less remote ancestors was also strikingly shown at this station. The 
Illinois Station {B. 21) has recently published an illustrated account of experiments 
in 1889 and 1890. In these experiments color tended very strongly to pass from one 
variety to another. The number of rows of kernels seemed to be modified about 
equally by each parent. There was a tendency to increase in size. Crossed corn 
of the second year was uniform in type when the parents were similar, but where 
they were -widely dissimilar, as in crosses between sweet and dent varieties, the off- 
spring either reverted to the parent forms or was dissimilar to either parent. {Ind. 
B. 20; X. T. State B. 15, B. 46, B. 55, B. 72, B. 18S2, p. S8 ; Ohio E. ISSS, p. 63.) 

Composition. — For average analyses of the whole plant, stover, ears, kernels, dry 
fodder, silage, etc., see Appendix, Tailes land II. For detailed analyses of varieties, 
etc., see Bulletin Xo. 11 of the Office of Experiment Stations. Special investigations are 
recorded as follows: Effect of rate of planting on composition of crop {Conn. State 
B. 1SS9, p. 9) ; effect of different fertilizers ( Conn. Storrs JR. lSS9,p. 87, R. 1890, p. 107) ; 
composition at different stages of growth {Mo. B. 9); fertilizing constituents ( S. C. 
B. 8): corn from seed grown in several States {Tex. B. 15)', whole plant and parts 
{S. C. B. 1889, p. 156). See also Reports of Massachusetts State and Connecticut 
State Stations. 

Sekd. — Germination tests of 8 varieties at the South Carolina Station {E. 18S8, p. 
58) gave an average of 87.7 per cent of good seeds. One thousand seeds weighed 
262.9 grams, being about 1,700 seeds to the pound. Similar tests at the Tennessee 
Station {B.2) of samples from sixteen counties in that State showed a high average 
vitality of the seed, most of which had been kept dry under shelter in Avell-ventilated 
places. There was little difference between ears stored with and without the husk. 
At the Indiana Station {B. 6) ears picked early (before frost) and dried carefully 
were excellent for seed. In some experiments kiln-dried seed has produced vigorous 
plants {X. Y. State B. 8, n. ser., E. lS86,p. do). In a test of seed from Southern, Cen- 
tral, and Xorthern States the Maryland Station {E. 1S90, p. 94) obtained the best 
results from seed produced in Kentucky. Kansas, and Maryland, i. e., in the latitude 
of the station. At the Pennsylvania Station {B. 8) tests in the germinating appa- 
ratus gave iiniformly higher re>?ults than those in the field, but the relative varia- 
tions between different varieties were the same in both cases. At the Xew York 
Stat« Station {B.lll) seed com gerr»inated after a long period at as low a tcmpata- 
ture as 43.7'' F., and the indications were that moisture Cinducing mold) rather than 
low temperature destroyed the seed in the soil. 

A number of experiments with kernels from the butt, middle, and tip of the ear 
have been made with varying results, but on the whole indicate that there is little 
difference between the seeds from different parts of the ear. At the Ohio Station 
the average yields per acre for four years were — butt GO. 9, middle 62.8, tip di.8 bush- 



COEN. 83 

els. (Kans. B. SO; If. Y. State B. SI, B. 47, B. 18S2, p. 40, R. 1SS3, p. 130, R. lSS4,p. 
90, R. 18S5, p. SS; Ohio B. vol. IF, 1, R. 18S6, p. 126.) 

Kate of planting. — Tlie experiments thus fiir made have indicated that wliere 
corn is grown for the grain thicker planting is desirable in the Xorthern than in the 
Southern States. At the stations in Georgia, Louisiana, and South Carolina rows 5 
feet apart, with stalks at intervals of 3 to 4 feet, were preferred, while at the other 
stations making such tests rows 3 to 3.5 feet apart, with kernels at intervals of 12 
to 16 inches, gave the best average results. Closer planting may in some oases give 
a heavier weight of green material, but at the expense of grain and dry fodder. 
Since it has been found that the feeding value of silage is materially increased by 
ensiling the ears with the stover, enough space should be allowed for their proper 
development. 

In experiments at the Connecticut State Station {R.lSS9,p.9),^h.^ve the rows 
were 4 feet apart, a flint variety produced the most dry matter when the plants 
stood 1 foot apart in the row, and a dent variety when the plants stood two to a foot 
in the row. The yield of sound kernels of dry shelled corn was highest with two 
plants to the foot. The dry weight of leaves increased regularly with the thick- 
ness of planting. The proportion of leaves to total crop was largest when the pro- 
portion of sound kernels was smallest. The largest quantities of each food ingre- 
dient in the flint maize were obtained where the stalks stood one to a foot. In the 
case of the dent variety, tested two years, the albuminoids, fat, and nitrogen-free 
extract were largest one year with stalks two to a foot and the other year with 
stalks one to a foot. The individual plants which stood farthest apart (4 by 4 feet; 
attained the greatest development in all their parts. The yield per plant decreased 
quite regularly as the stand became thicker, but not in the same proportion. 

In experiments at the Illinois Station {B.20) on fertile prairie loam with rows 3J 
feet apart a medium-sized dent variety gave the largest yields of good corn when 
planted at the rate of one kernel each 9 to 12 inches; the yield of corn and stover 
increased with thickness of planting up to one kernel each 3 inches. The food 
Talue of the total crop was greatest when the stalks were about 6 inches apart in 
the row. 

( Conn. State R. 1889, p. 9 ; Ga. B. 10; 111. B. 4, B. 8, B. 13, B. 20; Ind. B. 6, B. 14, B. 
23, B. 39; Eans. B. SO, R. 1889, p. 6; La. B. 22, B. 7, 2d ser. ; Mo. B. 14, B. 22; X. Y. State 
R. 1882, p. 38, R. 1883, p. 135, R. 1884, p. 101, R. 1886, p. 46, R. 1889, p. 81 ; N. Y. Cornell 

B. 4, B. 16; Ohio B. vol. Ill, S, B. vol. IV, 1, R. 1882, p. 43, R. 1883, p. 65, R. 1884, p. 73, 
R. 1885, p. 38, R. 1886, p. 121, R. 1887, p. 154, R. 1888, p. 83; Pa. B. 7, R. 1888, p. '>6 ; S. 

C. R. 1SS8, p. 200, R. 1889, p. 210; S. Dale. B. 24; Vt. R. ISSS, p. 89, R. 1889, p. 191; Wis. 
B. 19, R. 1889, p. 126. ) 

Time of planting. — This will of course depend on local conditions of soil and 
climate. At the Illinois Station (B. 4, B.8, B. 13, B.20) the best results during four 
years were from planting May 11 to 16. In 1891, however, there was little difference 
in yields from planting at weekly intervals from April 25 to May 23, while later 
plantings gave much smaller yields. At the Indiana Station {B. 23, B. 39) during 
three years the largest average yields were from planting May 1 rather than later. 
At the Ohio Station {R. 1886, p. 117) early planting was found advantageous in dry 
seasons. 

Method of pl.vxting. — Experiments at several stations have indicated that it 
makes little difiference whether corn is planted in hills or in drills {III. B. 20; Kans. 
R. 1888, p. 32; S. C. B. lSS9,p. 252). The Connecticut State Station {R. 1890, p. 183) 
reports an experiment in which corn was planted in drills (4 feet by 10 inches) and 
in hills (4 feet by 40 inches with 4 stalks to 20 inches with 2 stalks). That planted 
in drills gave about 6 per cent larger yield of dry matter and a larger yield of each 
food ingredient. The composition of the corn and therefore its feeding value was 
practically the same whether planted in hills or drills. The Kansas Station (/?. 18SS, 
p. iJ) calls attention to the fact that irregularities in planting with the drill may 



84 CORN. 

materiany affect the crop. In some sections the seed is drilled in the bottom of deep 
furrows struck at the usual intervals in ground not otherwise plowed. This prac- 
tice, called ''listing," is favored by experiments at the Kansas Station {R. lSSS,p. 
33, B. 1889, p. 6). At the Minuesota Station {B. 5) in 1888 results unfavorable to 
listing were obtained. The x^ractice of sowing corn broadcast for fodder or silage is 
condemned by trials at several stations {Miss. B. 1888, p. SO; N. Y. State B. 1890, p. 
260; N. Y. Cornell B. 4). 

Plowing and cultivation. — Experiments at the Illinois and Indiana stations 
dui'ing several years indicated that deptb of plowing had little influence on tlie 
crop. A moderate amount of shallow cultivation is favored by results obtained m 
numerous experiments. The essential thing in the cultivation of corn is to keep 
the ground free from weeds and moderately porous. 

{Arlc. B. 1888, p. 7; Colo. B. 1890, p. 14; Ga. B. 10, B. 15; III. B. 13, B. 20; Ind. 
B. 6, B. 14, B. 23, B. 39; Iowa B. 16; Kans. B. 30, B. 1888, p. 37, B. 1889, p. 6; La. 
B. 6; Md. B. 3; Minn. B. 5; Mo. B. 14; N. Y. State B. 1883, p. 132, B. 1884, 
p. 99, B. 1886, p. 50, B. 1888, p. 173; Ohio B. vol. IV, 1, B. 1883, p. 79, R. 1884, p. 75, 
B. 1885, p. 42, B. 1886, p. 127, B. 1887, p. 161; S. C. B. 1889, p. 256; S. Dale. B.9, B.24.) 

Root-pruning. — The reason why deep cultivation is likely to prove injurious to 
the corn crop is brought out by experiments in root-pruning taken in connection 
with the observations on the root system of the corn plant referred to above. 

At the Illinois Station {B. 8, B. 13) the following results were reported: ''Pruning 
the roots of corn to the depth of 4 inches, 6 inches from the stalk, has reduced the 
yield 16 and 23 per cent in 1889 and 1890, respectively. The reason that root-prun- 
ing reduced the yield to a greater extent than deep cultivation is probably that the 
root-pruning was done on all four sides of the hill at each pruning. The depth at 
6 inches from the plant has been determined with 251 roots, and 174 were found to be 
4 inches or less from the surface and 108, 3 inches or less from the surface. In other 
words, a cultivator running 4 inches deep would disturb about 70 per cent of the 
roots, and at 3 inches about 43 per cent. Of 115 roots on four plants examined June 
21 and 28, the end or the point where broken of 54 was 12 or more inches deep; ol 
33, 18 or more inches deep ; and of 17, 24 inches deep." 

At the Minnesota Station {B. 5) in one experiment a knife was run around each 
hill at a depth of 6 inches and 6 inches from the stalks. The root-pruned plats 
averaged nearly 3 bushels of corn and 800 pounds of fodder per acre less than the 
plats not root-pruned. In another experiment (Minn. B. 11) root-pruning from one to 
four times reduced the yield of corn 13| bushels and of fodder ^ ton per acre. At the 
New York State Station {B. 1888, p. 173) root-pruning June 9 and 25 at a depth of 3 
inches and 4 to 8 inches from the stalks reduced the yield of corn 9 bushels and of 
fodder 1,020 pounds per acre. See also N. T. State It. 1882, p. 38, B. 1883, p. 134; 
Ohio B. 1884, p. 75. 

Stripping, topping, and detasseling. — Stripping oft" the leaves for fodder dur- 
ing the growth of the crop will reduce the yield of corn, and it is doubtful whether 
the fodder thus obtained will pay for the labor of gathering it (Ala. Canehrake B. 
10; Fla. B. 16; Ga. B. 10, B. 15; Kans. B. 1888, p. 27; La. B. 22; Miss. B. 1890, p. 
26 ; Tex. B. 19). Cutting off the tops above the ears when in good condition for fod- 
der in some cases has not decreased the yield of corn {Ala. Canehralce B. 10 ; III. B. 
20; Tex. B. 19), but in other cases it has {Kans. B. 1888, p. 27 ; Miss. B. 1890, p. 20; 
Neir. B. 19). Removing the tassels from a portion of the stalks has sometimes re- 
duced the yield {Kans. B. 1888, p. 27; Md. B. 1891, p. 358 ; Nebr. B. 19), sometimes 
increased it {Del. B. 14; Kans. B. 30; N, Y. Cornell B. 25), and sometimes has pro- 
duced no definite elfect {III. B. 20; N. Y. Cornell B. 40). 

Time of cutting. — Numerous experiments have shown that the dry matter in 
the corn jdant increases greatly as maturity approaches and that, therefore, whether 
the crop is grown for grain, fodder, or silage, much will be lost by too early cui ting. 
At the Kansas Station {B. 30) corn cut in the milk stage (Aug. 20) yielded 35.5 bush- 



CORN. 85 

els of graiu and 2.4 tons of fodder per acre; iu dough (Aug. 28), 51 busliels of grain 
and 2.4 tons of fodder; wlien ripe (Sept. 18) 74 bushels of grain and 2.7 tons of 
fodder. These results agreed witii those of previous experiments (Kans. R. ISSS, p. 
42, R. 18S9, p. 6). At the Minnesota Station (B. 7), where corn growu for silage was 
cut from September 4 to 24, the dry matter iu a dent variety (Rustler) increased 
from 11.4 to 19.7 per cent, and in a sweet variety (Egyptian) from 9.1 to 13.3. At 
the New York State Station the dry matter per acre in Burrill and Whitman corn 
cut for silage September 11 was 5,004 pounds, and September 29, 5,660 pounds. In 
1889, when the experiment was repeated Avith King Philip corn, there was an in- 
crease in the total amount of dry matter and in the nutritive value of its constitu- 
ents as the crop approached maturity {N. Y. State R. lSS9,p. SS). At the New York 
Cornell Station {B. 16) similar results were obtained with Pride of the North corn. 
These results are confirmed by those at the New Hampshire Station (i^. 5) Avith 4 
varieties and at the Pennsylvania Station B.7, B.ll, R. 18SS,p.26) with 4 flint 
and 10 dent varieties. The Wisconsin Station {B. 19, R. 1SS9, p. 126) recommends the 
cutting of flint varieties for silage Avhen just past glazing, and dent varieties Avhen 
"well dented." {Mich. B. 68; Mo. College B. 22; Ohio B., vol. Ill, S, B. vol. 
IF, 1, R. 1888, p. 68; Ft. R. 1880, p. 91.) 

Manuring. — Experience has shown in general that on the more fertile soils of the 
Central and Western States the use of commercial fertilizers on corn is not profitable 
at present. Barnyard manure as a rule increases the yield and its effects continue 
from year to year, but even this may not be profitably used on some soils. In the 
Eastern and Soiathern States, on the other hand, more or less liberal manuring Avith 
barnyard manure or commercial fertilizers, or with combinations of both, is quite 
generally profitable. Numerous experiments have indicated that on the whole a 
complete fertilizer containing phosphoric acid combined Avith smaller amounts of 
nitrogen and potash is most likely to giAe good results. There is, however, increas- 
ing eA'idence that definite rules for the use of fertilizers on corn can not be giA'en. 
Every farmer must study the needs of his own soil and " write his OAvn prescrip- 
tions." Green manures, such as clover, peas, and melilotns, should, without doubt, 
be more extensively used to keep up the supply of nitrogenous vegetable material 
in the soil. Brief statements regarding the results of experiments at a number of 
stations are given below. 

At the Alabama College Station {B. S,{1S87)B. 16, n. ser.) phosphates were especially 
needed, and their use in connection Avith cotton seed (preferably crushed) and stable 
manure or muriate of potash gave good results. 

At the Alabama Canebrake Station {B. 3, B. 7, B. 10, B. 13) commercial fertilizers 
did not pay, but green manuring with peas and melilotns was strongly commended. 

At the Arkansas Station {R. 1888, p. 7, R. 1889, p. 26, R. 1890, p. 8) good results 
were obtained with cotton-seed meal and acid phosphate. 

The Connecticut State Station {R. 1888, p. 112, R. 1890, p. 183, R. 1891, p. 139) 
found that liberal manuring with barnyard manure largely increased the yield and 
also the albuminoids in the crop, but not the fat and fiber. In the kernels there was 
a marked increase in the protein and nitrogen-free extract. A complete commercial 
fertilizer produced similar but less pronounced results. 

The Connecticut Storrs Station {R. 1888, p. 47, R. 1889, p. 87, R. 1890, pp. 57, 107, 
112, R. 1891, p. 173) found that the largest yields but not alwaj's the largest profits 
Avere from complete fertilizers containing a relatively small amount of nitrogen (24 
pounds per acre). The addition of nitrogen to the minerals increased the protein in 
the crop. Experiments on seAcral farms showed quite various results from dijBferent 
fertilizers as regards both the yield and composition of the crop. 

The Florida Station {B. 7, B. 11) recommends the use of cotton-seed meal. On a 
sandy soil copperas {B. 16) in a compost was beneficial. 

At the Georgia Station (7i. 10, B. 15) nitrogen was especially needed and its use 
in a complete fertilizer is advised. 



86 CORN. 

lu Illinois {B. 4, B. 8, B. 13, B. 20) experiments at the station and elsewhere 
showed that commercial fertilizers were not profitable on fertile prairie soil. Stable 
manure increased the yield and was sometimes profitable. 

At the Indiana Station {B. 6, B. 14, B. 23, B. 39) horse manure applied in 1883 and 
1884 increased the yield each year thereafter up to and including 1891. Gas lime and 
superphosphate applied at the same time with the manure had no special effect on 
succeeding crops. 

At the Iowa Station {B. 15, B. 16) barnyard manure (especially liquid) increased 
the yield. 

At the Kansas Station (B. SO) plaster and castor-bean pomace applied separately 
had no effect. 

At the Kentucky Station (B. 17, B. 26, B. 33) on the limestone soil of the blue-grass 
region i)otash was the element chiefly needed. Larger ears were produced when 
potash was used, but there was no relation apparent between the fertilizers and the 
shrinkage of com in curing or the proportion of kernel to cob. 

At the Louisiana State Station (B. 21, B. 26, B. 7, n. ser., B. 17, n. ser.) phos- 
phoric acid seemed to be especially needed. 

At the North Louisiana Station {B. 22, B. 27, B. S, n. ser., B. 16, n. ser.) nitrogen 
(combined with phosphoric acid and potash in relatively small quantities) was 
esjiecially needed (see also La. B. 2, B. 6). 

At the Massachusetts State Station (B. ISSS, jj. 107, R. 1S89, p. US) the omission of 
nitrogen from the fertilizer produced light-colored plants and decreased the yield of 
corn, especially of well-developed ears. 

Massachusetts Hatch Station {B. 14, B. 18), on the basis of experiments in differ- 
ent localities, advises the use of a complete fertilizer containing a relatively large 
amount of potash. 

The Mississippi Station {B. 1SS8, p. 27, E. 1889, p 18, B. 1890, p. 20, B. 1891, p. 8) 
has found that a complete fertilizer containing an abundance of vegetable matter is 
required on exhausted hill lands of yellow and red clay. 

At the Missouri Station (B. 14) barnyard manure (solid and liquid together) in- 
creased the yield. Wood ashes were also effective, but neither salt, lime, nor plaster 
gave any increase (see also Mo. College B. 7, B. SO). 

New Hampshire Station {B. 10), on the basis of experiments on ten farms, advises 
the use of a fertilizer containing phosphoric acid (9 to 11 i)er cent), potash (9 to 15 
per cent), and nitrogen (2 to 4 per cent). 

In New Jersey {R. 1888, p. 83, B. 54) experiments on different farms indicated that 
potash (especially kainit) was a most profitable fertilizer. 

At the New York State Station (R. 1882, p. 38, R. 1886, p. 47, R. 1888, p. 356) nitro- 
gen was the element especially needed. In a cool season fertilizers produced rela- 
tively little effect {N. Y. State B. 76; N. Y. Cornell B. 4.) 

In North Carolina {B. 65, B. 71) cotton-seed meal alone or in combination with 
acid phosi)hate and kainit was relatively satisfactory in different localities. 

In Ohio {B. 7, B. vol. Ill, 2, B. vol. IV, 1, B. vol. V, 3, R. 1882, p. 46, R. 1883, p. 81, B. 
1884, p. 78, R. 1885, p. 44, R. 1886, p. 129, R. 1887, p. 167, R. 1888, p. 68) fertilizers have 
not been found profitable. Nitrate of soda with dissolved boneblack or muriate of 
potash increased the yield in forty-six out of forty-eight trials. 

At the Pennsylvania College {B. 2, B. 8, B. 9, R. 1882, p. 19, R. 1884, p. 22) phosphoric 
acid was especially needed. 

The Rhode Island Station (R. 1890, p. 39, R. 1891, p. 35) on the basis of several 
experiments advises the use of about 45 pounds of nitrogen, 75 pounds of potash, and 
54 pounds of phosphoric acid per acre. 

The South Carolina Station (R.1888, p. 162, R. 1889, p. 210) found a complete fer- 
tilizer, containing nitrogen and potash in relatively small amounts, most satisfac- 
tory. 



CORN MEAL. 8T 

Texas Station {R.1SS9, p. 11) during five years' -work on poor, shallow upland 
"post oak " soil with subsoil of stiff clay found cow manure most profitable, though, 
bone meal produced the largest increase in yield. Tlie effect of fertilizers on this 
soil continued from year to year. 

The Vermont Station {B. 15, B. ISSS, j>, 89) foniid tluit i)hosphoric acid was especially 
needed. 

{Colo. B., 1S8S, p. 25; Del. B. 11; Me. B. 1SS9, p. 135, B. 1890, p. 9G, B. 1891, p. 45; Md. 
B. 1889, p. 1?1, B. 1890, p. 90.) 

Corn-and-cob meal. — The corn and cob are often ground together without shell- 
ing, and where the cob is not too large and woody the corn-and-cob meal has given 
good results in feeding. The ground cob is believed to be of value (1) on account 
of the food and the ash constituents which it contains, and (2) on account of the 
beneficial mechanical influence Avhich it has on the digestion of the corn meal. The 
feeding of corn-and-cob meal depends souiewhat on the relative proportion of cob 
and kernels in the ear, which differ in different varieties. Goessmann found that the 
proportion of cob in the ear varied from li to 18 per cent by weight. For account of 
feeding trials with corn-and-cob meal see Glitien meal for milk and butter production; 
Cattle, feeding for hccf and for gronth; and Fias, feeding. 

For comj)ositiou see Appendix, Tal)le>i I and II. 

Corn and soja bean silage. — The Massachusetts State Station made a silage 
from fodder corn and soja beans mixed half and half, which was much richer in pro- 
tein and fat than corn silage. Tiie (Composition of the dry matter was similar to 
that of red clover hay. The soja bean used was uearlj'^ mature and was cut into 
coarse pieces. See also Silage. 

Corn, bacterial disease. — Tlie first indication of the presence of this disease is in 
the dwarfed condition of the young plants. This usually occurs in patches varying 
from a rod or more square to an acre or more, while the rest of the crop seems unaf- 
fected. Later in the season, after the tassels have appeared, it may be found scattered 
throughout the field, affecting here and there a stalk or hill, while the rest remains 
free from it. Upon closer examination the stunted plants are seen to be uniformly 
yellowish, the lower leaves being most affected, and gradually dying. If an affected 
plant be pulled up, the lowest roots will be found diseased and in bad cases rotted 
away. The bottom of the stalk will .also be affected and the inner tissue of the 
joints will be discolored. On the surface, when freed from dirt, brown spots more 
or less spreading may be found with masses of nearly transparent jelly-like sub- 
stance sometimes adhering to them. After midsummer the disease becomes very 
apparent on the leaf sheaths, which are marked with spots ranging in size from 
mere specks up to large patches. These si)ots are of a brownish color, sometimes a 
little red, and a^jpear as though half rotten. If the sheaths are stripped from the 
stalk and examined the whole inside may be found to be spread with the jelly-like 
mass. Occasionally the ears are attacked. The husks are then marked much as the 
leaf sheaths are. The whole ear, including husks and silk, becomes soft and wilted. 
Very often the ears are penetrated by a dense mat of white fungus — a sight well 
known to all farmers. These are especially abundant in certain seasons most favor- 
able for the development of the bacteria. The bacteria have been isolated and cul- 
tures made, demonstrating that they are the cause of this particular disease of com, 
but as yet no remedy has been found. {III. B. 6.) 

Corn fodder. — For feeding trials see Silage. For composition see Appendix, Tables 
I and II. 

Corn meal. — For average composition see Appendix, Tables I and II. For ac- 
counts of comparisons of corn meal with cotton-seed meal, gluten meal, and linseed 
meal for milk aud butter j)roduction see Cotton-seed meal. Gluten meal, and Linseed 
meal. For other experiments with corn meal see Milk, effect of food, aud Butter- 
making. 



88 CORN SALAD. 

The eifect of substituting 6 pounds of corn meal for 7 pounds of wheat bran thj 
Wisconsin Station (B. 1SS6, p. 115) found to be to diminish the milk yield, and prob-j 
ably the live weight likewise. These amounts of grain were taken as coutainiul 
nearly the same quantity of digestible food materials. {N. Y. State B. 1887, ]). 15, . 
1889, p. 198; Vt. B. 1890, p. 88.) 

For feeding experiments with corn meal for beef and comparisons with corn-ant 
cob meal see Cat tie- feeding for beef and for growth. 

Corn salad {Falerianella [Fedia'] olitoria). — This plant, also known as fetticus, is 
used as a salad herb. Seven varieties were tested at the New York State Station 
{B. 1884, p. 286, B. 1885, p. 191). Germination tests of the seed are recorded in N. 
Y. State B. 1883, p. 68; Vt. B. 1889, p. 104. 

Corn silage. — See Silage. 

Corn smut ( Ustilago maydis). — This disease is found wherever corn is grown, and 
the well-known black powdery masses on the ear, the tassel or the stalk need no 
description for their identification. It has been estimated to cause a loss every year 
of at least 1 per cent of the entire crop in this country, being especially bad in wet 
lands and during wet seasons. It attacks the corn when quite young, entering the 
stalk near the ground. It grows with the plant, and after a time appears as white 
swollen masses on various parts, most commonly on the ears, which soon become 
black and smutty. It will not spread from jdant to plant during the season, but 
must infect it early in the life of the plant if at all. 

It is known that in the presence of moisture the smut can develop into a stage 
capable of infecting the corn and also continuing its own existence for a very con- 
siderable time. This is entirely independent of the corn plant and may take place 
in the ground or manure heap. This fact being recognized, the importance of 
destroying all smut patches as soon as found will be readily appreciated. Its spread 
may be greatly reduced by removing and burning all infested stalks and ears. This 
should be done wherever corn is followed by corn for several years until the ground 
becomes thoroughly infested. A change of crop will check it, as this species is con- 
fined to corn alone. Another way of spreading the infection may be in the seed 
itself, and its growth and development will be the same as that of the corn. This 
may be prevented, it is said, by soaking the grain in a solution of copper sulphate 
(blue vitrol), 1 pound to a gallon of water, for fifteen or twenty minutes. This will 
kill all adhering spores. Another and probably better way is to treat the corn in 
the manner recommended for the treatment of smut of wheat and oats. No applica- 
tion to the jilant after it has attained any considerable size will be of any benefit. 
{Kans. B. 23; JVebr. B. 11; N. C. B. 76; Ohio B. vol. Ill, 10). 

Corn stover. — The corn plant after the ears are taken off. For composition see 
Appendix, Tables I and II. In feeding trials, the Vermont Station found {B. 1889, p. 
5i) that corn stover and hay "have about the same feeding value for cows," and 
" the lower half (butts) of corn stover have as great feeding value per pound of dry 
matter as the upper half (tips)." The corn furnishing the stover was presumably a 
Northern variety. See also Silage. 

For comparison of cut and uncut stover see Foods, preparation for feeding, and 
Cows, cut vs. uncut stover. 

Cotton {Gossypium spp.). — This plant belongs to the order Malvacew, which also 
includes okra aud the hollyhock. The varieties of cotton cultivated in the Southern 
States belong to two species, upland cotton {Gossypium herhaceum) and sea-island 
cotton (Gossypium harbadense). Cotton was known to the ancient Asiatics and Egyp- 
tians, and was found growing wild in America by Columbus and other early explor- 
ers. It is therefore thought to be a native of both hemispheres. In its wild state, 
especially in tropical climates, cotton is a perennial shrub, but as cultivated in the 
South it is an annual plant. The cultivated cotton plant is a small shrub haviug 
alternate stalked and lobed leaves. The flowers of upland cotton are white or 
cream-colored on the first day, become reddish on the second, and fall on the third. 



COTTON. 89 

leaviiiEf a small boll enveloped in the calyx. This boll develops until it reaches 
approximately the size and tshape of a lien's c^g, when it sjjlits into tliree to live 
cells, liberating the numerous black seeds covered with the fibrous wool which con- 
stitutes the cotton of commerce. "Formerly cotton was not grown north of the 
isothermal line 36°, but under the induence of phosphatic manures its cultivation in 
late years has been exten<led several degrees beyond this line." It fs most success- 
fully cultivated between 30*^ and 35^^ north latitude. (For the history and habits of 
growth of cotton see La. B. S and B. 13.) The meteorological conditions of the 
Southern States, which favor the growth of cotton, are discussed in S. C. B. 7. 
Two periods in the life of this plant may be distinguished. The first extends from 
the time of planting, which in South Carolina is about the middle of April, to the 
middle of summer. This is the time in which the plant makes its growth of stalk 
and foliage and gathers nourishment, which will later be stored up in the seed. 
Daring this period tropical couditiims are favorable, namely, moisture in the soil 
from frequent rather than long-continued rain, high temperature with small daily 
variation, plenty of sunshine, little wind, and a high relative humidity of the 
atmosphere to reduceevaporation to a minimum. During this period everything pos- 
sible is done to prevent loss of water from the soil; grass and weeds are scrupu- 
lously excluded, and the surface of the soil is frequently stirred to conserve the 
moisture and increase the temperature of the soil. 

In the latter part of the season in South Carolina the temperature rapidly falls 
and the rainfall diminishes. This is the fruiting period of the cotton crop, when 
every effort should be made to produce seed rather than stalk and foliage. Every 
means is taken to dry out the soil; cultivation ceases and the soil is allowed to 
become hard and compact to favor the evaporation of the moisture. It is believed 
that differences in moisture and temperature account for the fact that the fine grades 
of sea-island cotton can be produced only on the islands and in the country imme- 
diately adjoining the coast. 

Varieties. — Numerous varieties of cotton have been tested at the stations in 
Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, South Carolina, and Texas. 
Among the varieties which have given the best results in different localities are the 
following: Peterkin, Jones Improved, Welborn Pet, Texas Storm and Drouth-Proof, 
Southern Hope, Peerless, Tennessee, Gold Dust, and Cherry Long Staple. At the 
Nebraska Station 4 varieties forced in a greenhouse for 36 days and then transplanted 
to the field did not ripen seed, the season there being about three weeks too short 
(Nchr. B. 6). 

Ala. College B. 13, n. ser., contains a report on microscopic examinations of the 
fiber of 18 varieties of cotton grown on tlie station farm. The experiments indicate 
"that it is not always the large jilant that produces the best condition of the fiber, 
and that the most excellent condition of the fiber is produced only on plants which 
are neither too rapid nor too slow in their development, and which are given all the 
advantages of judicious cultivation with the proper manuring and under the most 
favorable conditions of the atmosphere. In improving the grade of cotton the plant 
must be forced to produce fiber that is (1) long and as nearly as possible uniform 
in length; (2) of uniform diameter throughout; (3) flat and ribbon-like, and well 
twisted." Seed selection should be repeated from year to year, and no inferior cot- 
ton planted near enough to vitiate the chosen variety with its pollen. In these ex- 
periments the strongest fiber Avas produced by the Truitt variety ; the largest by 
Barnett; the smallest by Hawkins Improved and Peterkin: the longest by Okra 
Leaf; and the best twisted by Truitt, Rameses, and Cherry Cluster. "The largest 
percentage of fiber per boll was produced by Welborn Pet, Okra Leaf, Peterkin, 
Hawkins Improved, and King Improved, in the order named. The best grade of 
cotton, taking all things into consideration, was Cherry Cluster; the second best 
grade was Truitt." 

The South Carolina Station (B. 2, n. ser.) classified the varieties of cotton grown in 
that State into three groups according to their percentages of lint — long staple, short 



90 



COTTON. 



staple, and Rio Grande finchuliiig- Peteikin and Texas Wood). The varieties in tlio 
first group produce 31 per cent of lint or less, those in the second 32 to 34 per cent, 
and those in the third 36 per cent or more. Tlie yield of lint in general increases 
with the percentage of lint. " It seems to be established that thorough cultivation 
and careful selection of seed for a number of years will improve the productiveness 
of any variety or increase its percentage of lint." 

{Ala. College B. 4, B. 5 {18SS), n. ser., B. 12, n. set:, B. 16, n. ser., B. 22. n. ser., B. 33, n. 
ser.; Ala. CanehraJce B. 7, B. 11, B. 14; Ark. B. 18, B. 1SS8, pp. 100. 106, 119, li. 1889 
p. 5S, B. 1890, p. 147; Ga. B. 11, B. 16; La. B. 21. B. 22, B. 26, B. 27, B. 7, 2d ser., B. 8, 2d 
ser., B. 1891, p. 4; Miss. B.18, B. 1890, p. 16, 1891, p. 19; Nebr. B. 6; JSF. C. B. 1886, p. 
74, B. 1887, p. 115; S. C. B. 1 {1888), B. 2, n. ser., B. 1888, p. 218, B. 1889,p. 268: Tex. 
B. 1889, p. 13.) 

Composition.— A chemical study of the cotton plant was made by J. B. McBryde 
at the Soutli Carolina Station during 1889 and 1890 and the results were publislied 
in Tenn. B. vol. IV, 5. The data given include separate analyses of the whole plant, 
lint, seed, bolls ("the empty burr or capsule after the seed has been removed"),' 
leaves, stem, and roots; of parts of the seeds (kernels and hulls), cotton-seed meal' 
and cotton-hull ashes; a determination of the relative weight of different parts of 
the plant; and a comparison of the fertilizing constituents contained in crops of 
cotton yielding 300 pounds of lint, of corn yielding 20 bushels, and of oats "yielding 
30 bushels of grain per acre. 

Analysis of the whole and parts of the cotton plant. 



"Whole 
plant. 



Air- 

flry 

pliiiit. 



Moisture at 100° C. 

Crude 'sh 

Nitrogen 



Pr.ct. 
7.30 
5.81 
1.46 

Phosphoric acid ' 0.43 

Potassium oxide... 

Sodium oxide 

Calcium oxide 

Magnesium oxide.. 

Sulphuric acid 

Insoluble matter. . . 



Ash. 



Pr. ct. Pr. ct 



Lint. 



Seed. 



Crop of 1889 



Air- 
dry. 



A.sh. 



Pr.ct. 



1.32 
0.11 
1.42 
0.52 
0.20 
0.43 





6.72 




1.50 




0.28 


7.55 


0.07 


22.79 


0.64 


1.82 


0.03 


24.38 


0.16 


8.90 


0.11 


3.43 


0.09 


7.46 


0.02 



4.41 
42.47 
1.76 
10.36 
7.41 
5.71 
1.56 



Crop of 1890.; Whole seed.' 



Air- 

•iry. 



Pr.ct 

0.77 
1.80 
0.20 
0.05 
0.85 
0.03 
0.15 
0.16 
0.09 
0.03 



Pr. ct 



2.94 
47.10 
1.51 
8.30 
8.96 
5.01 
1.56 



Air- 
dry. 



Ash. 






31.01 
35.50 
0.57 
5.68 
15.19 
3.90 
0.69 



Pr.ct) Pr.ct. Pr.ct 

7.04 
3.29 
3.07 
1.02 
1.17 
0.02 
0.19 
0.50 
0.13 
0.02 



5.31 

1.84 
1.22 



0.18 
0.88 
0.13 
0.58 



C3f3 



Pr. ct 



0.39 
0.10 
1.45 



0.18 
0.39 
0.11 
0.04 



Moisture at 100° C 

Crudeash 

Nitrogen 

Phosphoric acid. . . 
Potassium oxide.. 

Sodium oxide 

Calcium oxide 

Magnesium oxide. . 

Sulphuric acid 

Insoluble matter. . . 



Bolls. 



Crop of 1889. 



Air- 
dry. 



Ash. 



Pr.ct 
9.47 
7.05 
1.36 
0.40 
2.91 
0.05 
1.09 
0.29 
0.56 
0.27 



Per ct. 



5.25 
37.93 
0.59 
14.28 
3.81 
7.30 
3.52 



Crop of 1890 



Air- 
dry. 



Pr. ct. 
14.36 
7. 03 
0.87 
0.17 
3.23 
0.05 
0.78 
0.21 
0.32 
0.31 



Ash. 



Per ct. 



2.43 
45.90 
0.64 
11.03 
2.97 
4.48 
4.34 



Leaves. 



Crop of 1889. 



Air- 
dry. 



Per ct. 
9.50 
16.42 
2.37 
0.46 
0.83 
0.37 
7.08 
1.26 
0.84 
0.93 



Ash. 



Per ct. 



2.78 
5.04 
2. 22 
43.13 
7.08 
5.13 
5.65 



Crop of 1890. 



Air- 
dry. 



Per 

8. 
3. 
0. 
0. 
0. 
0. 
1. 
0. 
0. 
0. 



Ash. 



Perct. 



3.50 
11.01 

1.71 
33. 99 

6.32 

3.12 
10.04 



COTTON. 



91 



Analysis of the whole and parts of the cotton pJant — Continued. 



Stem. 



Crop of 1889. 



Air- 
dry. 



Pr. et 
Moisture at 100^ C !12.14 

12.05 
2.45 
0.42 
1.33 
0.21 
4.10 



Crude asla 

Nitrogen 

Phosphoric acid — 
Potassium oxide. . . 

Sodium oxide 

Calcium oxide 

Magnesium oxide I 0.76 

Sulphuric acid ! 0. 38 

Insoluble matter 1.20 



Ash. 



Per et. 



5.01 
23.32 

2.69 
26.87 
10.98 

3.57 

1.76 



Crop of 1S90. 



Air- 
dry. 



Pr. et. 

11.71 
4.23 
0.74 
0.17 
1.45 
0.09 
0.62 
0.30 
0.08 
0.17 



Ash. 



Per et. 



4.10 
34.35 
2.14 
14.72 
7.10 
1.95 
4.11 



Koots. 



Crop of 1889. 



Air- 
dry. 



Per et. 
7.65 
3.31 
0.70 
0.17 
0.86 
0.16 
0.70 
0.34 
0.13 
0.21 



Ash. 



Per ct. 



5.10 
20. 00 

4.88 
21.04 
10.16 

3.82 

6.19 



Crop of IS 



Air- 
dry. 



Per et. 
6.93 
3.36 
0.59 
0.14 
1.34 
0.13 
0.39 
0.30 
0.10 
0.23 



Ash. 



Per ct. 



4.02 
39.94 
3.97 
11.49 
8.97 
2.97 
6.92 



Ildaiive weight of parts of the cotton plant. 





In water-freo plant. 


Weight 1 Weight 
in ounces. , in grams. 


Per cent. 


Lint 


0.615 
1.343 
0.829 
1.181 
1.350 
0. 513 


17.45 
38.07 
23.49 
33.48 
38.26 
14.55 


10.56 
23.03 
14.21 

20.25 

23.15 

8.80 


Seed 


BoUa 






Koots 


Total 


5.831 


165. 30 


100. 00 





Fertilizing constituents contained in a crop of cotton yielding 300 pounds of lint per acre. 





Amount per acre. 


In 300 

pounds 

lint. 


In 054 

pounds 

seed. 


In 404 

piinnds 

bolls. 


In 575 
pounds 
leaves. 


In 658 
pounds 
stems. 


In 250 
pounds 
roots. 


In 2,841 

I)0UUd8 

total crop. 




Pounds. 
0.72 
0.18 
2.22 


Pounds. 

20.08 

6.66 

7.63 


Pou7ids. 

4. .50 

1.14 

12.20 


Pounds. 

13.85 

2.57 

6.57 


Pounds. 
5.17 
1.22 
7.74 


Pounds. 
1.62 
0.38 
2.75 


Pounds. 
45.94 
12.15 
39.11 


Phosphoric acid 





Food ingredients in the cotton plant and its parts. 





Lint. 


Seed. 


Bolls. 


Leaves. 


Stems. 


Roots. 


Whole 
plant. 


Moisture at 100° C 


Per cent. 
6.74 
93.26 


Per cent. 
7.04 
92.96 


Per cent. 
11.92 

88.08 


Fer cent. 
10.82 
89.18 


Per cent. 
10.06 
89.94 


Per cent. 

7.29 

92.71 


Per cent. 
7.36 
92.64 


Analysis of dry matter: 






100. 00 


100. 00 


100. 00 


100. 00 


100. 00 


100. 00 


100. 00 


1.77 
89.75 
0.65 
1.61 
6.22 


3.53 
24.13 
23.26 
20.61 
28.47 


8.33 

36.90 
1.57 


15.93 
11.26 
7 ai 


4.54 

50.18 

0.90 

5.45 

38.93 


3.60 

52.39 

2.35 

4.39 

37.27 


6.27 

33.40 

4.23 

9.85 

46.25 


Cride cellulose 


Crude protein 

Nitrogen-free extract . 


7. 84 16. 89 
45. 36 48. 61 


100. 00 100. 00 


100. 00 


100. 00 


100. 00 


100. 00 


100. 00 



92 



COTTON. 



Analysis of parts of cotton seed. 





Hand- separated seed. 


Machine-hulled seed. 


Kernels. 


Hulls. 


Meal. 


Hulls. 


Moisture at 100° C . 


Per cent. 

6.27 

93.73 


Per cent. 

9.16 

90.84 


Per cent. 

7.47 

92.53 


Per cent. 
11.30 
88.70 




Analysis of dry matter: 


100. 00 


100. 00 


100. 00 


100. 00 


4.30 
4.67 
39.00 
31.21 

20.82 


2.51 

51.87 

0.64 

2.41 

4?. 57 


7.60 
4.90 
10.01 
51.12 
26.37 


3.30 

43.85 

2.35 

5.19 

45.31 












' " 


100. 00 


100. 00 


100. 00 


100.00 



Culture. — The general results of experience in the culture of cotton are stated 
by the Louisiana Stations (B.S) as follows: 

"The soil best adapted to cotton is not yet fully decided. Clay loams well drained 
and sandy loams resting upon clay subsoils are both highly recommended. Both 
sliould contain a fair amount of vegetable matter. 

"The width of the rows and the distance apart of the stalks in the row must 
depend upon the fertility of the soil and the rain supply. In poor lauds or on soils 
subject to drought during fruiting season, thin planting must be practiced to ob- 
tain the largest results. Mr. David Dickson, the great cotton planter of Georgia, 
always contended that cotton needed distance only one way. If therefore the rows 
Avere wide, it could be crowded in the drill and vice versa. 

" Deep and thorough preparation of soil, followed by pulverization should always 
precede planting. The planting should be done by some of the excellent and cheap 
cotton planters now to be everywhere found, since only the machine will give that 
uniform and straight stand which so facilitates the subsequent chopping. It fur- 
thermore economizes the seed, a point of great importance, when the true value of 
this article as a manure and feeding stuff is appreciated. The first plowing of cotton 
may be as deep and thorough as possible, but all subsequent workings ought to be 
as shallow as the character of the land will permit, since root-breaking to this plant 
is almost a disaster. The implements in general use for the cultivation of cotton are 
the scooter and scrape, the solid and buzzard-wing sweeps, the side harrows and the 
numerous cultivators. After everj' heavy rain the soil should be stirred and during 
drought a shallow implement run just deej) enough to break the continuity of the 
pores of the soil and to form an upper layer, which shall act as a mulch to conserve 
the moisture in the soil, has often been found highly beneficial. Grass is an enemy 
of the cotton planter and should never be permitted (if prevention is possible) to 
obtain ])ossession of his fields. In cotton as in all other crops the hoe should be 
used as little as possible. It is an element of cost excessive to bear and with this 
plant often causes the disease known as "sore shin" by breaking or removing the 
epidermis of the tender stalk in the effort of the hoeman to remove the last spire of 
grass. 

"When to plant, must be decided by the climate and by the character of the soil. 
When the ground is warm enough to promptly germinate the seed and give a vigor- 
ous healthy plant, then the seed can be wisely trusted in the earth. This is usually 
the case in this latitude in April. Planting in May is often hazardous, on account of 
the delay in germination, due to the prevalence of drought at this period. When 
May planting is practiced, the seed should be covered rather deeply and firmed with 
a light roller." 



COTTON. 93 

The advantages of tile drainage are shown by the results of experiments on 
"black slongh bottom" laud at the Alabama C.anebrake Station {B.4, B.14). 

After a three years' test of drilling as compared with chocking, the South Carolina 
Station {B. 2, n. iser.,B.18S9,p. 324) reports no great diftereuce of results from the two 
methods. Cliecking, however, saves hand hibor and gives the farmer more connuand 
over his crop. It is somewhat cheaper than drilling. 

A number of the stations have made experiments in planting cotton at different 
distances. In general the results favor rows 4 feet apart, witli plants from 2 to 3 
feet apart in the row. In Ga. B. 16 the following statements on this subject were 
made from expefience as confirmed by an experiment at the station: 

" (l) On land capable of making between 1 and 1.5 bales of cotton per acre the 
plants should not be closer than 4 by 2 feet, nor wider probably than 4 by 3 feet. 

" (2) The greater the distance given the more important it is to secure an early 
stand, thin out early, and give rapid cultivation. 

" (3) Close planting gives a larger yield in the early fall, or at the first and second 
pickings. (The 4 by 1 series in the experiment was 161 pounds ahead of the 4 by 2 
series at the close of the fourth picking, October 16.) This is because each plant, 
when planted close, will make nearly it not quite as many blooms in the first few 
weeks of blooming as each plant in widely planted rows. Between the date of the 
first and second pickings, a period of 12 days, 1 pound of cotton was yielded by 
every 15 plants of the 4 by 1 series, while in the 4 by 2 series 12 plants were required 
to 1 pound. When it is considered that there were only 5,005 plants to the acre in 
the 4 by 2 series against 9,250 plants in the 4 by 1 series, the explanation of the 
greater yield of the 4 by 1 series at the second picking is plain. At the fifth pick- 
ing, November 4, 43 plants in the 4 by 1 series yielded 1 j)ouud, while in the 4 by 2 
series 13 plants only yielded 1 pound." 

(Ala. College B. S {1SS8), B. 16, n. set:, B. 22, n. ser., B. 33; n. ser. ; Jla. Canehrake B. 4; 
Ark. B. IS; La. B. 22, B. 27, B. 8, 2d ser.) 

Shallow cultivation has, with an occasional exception, given better results than 
deep cultivation. The reason for this is found in the root system of the cotton plant, 
which is naturally small, the individual roots being small and delicate. At the South 
Carolina Station the roots of eight plants which had grown on light sandy soil with 
sandy subsoil were examined after the first picking of cotton. The taproots extended 
''straight down below 2 or 3 feet." The lateral roots commenced about 3 inches 
below the surface and for the most part did not go below 9 inches. Out of more than 
twenty plants grown on heavier loam soil, with compact subsoil, only one was found 
with a well-developed taproot below 9 inches. Most of the lateral roots commenced 
and were contained within 3 to 9 inches of the surface (S. C. B. 7, B. 1889, p. 
84). The danger of great injury to plants having such roots from deep cultivation 
is obvious. In the early part of the season, however, deep cultivation may be ben- 
eficial in keeping down grass which is often troublesome after spring rains. (Ark. R. 
1888, p. 117-) 

(Ala. College B. 3 (1888); Ark. R. 1889, p. 54; Ga. B. 11, B. 16; Miss. R. 1889, p. 13, R. 
1890, p. 16.) 

Experiments in cutting off the tops of cotton plants during growth have as a rule 
indicated that this practice decreased the yield, especially when the topi>ino- was 
done early in the season. (Ala. College B. 4 (1888); Ala. Canebrake B. 4; Ga. B. 11, B 
16; La. B. 27; Miss. R. 1889, p. 13; S. C. B. 2, n. ser., R. 1889, p. 332.) 

Fertilizer tests. — Experiments have been made at several stations with refer- 
ence to the kinds and ^.mounts of fertilizers to be used for cotton and the methods 
and times of their application. As in the case of other crops, the results have varied 
with the soil and climatic conditions. The conclusions drawn from some of the 
experiments which have been longest continued are given below. 

The South Carolina Station (B. 2, n. ser., R. 1889, p. 276) conducted experiments at 
Darlington and at Spartanburg for three years on lands which were greatly worn 



94 



COTTON. 



by years of wasteful tillage. At Darlington the soil was sandy, at Spartanhnrg a 
mixture of sand and clay. In both soils there was a deficiency of potash and phos- 
phoric acid. Among the general results of the experiments were the following: A 
combination of phosphoric acid, nitrogen, and potash makes the most effective fer- 
tilizer for cotton. Phosphoric acid is the most important element, and nitrogen is 
more important than potash. The required proportion of the different ingredients 
is 1 part of nitrogen, 2J of phosphoric acid, and f of potash. The amounts called 
for by a crop yielding 300 pounds of lint per acre are, nitrogen 20 pounds, phosphoric 
acid 50 pounds, potash 15 pounds. Beyond a certain limit, which varies with the 
physical and chemical condition of the soil, an increase in the amt)unt of fertilizer 
used will not be followed by an increase in the yield of cotton. In choosino- between 
muriate of potash, kainit, and sulphate of potash cost is the only factor which need 
be considered. Phosphoric acid is of value to cotton in proportion to its solubility. 
It makes little difference whether nitrogen is used in an organic or inorganic form. 
Stable manure containing organic nitrogen is the best fertilizer of its class and is last- 
ing or cumulative in its effects. Cotton-seed meal is somewhat better than cotton 
seed. Nitrate of soda should generally be applied along with the other fertilizers 
at the time of planting. The lime of marl used alone or in combination with other 
fertilizers is of no direct value to cotton. Mixed with acid phosphate it may even 
act injuriously by retarding or preventing its solution in the soil. Applied on 
leguminous crops, such as cowpeas or vetch, which are to be turned under as a prepa- 
ration for cotton, its indirect value is great. Copperas has no effect on cotton. 
Fertilizers may be indifferently drilled or applied broadcast where they are liberally 
used, but drilling is to be preferred where small amounts are employed. 

The following formulas for fertilizers per acre are based on the results above 
stated : 



(1) Muriate of potash pounds . . 30 

Acid phos^jhate do 312 

Nitrate of soda do 125 



(2) Muriate of potash . 

Acid phosphate 

Dried blood 



...do.... 30 
...do.... 334 
...do.... 167 



(3) Muriate of potash do . . . 

Acid phosphate do . . . 

Cotton-seed meal do . . . 



20 

281 
286 

10 



(4) Muriate of potash do. 

Acid phosphate (with potash), 

pounds 312 

Cotton-seed meal pounds . . 286 

(5) Cotton-seed hull (ashes) . . do 45 

Acid phosphate do 261 

Cotton meal do 286 

(6) Kainit do 58 

Acid phosphate do 300 

Nitrate of soda do 70 

Stable manure ton . . 1 



(8) Muriate of potash . . . pounds . . 20 

Acid phosphate do 300 

Nitrate of soda do 64 

Cotton seed bushels . . 23^ 

(9) Kainit pounds.. 64 

Acid phosphate do 273 

Cotton-seed meal do 143 

Cotton seed bushels . . 13J 

(10) Kainit pounds.. 45 

Acid phosphate do 264 

Cotton seed bushels.. 26J 

(11) Acid phosphate pounds.. 266 

Nitrate of soda do 13 

Stable manure tons.. 2 

(12) Ammoniated acid phosphate 

with potash (nitrogen 4 per 
cent, phosphoric acid 10 per 
cent, potash 3 per cent), 

pounds 500 



(7) Wood ashes (unleached) pounds. 164 

Acid phosphate pounds.. 261 

Cotton-seed meal do 286 

Experiments carried on in different localities in North Carolina have indicated 
that on the average a combination of 200 pounds acid phosphate, 100 pounds cotton- 



COTTON, LEAF BLIGHTS. 95 

seed meal, ami 50 pounds kaiiiifc will give good results (lY. C. E. lSSl,p. 125, R. 
1882, p. 70, U. 1SS5, p. GO, B. 1SS7, p. 68, R. ISSS, p. SO). 

The Louisiana Station {B.S {1SS7), B. 21) recommends a compost of 700 pounds 
of cotton seed meal, 1,100 pounds of acid phosphate, and 200 pounds of kainit. 
From 200 to 500 pounds of this mixture is to be used per acre. Wliere cottou seed and 
stable manure are available a useful compost may be made with 100 bushels of cotton 
seed, 100 bushels of manure, and 1 ton of acid phosphate. For sandy land 1,000 
pounds of kainit may be advantageously added. From 300 to 1,000 pounds of this 
compost should be applied xier acre. 

The Mississippi Station {R. 1SS9, p. 13, R. 1890, p. 7, R. 1891, p. 10) states that for 
the yellow clay soils of the hill region of that State the fertilizer for cotton should 
contain a liberal supply of potash and organic matter, with smaller amounts of 
pliosplioric acid and nitrogen. 

On the 'H>lack slough" laud of the Canebrako region of Alal)ama commercial fer- 
tilizers were found to be unprofitable (Ala. Canehrake B. 11). 

Comparisons of the effects of applying the fertilizer all at <mce before plautin"' 
and in fractions during the seasons of growth have given conflicting results. For 
accounts of experiments in this line see Ala. College B. 4 {1888), B. 22, n. ser., B. 
S3, n. ser., Ala. Canehrake B. 4; Ga. B. 10, B. 11; La. B. 27. 

{Ark. B. 1, R. 1888, pp. 8, 101, R. 1889, p. 46; Fla. B. 8, 3. 12; La. B. 2 {1886), B.26, 
B. 27; B. 7, 2d ser., B. 8, 2d ser., N. C. R. 1881, p. 125, R. 1882, p. 70, R. 1885, p. 60, 
R. 1887, p. 68, R. 1888, p. 81; Tenn. B. vol. IV, 5.) 

Cotton caterpillar {Aletia xylina [argillacea]). — The moth of this species is 
1 to 1^ inches across the wings and of a light brown color. The fore wino-s 
have a dark spot near the center and three very small white spots near the front 
edge. There are also several wavy lines crossing the wings. It flies at night and as 
a moth does no harm. It lays its eggs upon the under side of the leaves of cottou. 
These hatch in two or three days and as each female lays 150 to 200 eggs they in- 
crease rapidly. In about twenty days the worm attains full size and rolls itself up 
in a leaf; there it remains for about ten days, when it reappers as a moth to lay eggs 
for another brood. Thus there may be from three to six broods in a season. The 
adult moth will not live through the Avinter unless it goes far enough south to escape 
freezing weather. 

London purple and Paris green, either dry or in water, are nsed against the cat- 
erpillars with good effect. A kerosene extract of pyrethrnra has been tried with 
good results in Arkansas and has not the evil effect sometimes experienced with the 
arsenites. {Ark. B. 12, B. 15, R. 1890, p. 62; Fla. B. 9; Ga. B. 6; N. C. B. 78; S. C. 
R. 1888, p. 27; Tenn. Special B. E.) 

Cotton-hull ashes. — See Ashes. 

Cotton hulls. — Preparatory to pressing the oil from cotton seed, the mills grind 
the seed and sift out the tough seed coat. Though cotton hulls consist of these 
tough fragments, chiefly fiber, yet they possess considerable value when fed with 
cotton-seed meal. Since the hulls cost only from $2.50 to $1 a ton they are largely 
used near the oil mills as a substitute for hay. Beef from such feed is said to be of 
excellent quality. Recently they have been fed to cows to some extent. A taste 
for hulls is readily acquired, and there is no evidence that they have any injurious 
effect on the health of the animal, even when fed in largo quantities. For account 
of feeding experiments with cotton hulls see Cattle, feeding for beef and for growth. 
For composition see Appendix, Tables I and II. 

A digestion experiment with steers at the North Carolina Station {B. 80c) showed 
the following rate of digestibility for cotton hulls: Protein 25 per cent, fat 80 per 
cent, nitrogen-free extract 40 per cent, and cellulose 27 per cent. See also Tex.B. 15. 

Cotton, leaf blights. — A common fungous disease of cotton is described in Ala. 
College B. 36 undev the nsime "yellow leaf blight," for the disease formerly called 



96 



COTTON ROOT ROT. 



rust of cotton. The name ''rust" is misleading and confusing, as this is not a^ 
disease caused by parasitic fungi, but is now considered to be a physiological di8-| 
ease, due to a lack of nutrition or power of assimilation. Fungi of various kinds 
are often found but they are present on account of the weakened vitality of the 
plant. This disease is considered due in a great measure to the impoverished con-^ 
dition of the soil, often brought about by continuous cropping with cotton, or on' 
poorly drained and surface-washed soils. It may be largely prevented by restoring 
the fertility of the soil and by deep and thorough cultivation. Experiments in 
several States have shown the value of certain fertilizers, especially kaiuit, in pre- 
venting this disease as well as increasing the quantity of the crop. 

Red leaf blight is a name given to a similar disease of cotton often seen upon worn- 
out, sandy land. Treatment similar to that for the yellow leaf blight is advised. 
(Ala. College, B.36,n. ser.). 

Cottonroot rot (Ozoniiim anrlcomum). — The plant attacked by this disease sud- 
denly wilts and becomes dry in about twenty-four hours. At first plants are affected 
here and there throughont the field, from which centers the infection spreads, pro- 
ducin"- the so-called *' dead spots " in fields. It appears in June and continues until 
frost. 

If the root of a diseased i>lant be examined a dense mat of fungus will be found, 
and in numerous places small protuberances. The filaments of the fungus penetrate 
the tissues of the cotton root. The spots are reddish at first but soon become brown 
and the softening and decay of the root is very rapid. Sometimes the plant will 
send out new roots above the diseased portion and by these is sustained through a 
period of drought, but the return of rains hastens the rot and death of the plant. 
The same fungus is said to infest sweet potatoes, causing great loss to growers. 

So far only preventive treatment can be recommended. Destroy all the diseased 
plants, rotate crops, and use good fertilizers. It will not do to follow cotton with 
sweet potatoes, peas, or grapes, as they are liable to the attacks of the same diseases. 
Use corn, millet, oats, or similar crops for two or three years, (Ala. College B. 21 n. 
ser.; Tex. B. 4, B. 7.) 

Cotton seed and cotton-seed meal. — According to the Tenth U. S. Census 
Reports, the products from 100 pounds of cotton seed at the oil mills are approxi- 
mately as follows : 

Pounds. 

Cotton-seed meal 37. 5 

Cotton-seed oil 12. 5 

Cotton-seed hulls 48.9 

Short lint from hulls 1. 1 

100 

For the relative composition of cotton seed and cotton-seed meal see Appendix, 
Taltles I and II. The fertilizing ingredients contained in the two materials are given 
as follows (Tenn. B. vol. IF, 5): 

Fertilizing ingredieuis in cotton seed and cotton-seed meal. 





Cotton 
seed. 


Cotton-seed 
meal. 




Per cent. 
7.04 
3.07 
1.02 
1.17 


Per cent. 
7.04 
8.14 
3.25 
2.32 






Potash 





COTTON SEED AND COTTON-SEED MEAL. 97 

The high fertilizing value of cottou-seed meal has led to its employment directly 
as a fertilizer. A more rational practice is to feed the meal to animals and apply 
the manure to the soil. From 80 to 90 per cent of the fertilizing materials of the 
meal will be voided by the animal in the manure. 

COTTOX SEKD AND COTTON-SEED MEAL FOR MILK AND BUTTER PRODUCTION. — 

The Texas Station {B. 11) found that as compared with corn-and-cob meal, feeding 
cottonseed or cotton-sccd meal improved the creaming of the milk in deep setting, and 
sevei-al stations have found that it tends to give a firmer, harder butter (see Butter- 
making, effect of food on ehnrnabUity and on quality of butter). In experiments in two 
years at the Maine Station {R. lSS5-'86, p. 65, R. 1887, p. 84) the substitution of 
cottou-seed meal for an equal quantity of corn meal in each case increased the pro- 
duction of both millc and butter to a proiitable extent. 

At the Mississippi Station {B. 11, B. IS, B. 15) cotton seed at $9 was found more 
economical than cotton-seed meal at $20, and the latter was cheaper than corn meal 
at $25 per ton. The same station {B. 21) concludes from three years' work that "the 
milk and butter from cows fed on steamed cotton seed cost less than that from cows 
fed on raw cotton seed, and but little more than one-half as much as that from cows 
fed on cotton-seed meal. The butter from steamed cotton seed is superior in quality 
to that from either raw seed or cotton-seed meal." 

Cotton-seed meal Avas compared with equal quantities of gluten meal and linseed 
meal, fed singly, at the Massachusetts State Station {B. 41). When tliese were fed 
with hay the yield of milk was highest on cotton-seed meal in the case of five out of 
six cows, Avith no material change in composition of milk, but when fed with corn 
stover or hay and silage the gluten meal compared well with the cotton-seed meal. 
Making allowance for the value of the fertilizing ingredients, which is highest in case 
of the cotton-seed meal, the net cost of the cotton- seed meal ration was the lowest of 
these grains. 

Feeding 6 pounds of cotton-seed meal per head and per day did not seem to affect the 
health of the animals at the Pennsylvania Station {B.17). This station compared cot- 
ton-seed meal with wheat bran, pound for pound, with the result that the milk yield 
increased about one-fifth and the butter quite materially on cotton-seed meal; the 
melting point of the butter was higher, but the general quality of the butter was 
rated considerablj' lower than that produced on bran. 

Cotton seedandcotton-seedmealforbeef production. — ^i; Calves. — TheMis- 
sissippi Station {B. 8) secured results in fattening calves, which were favorable to 
cotton-seed products. At the Pennsylvania Station {B. 17) three young calves were 
fed daily 1 pound of cotton-seed meal mixed with hot water, in addition to skim 
milk. Two died, but the third made a fair gain. A post mortem examination of 
one of the calves showed inflammation of the lungs and pleurae. {N. T. State B. 
1890, p. 8, R. 1891, p. 112; Texas B. 14; Vt. B. 1890, p. 88; Wis. B. 1884, p. 78.) 

(2) Steers. — Cotton seed and cotton-seed meal have been compared on steers at 
several stations. With cotton-seed meal at $20, raw or cooked cotton seed at $7, 
and hay at $6 per ton, the Texas Station (B. 6) found the cost of food per lOOpounds 
of gain in the case of native steers three to four years old to be, on cotton-seed meal 
$4.47, on boiled cotton seed $2.85, and on raw cotton seed $2.86. The gains were 
largest on cotton-seed meal and on boiled cotton seed. 

In a trial {Tex. B. 10) of feeding silage and hay with boiled cotton seed and with 
cotton-seed meal, the average daily gain with cotton seed was 1.82 pounds, and with 
cotton-seed meal 2.54 pounds; and the average cost per 100 pounds of gain was $2.80 
with the seed and $3.83 with the meal. 

Two comparisons of raw cotton seed and cotton-seed me.al on native steers at the 
Arkansas Station (i?.i<?96',2>.i<?4), feeding each with cotton hulls and pea hay, re- 
sulted advantageously to the cotton-seed meal as far as gain was concerned, the 
animals gaining from i to f pound more per day on that food than on cotton seed. 
2094— No. 15 7 



98 COTTON SEED AND COTTON-SEED MEAL. 

In one case the cost of food per pound of gain was more and in the other less on 
cotton-seed meal. 

As between cotton seed or cotton-seed meal and corn meal, in experiments at the 
Southern stations, where cotton-seed meal is cheap and corn meal relatively expen- 
sive, show that rations consisting largely of corn meal have usually resulted in a 
more costly gain than those consisting largely of cotton-seed products. ''The results 
of two years' feeding experiments bear strong evidence to the superior feediugqual- 
ities of cotton-seed products and silage over corn and hay for cattle" {Tex. B. 10). 

Experiments extendiiig over a number of years were made at the Pennsylvania 
Agricultural College {B. 6, B. 10, B. 12) to compare corn meal and cotton-seed meal. 
In the trial in 1881-82 with corn meal at $30 and cotton-seed meal at $40 per ton, 
the result "was decidedly in favor of the mixed ration of corn meal and cotton-seed 
meal."' In 1882-'83, with these feeds at $26 and $31.50 per ton, respectively, "there 
was A'ery little difference in the cost of production with corn meal alone and with 
the mixture of corn meal and cotton-seed meal." In 1883-84, with the prices at 
$27.20 and $30, respectively, the substitution of cotton-seed meal for a part of the 
corn meal diminished the cost of production and also the quantity of food required 
for a pound of gain. In 1884-85, with the prices at $18 and $30, respectively, the 
results were slightly in favor of the cotton-seed meal ration. As a general rule, in 
these trials the cotton-seed meal ration gave the largest gain in weight. 

At the Maine Station {B. 1SS7, p. 89) the effect was tried of replacing 1^ pounds of 
corn meal by a like amount of cotton-seed meal or linseed meal, feeding like amounts 
of hay in both cases. With the coru-meal ration (3i pounds corn meal) the average 
gain per day was 0.36 pound and the cost of food per pound of gain 28 cents; and 
with the richer mixed grain ration the average gain per day was 1.16 pounds and 
the cost per pound 9 cents. Corn meal was reckoned at $24 and cotton-seed meal at 
$26 per ton. {Me. B. 1890, p. 71; Mo. College B. 2; Pa. B. 1886, pj). 177, 205; Tenn. B. 
vol. II. 3; Tex. B. 6, B. 10; Va. B. 3.) *• 

Effect of cotton sked and cotton-seed meal on the health of animals.— 

Cattle and sheep.— An investigation of the results secured by farmers in feeding 
cotton hulls and cotton-seed meal to steers, cows, and sheep was reported in Teim. 
B. vol. II, 3. No injurious effect on the health of the animals was reported. Tex. B. 
11 states that all heavy feeding of cotton seed and cotton-seed meal must be done in 
cool weather on account of the health of the animals. The Arkansas Station {B. 9) 
details the methods of those who feed cotton-seed meal and hulls to steers on a large 
scale. If the bowels become too loose some hay is fed with the cotton-seed meal 
and hulls. 

Miss. B. 13 states that cows at the Mississippi Station ate as much as 12 pounds of 
cotton seed per day and others ate as much as 10 pounds of cotton-seed meal per day 
without ill effects on health, but these were chiefly native cows and light milkers. 
In another trial at the same station (£.75) several lots of cows were agaiu fed on heavy 
cotton-seed rations. Each animal of one lot had daily 9.5 pounds of cotton-seed 
meal; others ate daily 10.6 pounds roasted cotton seed; and others 9.5 pounds raw 
cotton seed. Again there is no mention of injury to the health of the animals. 

At the Pennsylvania Station {B. 17) milch cows were fed a daily ration of 6 pounds 
of cotton-seed meal without any ill effects. The same bulletin reports the death of 
two out of three calves, 1^ to 2 months old, fed 1 pound of cotton-seed meal per head 
daily with skim milk. The third calf Avas thrifty and made good growth. 

The North Carolina Station {B. 81) reports that two steers fed from 3 to 5 pounds 
of cotton-seed meal with from 15 to 20 pounds of hulls each per day gained well and 
appeared healthy, but "there appeared indications that the digestion of the animals 
had been impaired. " 

Pj</s.— The Texas Station {B. 21) made an extensive test of the effect of cotton- 
seed meal and of roasted, boiled, and soaked cotton seed on the health of pigs. 
Death usually occurred in from six to eight weeks after cotton seed or cotton seed 
meal was introduced into the ration. All the ratious contained a. very large per cent 



COWPEA. 



99 



of cotton-seed or meal. The mortality of tlio pigs fed on cotton seed meal was 87 
per cent, on roasted cotton seed 75 per cent, and on boiled cotton seed 25 per cent. 

The bulletin also states that in previous years the swine on the farm have died 
soon after a very small quantity of cotton-seed meal was added to the slop. 

At the Virginia Station {B. 10) pigs were fed all they would eat of a ration of five 
parts cotton-seed meal, two parts bran, and two parts beef scraps, giving a nutritive 
ratio of 1:2.35. All died. 

Cottonwood (roi>»?«8 moni7i/cra).— The cottonwood as noted in S. Dal: B. .?5 ''has 
been n)ore used than any other tree in the phmtations of the Western prairies. It is 
liardy, is the most rapid grower of any of tlie natives, is propagated readily either 
from seeds or cuttings, and makes firewood more quickly than any species." It 
reaches its highest development further south, but attains large size in South Dakota 
under favorable conditions. It is most at home on rich bottom lands, but is also 
successful on high prairies. Objections are that it is not a dense foliage tree and 
does not prevent weed growth (its most serious defect) ; that its wood is of little 
value; that it is a rank feeder and not a good neighbor for more valuable trees, and 
that it receives immense damage from the cottonwood leaf beetle. Its one virtue of 
rapid growth is not thought sufficient to warrant its use in groves. (See also S. Dak., 
B. 12 B. 15 B. 20, B. 29.) In B. 15 an experiment is reported in using cottonwood as 
a 'stock for grafting silver-leafed poplars. Of 100 whip grafts only 2 lived, but of 
400 wedge grafts aliout 40 per cent grew, usually formiug a perfect union. In 
Minn. B. 24, while the ordinary tree is not approved except for wind-breaks, a better 
variety is noted "with yellow heartwood and perhaps larger-leafed, called yellow 
cottonwood found in the Mississippi Valley," of which the timber "for many pur- 
poses will compare with white pine." A variety with golden-green leaves, consid- 
ered as ornamental, is noted in the same bulletin and named in some station lists. 

At the Nebraska Station {B. 11) an investigation was made of the question whether 
the cottonwood has any secondary sexual characters. Observations on a large num- 
ber of trees indicated that the staminate trees on the whole show leaves earlier, and 
hold them later than the pistillate, though this is not invariably the case ; and that 
a greater number of lateral buds than terminal are developed in the staminate, while 
the opposite is true of the pistillate trees. These differences, however, are ascribed 
to the consumption of energy by the pistillate trees in producing fruit, and hence are 
considered primary rather than secondary characters ; accordingly the main question 
is answered in the negative. 

Cottonwood leaf beetle {Una scvipta and L. laj^poniea).— This insect attacks not 
only the cottonwood, but also the Balm of Gilead, Russian poplar, and willow trees, 
and in those States where arboriculture is important it is often quite troublesome. The 
adult is a variously spotted beetle, about one-half inch long. It hibernates under 
rubbish, to appear on the trees as soon as warm weather comes on. It is advisable 
to kill the beetles as soon as possible to prevent their laying eggs. The yellow eggs 
are laid in bunches and hatch in about a week. The young larvai are nearly black. 
At first they keep close together on the under side of the leaf, but soon scatter to eat 
it all but the ribs. In this way the trees may be defoliated. Along their bodies are 
little tubercles from which they eject small drops of offensive smelling fluid. When 
full grown the larvte frequently collect in large numbers near the ground upon the 
trunk of the tree. Here they undergo their final transformation and become beetles. 
The whole cycle from egg to insect is passed in about a month. Paris green and 
Loudon purple, 1 pound to 100 gallons of water, will destroy them. ( Colo. B. 6; Nehr 
B. 14; S. Dak. B. 22.) 

Couch grass. — See Weeds. 
Cow cabbage. — See KaU. 

Cowpea {Yxgna \_Do\\c]ios\ Aatianr/ rar. siHensfs).— A leguminous annual, of uncer- 
tain botanical relations, havkig a luxuriant growth of vines and producing long 
pods containing edible peas (or beans). Being a native of warm climates it growa 



100 



COWPEA. 



best in our Sontliern States. When grown in the North it produces a large amount 
of green forage but will not ripen seed (Mass. State B. 18SS, pp. 51, 118, 222; Minn. B. 
11). A number of varieties, such as Black, Red Tory, Clay, and Unknown are grown 
{La. 8, 2d ser. B. 19, 2d ser.). The cowpea is extensively grown in the Southern 
States for green forage and hay, but especially as a crop to be plowed under to enrich 
the soil. Experiments at the Massachusetts State (B. 36, E. 1884, p. 94, R. 1885, p. 
71, R. 1886, p. 79, B. 1887, p. 36, R. 1888, p. 118, R. 1889, p. 190), and Connecticut Storrs 
Stations {B. 6, B. 1888, R. 1890) have indicated that cowpeas may be a desirable 
crop for Northern farmers wishing to improve their farms by green manuring and 
diversification of crops. 

Composition. — The chief value of cowpeas is due to the large amount of nitrogen 
contained in the plants. A part of this nitrogen is collected from the air (see Legu- 
minous plants and Green manuring). Foraualyses of thegreen vines, hay, and seed see 
Appendix, Tables L and II. 

The relative amounts of fertilizing ingredients per acre in cowpeas, oats, and 
corn as given hy the South Carolina Station (R. 1889, p. 176) are as follows: 



I 





Cow peas 

(vines). 


Oats (grain 

and 

straw). 


Com (lier- 
nels and 
stover). 




Poimd.1. 

205. 

33.0 

155.0 


Pounds. 
35.0 
12.0 
48.0 


Pounds. 
45.0 
14.0 
46.0 









(Ala. College B. 14, n.ser.; Conn. Storrs R. 1890, p. 27; Ga. B. 4, B. 11; Fa. B. 6, R. 
1888, p. 44; S. C. B. 8, R. 1888, p. 125.) 

Culture. — The North Carolina Station (B. 73) makes the following statements 
from the standpoint of the Southern farmer: "The cowpea, being a tender annual, 
should always be sown in the spring. It will give a good yield sown as late as July 1, 
but the earlier it is sown after danger of frost is past the heavier the yield. The pea 
is usually sown broadcast at the rate of 2 bushels per acre and plowed and harrowed 
in. The cowpea is not affected by heat and is less sensitive to drought than any of 
the clovers. If cut when coming into bloom, the roots will sprout and give a second 
and even a third cutting, if the season is long enough. The yield of air-dry hay is 
from 2 to 4 tons at each cutting, but greater yields have been obtained. When al- 
lowed to mature seed, the yield is 15 to 25 bushels per acre." The difficulty of cur- 
ing the hay is one objection to this use of cowpeas. The seeds are also troublesome 
to gather and thresh out. 

That cowpeas are not adapted to all localities is evidenced by experiments at the 
Kansas Station {R. 1888, p. 63, R. 1889, p. 42), where the forage obtained from them 
was of poor quality. 

Manuking. — Experiments have shown that cowpeas respond readily to applica- 
tions of potash and phosphates when the soils used are deficient in these elements 
(Go. B. 3, B. 17; N. C. B. 73). 

Manurial v.\lue. — Inasmuch as cowpeas are large gatherers of nitrogen, and 
also secure considerable amounts of potash and phosphoric acid through their exten- 
sive root system, which reaches down to the subsoil, they have a high fertilizing 
value. How to get the greatest benefit from the fertilizing constituents of cowpeas 
is one of the problems on which the stations are working. If the cowjieas are 
plowed under in the fall and the ground left bare until spring a large share of the 
nitrogen they contain will be leached away. By sowing wheat or rye after the cow- 
peas are plowed under part of this loss may be avoided. If the vines are cut and 
allowed to lie on the ground during the winter the nitrogen is rapidly lost. In an 
experiment at the Alabama College Station (B.14, n. ser. ) it was fotmd that vines gath- 
ered in October had from 1.45 to 2.62 per cent of nitrogen, while if left on the ground 



cows. 101 

until January they harl only about 0.70 per cent, i. e., they lost two- thirds of their 
most valuable fertilizing ingredients. 

If the vines are removed from tlie soil only a relativelj' small part of the fertiliz- 
ing constituents of the plant remaius in the roots and stubble. lu one exjieriment 
{Ala. College B. 14, n. ser.) it was found that on the average the air-dried material iu 
the A'ines weighed six times as much as that in the roots and stubble. If, however, 
the viues can be fed to stock in the form of hay or silage aud the manure returned 
to the soil, the most economical use will be made of this crop {Ala. College B. 16, n. 
ser.; Ala. Canehrake B. 9, B. 10; X. C. B. 73). 

See also La. B. S, B.27 ; Xebr. B. 6, B. 11. 

Cows. — Under this heading will be treated (1) tests of dairy breeds, (2) effect of 
grain ration for cows at pastur<i, (3j cut vs. uncut corn stover, (4) mixed rations for 
cows, (5) warm vs. cold water, aud (6) miscellaneous work not otherwise mentioned. 

For feeding experiments for milk see below and under C'oj'w meai. Gluten meal, Flax- 
seed, Linseed meal, Cotton seed and cottonseed meal. Silage, Soiling. For feeding ex- 
periments with cows for beef, see Cattle, feeding for beef and for growth. For milk, 
see Milk. For effect of food on milk, see Milk, effect of food. For effect of spaying 
on milk flow, see Sjyaying. 

Cows, TESTS OF DAIRY BREEDS. — Quite extensive tests of dairy breeds of cows 
have been undertaken by the Maine, New Jersey, and New York State Stations (Me. 
R. 1SS9, p. 106, R. lS90,p. 17; N. J. B. 57, B. 61, B. 65, B. 68, B. 77, R. 1SS9, p. 178, R. 
1890, p. 169; X. Y. State B. 18, B. 21, B. 84, R. 1890, pp. 171, 401, R. 1891, pp. 28, 299). 

At the Maiue Station the test included the Jersey, Ayrshire, and Holstein breeds, 
two registered cows of each breed being used. The test continued for two years. 
The two Jerseys averaged 629 pounds of butter per year, the two Holsteius 541 
pounds, aud the two Ayrshires 396 pounds. The Holsteius gave 16,738 pouuds of 
milk per year, the Ayrshires 13,225 pounds, and the Jerseys 10,921 pounds. The 
Holsteius produced the largest quantity of milk solids per year aud there was little 
difference between the Jerseys and Ayrshires in this respect. Calculating the cost 
of the milk and butter in the case of the several breeds on the basis of the first cost 
of the food and making no allowance for the value of manure or of skim milk and 
buttermilk, the Holstein milk cost the least and the Jersey milk the most per quart 
or pound, aud the butter fat in the Holstein and Ayrshire milk cost on an average 
from 20 to 30 per cent more than that in the Jersey milk. In other words, the cost 
of food per pound of butter fat was 16 and 23 cents with the .Jerseys, 22.6 aud 31.4 
cents with the Holsteius, and 31 and 32 cents with the Ayrshires, resi^ectively. The 
average loss of fat in butter-making (skim aud buttermilk) was least with the 
Jersey milk, and the Jerseys uniformly produced the richest cream. 

Concerning the cost of keepiug, the food for a Holstein weighing 1,200 pounds 
cost only $11 per year more than than for a Jersey weighing 900 pouuds. "The 
quantity of food has not been iu proportion to the weight of the animals." 

The New Jersey Station commenced in May, 1889, a test of Ayrshire, Guernsey, 
Holstein, Jersey, and Shorthorn breeds, which was prematurely terminated by fire 
in November, 1890. There were three representative cows of each breed. The data 
secured show that the Holsteins gave the largest yield of milk, the Ayrshires and 
Shorthorns the next largest, aud the Guernseys and Jerseys the smallest yield. The 
average cost of food per quart of milk ranged from 1.66 cents with the Ayrshires to 
1.91 cents with the .Jerseys; and the cost per pound of butter fat was, Guernseys 
15.3 cents. Jerseys 17.9 cents, Ayrshires 20.6 cents, Shorthorns 20.8 cents, aud Hol- 
steins 22.4 cents. The breeds are divided into three groups on the basis of the cost 
of food i)er quart of milk or per pound of butter fat, as follows: (1) Guernseys and 
Jerseys, (2) Ayrshires aud Shorthorns, and (3) Holsteins; but while the first group 
leads in cheapness of butter production the third group (Holstein) leads in cheap- 
ness of milk production. "In the milk class the average cost of a quart of milk is 
less than in the butter class, and in the butter class the average cost of a pound of 



102 



cows. 



butter is less than in the milk class." The Guernseys were dry for the shortesit 
period; the Ayrsbires and Jerseys averaged about a mouth each, and the Holsteius 
and Shorthorns about two months a year. 

The New York State Station has in progress the most extensive test of breeds of 
dairy cows undertaken by any station. The test was commenced in April, 1889, and 
includes six breeds, Holstein, Ayrshire, Jersey, Guernsey, American Holderness, and 
Devon, with from two to four cows of each breed. The observations thus far pub- 
lished are for one (the first) period of lactation in the case of each cow. The aver- 
age daily yields of milk and butter during this period were as follows : 

Average daily yield of milk and iutter. 



Breed. 



Jersey 

Guerusey . . 

Devon 

Holstein . . 
Holderness 
Ayrshire .. 



Milk. 



Butter. 



Pounds. 


Pound. 


14.9 


0.89 


16.6 


0.90 


12.0 


0.51 


24.3 


0.79 


14.9 


0.52 


18.6 


0.61 



The Holsteins gave the largest amount of milk; but the Guernseys, closely fol- 
lowed by the Jerseys, gave the largest average yield of butter per day. " If the 
milk of the Holsteins did not lose so much fat in creaming [by deep setting] the 
Holsteins would easily make the largest amount of butter." It is believed this ex- 
cessive loss of fat may be remedied by using a separator. The fat of the Guerusey 
milk was recovered most completely in butter-making ; that is, there was least loss 
of fat in skim milk and buttermilk in case of this milk. The average amount of 
butter made from 1 pound of fat in the milk was Guernseys, 1.07 pounds; Jerseys, 
1.04; Holdernesses, 0.98; Devons, 0.97; Ayrshircs, 0.93; and Holsteins, 0.88 pounds. 
The Jersey milk contained more fat per 100 pounds of milk and creamed slightly 
less perfectly than the Guernsey milk. 

The cost of food per quart of milk was lowest in case of the Holsteins, Ayrshires, 
and Guernseys, in the order named, and highest in case of the Jerseys. The average 
cost of food per pound of butter during one period of lactation was Guernseys 14.07 
cents. Jerseys 16.7 cents, Holdernesses 22.04 cents, Devons 22.17 cents, Holsteins 
22.61, and Ayrshires 23.03 cents. The calculated profits per cow from butter-making 
during ten weeks were largest with the Guernseys and Jerseys and smallest with 
the Ayrshires and Devons; the Holsteins and Holdernesses were but slightly better 
than the tAvo latter in this respect. 

An estimate is made as to the amount of cheese which the milk of each breed 
might be expected to yield. This is a calclulatiou merely based upon experience at 
the station in making cheese from different kinds of milk. From this estimate it 
appears that for cheese production the Holsteins stand first, with the Guernseys 
closely following. The cost of food per pound of cheese was lowest with the Guern- 
seys, Holsteins, and Ayrshires, in the order named. 

From the results thus far secured at the New York State Station " it appears that the 
Guernseys and Jerseys are by far the most profitable for butter production, as com- 
pared with the other breeds, while for cheese production the Holsteins stand first 
with the Jerseys closely following." 

For analyses of breed milk see Milk, properties and composition. 

Cows, EFFECT OF GiiAiN RATION WITH PASTURAGE. — For three seasons (1889, 1890, 
1891) the New York Cornell Station (B.13, B.22, B. 36) compared the effects of grain 
V8. no grain for cows on pasturage. The grain consisted of a mixture of cotton-seed 



cows. 103 

meal and bran fed alone or witli malt sprouts or corn meal. Tlie first two years the 
pasturage was luxuriant and there was no increased yield of either milk or butter 
from feeding the grain. The yield of butter was practically the same for the lots 
with and without grain. The first year the millc fell off in yield but became 
richer in fat on grain. The third year the pasture was at no time verj' luxuriant. The 
eight cows receiving grain produced just enough more milk and butter to pay for the 
sost of the grain. The last two years the changes in live weight were observed and 
it was found that the cows receiving grain increased more in live weight than those 
receiving no grain. 

The Kansas Station {B. ISSS, p. 69) observed an increased yield of milk and butter 
when either corn meal, wheat bran, or ground oats were fed in addition to pastur- 
age, but this increase did not nearly pay the cost of the grain. It should be men- 
tioned that in the above experiments no account is taken of the increased value of 
the manure or the saving of pastures due to the grain fed. 

Cows, CUT vs. UNCUT CORN STOVER AS FOOD. — In a trial of feeding uncut cornstalks 
to cows, the Wisconsin Station (E. 1SS4, p. 11) found that 34 per cent of the whole 
weight of the fodder was left uneaten. Three experiments on the value of cut 
and uncut stover followed {Wis. B. lSS5,p. 9, B. 1SS6, p. 34). The first two were 
with Pride of the North and the third with Stowell Evergreen corn. " In the first 
trial our uneaten fodder was 14 per cent of the total fed, while the gain by cutting 
was 36 per cent ; in the second trial the uneaten stalks were 30 per cent of the total 
fed, while the gain was 31 per cent by cutting ; aud in the third trial the stalks uneaten 
were 9 per cent, Avhile the gain by cutting was also just 9 per cent. It will be seen 
that there must be considerable value in the stalks of corn after they are stripped 
of leaves." 

Cows, MIXED RATIONS. — For formulas for mixing rations for dairy cows see Me. 
B. 1887, p. 93; N. H. B. 4; N. J. B. 10, B. 1883, p. 73; N. Y. State B. 17; JSf. C. B. 66. 

Cows, WARM VS. COLD WATER. — Experiments have been made at a number of 
stations to compare the yield of milk and butter on warm and cold water. The most 
extensive of these were at the Wisconsin Station {B. 1SS9, p. 146, B. lS90,p. 163), 
where trials were made for two years, using six cows each year. Ice water was 
compared with water heated at 70^ F, Most of the cows seemed to prefer the warm 
water. As a rule the cows drank more water, ate more food, and produced slightly 
more milk on the warm Avater than on the cold. The increase in milk solids did not 
correspoiul with the increase in yield of milk. '' The water in the milk was greatest 
following the days when the most water was drank." As to the effect of the warm 
and cold water on the weight of the cows, the results in the two years are not con- 
cordant. The first year the majority gained in weight on cold water and fell off in 
weight on warm water, although they ate and drank more on warm water. In the 
second year no such relation was noticed. 

In trials at the Minnesota Station {B. 1888, p. 119) there was practically no differ- 
ence between the amounts of food eaten, of milk and butter produced, and of milk 
and of food required per pound of butter while on warm water (70°) and on cold 
(ice) water. With * single exception more warm water than cold water was drank. 
However, the cows gained more in live weight on cold water than on warm water. 
The indications were that with good shelter and care cold water was as good as 
warm water. 

In a trial Avith two cows at Xew York State Station (7?. 1889, p. 290) the yield of 
milk averaged about 1+ pounds more on Avater heated to 96° F. than on water at 36^ 
F. and the cows drank about 9 pounds more per day of the warm water. Whether 
or not there Avere changes in the composition of the milk is not stated. 

In a trial Avith a single cow at ^Michigan Station (B. 1888, p. 139) more milk and 
slightly more butter Avere i>roduced on Avarm water and more water was diank. 

See also Lid. B. 24; Vt. B. 1889, p. 54. 



104 CRAB APPLE. 

Cows, MISCELLANEOUS. — Experiuioiits with various feeding stuffs — bone meal (Vt. 
B. 1SS7, p. SI) ; light vs. heavy meal ( Vt. B. 1890, p. S8) ; acid and putrefying food 
(iV. ¥. State B. 106, B. 110, B. 114, B. 1884, p. 49) ; timothy vs. clover hay {Me. B. 1887, 
p. 84) ; timothy vs. Bermuda hay {Miss. B. 13, B. 15, B. 1891, p. 26) ; glucose or starch 
waste {N. Y. B. 1885, p. 10) ; malt sprouts ( Wis. B. 1884, p. 78) ; brewers' grains {N. 
Y. State B. 104); corn meal vs. cotton-seed meal and palm-nut meal {N. Y. State B. 
1890, p. 8) ; comparison of silage with grain feed and of corn meal alone or with 
shorts with gluten meal and bran {N. Y. State B. 34, B. 35) ; comparison of a mixture 
of bran and buckwheat middlings with a mixture of corn meal, cotton-seed meal, 
and linseed meal ( Vt. B. 1890, p. 88) ; sorghum seed {N. J. B. 24). 

Experiments with reference to effect of food on milk : (1) On quantity and quality, 
by heavy feeding of grain ( Vt. B. 1890, p. 75), by change from barn to pasture ( Vt. 
B. 1890, p. 107), by different rations {N. Y. Slate B. 1883, p. 156) ; (2) on yield, effect 
of nutritive ratio {N. H. B. 13; Wis. B. 1886, p. 147) ; (3) on composition {Mass. B. 
1884, p. 59) ; (4) general {N. Y. State B. 33, B. 1883, p. 95). 

Observations on a herd of milch cows {Conn. State B. 1891, p. 96); rations fed to 
milch cows by New York dairymen {N. Y. State B. 17, n. ser.); salting cows {Miss. B. 
1888, p. 42; N. Y. State B. 1883, p. 116) ; how much water does a cow drink? {N. Y. 
State B. 1886, p. 24) ; amount and value of manure from cow (iV. Y. Cornell B. 27). 

Experiments in feeding cows in general: Iowa B. 14; Mass. State B. 36; Mich. B. 
4; Miss. B. 1889, p. 36; N. H. B. 1888, p. 47; N. Y. State B. 23, B. 1886, p. 28; Wis. B. 1886, 
p. 99. 

Crab apple. — Tests of varieties are reported in Arh. B. 1890, p. 35 ; Colo. B. 1889 
p. 117 ; N. Y. State B. 1883, p. 35, B. 1889, p. 349; B. I. B. 7; S. Bak. B. 26. 

At the Massachusetts Hatch Station {B. 1888, p. 18) the experiment was tried of 
girdling crab-apple trees to increase fruitfulness. Rings of bark were removed on 
different trees one-eighth, one quarter, and one-half inch wide, close to the ground, 
just below the main branches, and on one or more of the main branches. The "-irdles 
near the ground healed perfectly, those under the main branches sufficiently well 
for a good growth, those on the branches not so well. A marked increase of fruit- 
fulness resulted, but the effect on the permanent health of the tree could be deter- 
mined only by observations through many years. 

At the same station {B. 17) Siberian crab trees were top-budded with apple to test 
the value of the former as a stock. The buds all grew weU the first season, but sub- 
sequently very little. 

Crab grass. — See Grasses. 

Cranberry {Vacciniiim oxi/ooccm).— The investigation of the cranberry at the sta- 
tions has related almost entirely to overcoming its insect and fungus pests, and has 
been confined to the States of Massachusetts and New Jersey. In Mass. Raich B. 19 
some statistics of the cranberry industry in that State are given. The estimated 
yields of nine years are given, that for 1891 being 157,000 barrels and its probable 
value $1,000,000. 

Sugar and ash analyses of cranberries and an ash analysis of the vines are given 
in Mass. State B. 1889, p. 274,302, B. 1890, p. 305, B. 1891, p. 337 (see Appendix, Table 
III). 

Cranberry gall fungus {Synchytrium vaccinii).— This disease, although very local 
in New Jersey, threatens the extinction of the plant in some places. It produces 
minute cup-shaped, bright red outgrowths upon leaves, stems, flowers, and fruit, 
and so robs the plant of its vitality as to render it worthless. It also attacks the 
azaleas, huckleberry, wintergreeu, and similar plants on the edge of the bog, which 
are reached by the water at high flood. It is thought the disease spreads by the 
water carrying the infection. If the water supply can be controlled the withhold- 
ing of water during the winter and spring has been attended with good results. 
Where such conditions are wanting burning the bog is the only means of relief 
known. {N.J. B. 64; B. 1890, p. 332.) 



CRANBERRY SCALD. 105 

Cranberry insects. — The New Jersey and Massaelmsetts Hatcli Stations have 
investigated these insects very thoroughly. There are quite a number of destruc- 
tive insects preying on the cranberry, the more important of Avhich are the black- 
headed worm, the yellow-headed worm, the fruit worm, and the tip worm. 

The black-headed worm {Rhopobota vacciniana) [also called Aane worm or fire 
worm] is the larva of a moth. It does not fly very readily in the daytime, but may 
be found starting up to light after a short flight. There are two broods each year. 
The eggs retain their vitality during the winter and hatch early in May. The larvae 
eat the leaves, spinning them into a web at the same time. The larva is a small, 
slender, velvety green caterpillar, with a black head. The second brood appear 
about the time of blooming and are more destructive than the first. They web more 
leaves together and bite the leaves just enough to kill them and destroy all the 
flowers. In two or three days they can change a bog from green to brown. 

The yellow-headed worm (Teras vaccmiirorana) is somewhat like the above in that 
the larviB spin webs and are green in color, but they have yellow heads. The moths 
are orange in summer and slate gray in autumn. The gray ones spend the winter 
on vines and under rubbish. The eggs are laid early in spring and hatch in May. 
The caterpillar changes into an orange-colored moth in about a month. There are 
usually three broods per season, the last being the gray moths, the larvae of which 
are reddish in color. 

If the water supply can be controlled, drawing off the water early and flooding 
for two days, just after eggs of the first brood begin hatching, will kill most of them. 
Holding the water late in the spring is also beneficial. Pyrethrum, dry and in infu- 
sion, has been tried with favorable results. White hellebore is good. Tobacco decoc- 
tion, 1^ pounds to a gallon of water, gives sufficient return to more than pay for 
itself. Kerosene emulsion as a spray applied to the vines was tried quite eftec- 
tively, as were also Paris green and London purple (1 pound to 150 gallons of water) 
sprayed over the plants just after the larviB were hatched. If they begin webbing 
use the kerosene emulsion. 

The fruit worm (Acrobasis vacinii) is the larva of a gray moth. It shades to nearly 
black and is splotched with white. The eggs are laid on the berry when just form- 
ing. Tbey hatch in five or six days and soon eat their way into the fruit, closing 
the opening with a web of fine silk. After attaining about half their growth they 
seek another berry and so on until mature. The larva is about half an inch long, 
green tinged with red, and reaches maturity in September. Spray the vines with 
Paris green or London purple just after the fall of the flowers. 

The tip worm ( Cecidomijia vaccinU) eats out the terminal bud, causing laterals to come 
out. It stunts the plant for a short time, but is not generally considered trouble- 
some. 

A minute scale insect has been found abundant in some bogs. 

Grasshoppers, katydids, and leaf hoppers destroy some plants and berries, but not 
many. {Mass. Hatch B. 19; N. J. B. K, B. 1S90, p. 487.) 

Cranberry scald. — A fungous disease well known to cranberry-growers, often 
causing a loss of half the crop. It receives its name from the scalded appearance of 
the affected berry. 

At first a portion of the berry becomes soft, and the skin tense and of a reddish 
brown color. Sometimes only a portion of the berry decays and the spores of the 
fungus may be seen in the minute dark specks. A rank growth of fungus filaments 
is always associated with the scald. The same filaments are to be found in the roots, 
stems, and leaves of the affected plants, and similar pustules develop on the leaves 
and fruit. Various fungicides have been tried without obtaining any very satis- 
factory results. However, it has been learned that covering the bog with a layer an 
inch deep of fresh earth, clay, or sand will nearly always give relief from the scald. 
This can best be done when the bog is flooded. This treatment may be too expensive to 
pay. This disease seems to be due to conditions of the soil and water, and these must 
be looked after if anything is to be done with the scald. {N. J. B. 64, B. 1890, p.334.) 



106 CEEAM. 

Cream. — The composition of cream is influenced by the method and conditions of 
creaming ^nd varies within wide limits. The quality of the cream separated by a 
centrifugal separator can be changed by regulating the machine. The quality of 
the cream raised in deep setting depends very materially on the characteristics 
of the herd and the temperature and duration of the setting. For further partic- 
ulars see Creaming of milk and Creameries, liayincj for milk. For the average compo- 
sition of cream from American analyses see Dairy products, composition. For the 
ripening of cream see Churniiuj and Batter. 

Cream aerators. — See Aerators . 

Cream coolers. — See Aerators. 

Creameries. — For description of creamery buildings see Dairy "buildings. For 
description of creamery outfit and apparatus see Dairy apparatus. 

In general. — Reports on creamery management, suggestions for establishing and 
maintaining creameries, etc., have been published as follows: Conn. State B. 108; 
Del. B. 1SS9, p. 164; III. B. 9, B. 10, B. 14; Iowa B. S, B. 9, B. 11; Mass. State B. 
34, B. 1889, pp. 7,S, 84; Kev. B. 16; Pa. B. 12; Tex. B. 5; Ft. B. 1888, pp. 142, B. 16, B. 21; 
W. Va. B. 4, B. 6, B. IS, B. 1890, p. 29; B'is. B. 24, B. 1890, p. 98. 

Paying for milk at creameries. — Until quite recently the common practice at 
creameries has been to pay the patrons according to the quantity of milk or cream 
furnished, -without any regard to its composition, further than to guard against 
watering, partial skimming, or adulteration. The stations of this country have 
done much to call attention to the injustice of this plan of paying for milk arising 
from the wide differences between the percentages of fat in the milk or cream 
furnished by different herds. The value of milk for butter-making depends, not 
upon its volume or weight, but upon the quantity of fat it contains; and the quantity 
of fat in a given quantity of milk is indicated by the percentage of fat in that particu- 
lar milk. 

The following examples illustrate the wide differences in milk supplied bj' differ- 
ent patrons : 

The Illinois Station (B. 9) tested the milk brought to three large creameries in the 
State by one hundred and eighty-four patrons. This milk was found to vary all the 
way from 2.8 to 4.75 per cent in butter fat. If the milk containing 2.8 per cent of 
fat is paid for at the rate of 50 cents per 100 pounds, then the richer milk would be 
worth 84.8 cents per 100 pounds. The Vermont Station tested the milk delivered by 
twenty-seven patrons to a creamery in that State and found it to vai'y from3.35 to 4.91 
per cent in fat. This creamery was at the time paying 60 cents per 100 pouiuls for 
all the milk it received. Valued according to its quality at this rate, the jYoorest 
milk, with 3.35 per cent of fat, would be worth 52 cents, and the richest, with 4.91 
per cent, 74 cents per liundred, a difference of 22 cents on evei-y 100 pounds. As 270 
pounds of the richer milk were brought in one day, this difference Avould make a, 
considerable amount in the course of a year to the patron who furnished it. 

The Connecticut State Station (B. 106) samj^led the milk brought to a creamery 
by two hundred and six patrons. The milk brought by one patron contained 3.28 per 
cent of fat and that brought by his neighbor 5.25 per cent of fat; tliat is, 100 pounds 
of the first millc contained 3.28 pounds of fat, and 100 pounds of the other milk con- 
tained 5.25 pounds of fat, but both patrons were paid the same price per 100 pounds 
for their milk — $1.10. Supposing ea<;h patron to bring 1,500 pounds of milk per 
week, which was paid for on the basis of the fat it contained, the former would 
receive $14.43 and the latter $20.63 for each week's milk, and both patrons would 
thus receive alike 27^ cents per pound for the butter fat in their milk. 

Prof. Patrick, of the Iowa Station {B. 9), denounces the practice as a i)0(>ling system. 
"It makes no pretense to justice in its treatment of the individual patron; it 
places a premium on quantity rather than, and even at expense of, quality; it 
dri\ es patrons possessing rich-milk dairy herds and those who feed liberally and 
intelligently, into private dairying; it tempts the short-sighted and cunning into 
dishonest practices, and tends in every way to demoralize the creamery indnstry. 



CREAMERIES. 107 

"Tlie crcnmcry proprietor is not, however, the chief suflforer. He can a] ways save 
himself an<l continue to profit by lowering the price of milk to correspond with the 
average ((uality of all received, as shown in the batter prodnct. Bat the farmer 
who, prodaciug milk of a snpcrior qaality from a herd which has cost much time and 
money to bring together, is obliged to pool with those producing inferior milk from 
scrub herds and poor feed — not to mention the possibility of home skimming or 
watering — he, by long odds, is the greatest sufferer." 

Tlie condition is little if any better where cream is paid for by the space or the 
pound. The Connecticut State Station found cream furnished by patrons of a 
creamery who set their milk in deep submerged cans for twelve to twenty-four 
hours to contain from 13.8 to 24.9 per cent of fat. The smallest variation noticed 
on any single day was from 19 to 21.9 per cent, or a variation of nearly 3 per cent 
of fat. As mentioned under Creaming of milk, the volume of the cream thrown up 
by a can of milk set in water is influenced by the temperature of the water in 
which the milk is set. Other examples might be given, but the aoove suffice to 
show the injustice of paying for milk or cream by volume or weight instead of by 
composition. 

The introduction of reliable milk tests by which samples can be tested rapidly has 
made the payment on the basis of the quantity of fat furnished practicable, and 
schemes have been proposed for carrying this plan out which have already been 
adopted by a considerable number of creameries. Prof. Patrick proposes {Iowa B. 9) 
the "relative value plan" of paying for milk, which consists in taking a small sam- 
ple of each patron's milk as it is weighed at the creamery each day, testing it for 
fat, and then by a simple calculation calculating the number of pounds of fat in the 
milk furnished. At the end of the month the patron is paid so much per pound for 
the fat he has furnished. It has been suggested by the Connecticut State Station 
{B. 106) that the creamery adopt an arbitrary standard, as 4 per cent of fat, and pay 
a fixed price per 100 pounds for milk of that composition. Then for each tenth of a 
per cent of fat above or below this standard composition a given amount per 100 
pounds of milk would be added or deducted. This plan is intended to simplify the 
calculation at creameries where the milk is contracted for at a fixed price; but at 
cooperative creameries where the patrons are paid according to the receipts of the 
creamery for butter the plan would complicate the calculation. Prof. Patrick pro- 
poses to simplify the work of testing the milk by making composite sam]des of each 
patron's milk and testing these at the end of about a week. A jar is kept for each 
patron, and as his milk is weighed each day a small sample is taken out and placed 
in his jar. Some kind of milk preservative, e. g., corrosive sublimate, is added to 
prevent the sample from souring. At the end of the week the milk in the jar is 
mixed thoroughly, sampled, and tested, the result showing the average percentage 
of fat in the milk brought by that patron daring the week. From this and the 
amount of milk brought the amount of fat brought during the week is calculated 
quite accurately. Tables to facilitate the calculation of the amount to be paid each 
patron are given in Iowa B. 9; Pa. B. 12; Vt. B. 16. 

Farrington {III. B. 16) has shown that instead of preserving the milk sample with 
corrosive sublimate, which is extremely poisonous, the sample may be allowed to 
sour, and at the end of the week a little powdered lye added, which dissolves the 
curd so that an average sample can be taken for testing. 

Various devices have been suggested for taking the daily samples {III. B. 14 ; Iowa 
B. 9 ; N. Y. Conicll B. 37; Vt. B. 21). Theoretically, the sample taken should be pro- 
portioned to the quantity of milk bought, but the Vermont Station has shown {B. 
21) that practically this is not necessary, and that it is better to take all the samples 
of a uniform size. 

{Del. B 9, B. lSS9,p. 1G4; Ill.B.9, B. 10, B.14, B. 16; Iowa B. 11; Muss. Stale li. 

1889, p. 73, B. 1890 p. 54; Nev. B. 16; Pa.B.12; Vt.B.16, B. 1888, p. 145; W. Va. E. 

1890, p. 29.) 



108 CREAMING OF MILK. 

Creaming of milk.— Creaming in general. — The fat in milk exists as minute 
globules in suspension. The size of the fat globules varies considerably according 
to breed, period of lactation, and other factors, but the statement that twenty-five 
average-sized globules placed side by side would be equal to the thickness of medium- 
thick letter paper and that a quart of milk would contain something like two million 
globules, gives an approximate idea of their minuteness. It is characteristic of the 
fat globules of Jersey and Guernsey milk to be relatively large and quite uniform in 
size, of those of Ayrshire milk to bo small and variable, while the Holstein globules 
are small but quite uniform in size. 

The separation of these globules in creaming is effected in several different ways, 
to be referred to below, but depends in every case ui^on the ditference between the spe- 
cific gravity of the fat globules and that of the milk serum (water and solids other 
than fat). Milk fat is relatively lighter, i. e., it has a lower specific gravity, than 
water or the other milk solids. Anything which tends to increase this difi'erence 
in specific gravity aids the creaming. In deep setting this is eftected by low tem- 
perature, which makes the water (serum) specifically heavier. Milk containing 
large globules will cream more rapidly and completely than milk with small globules. 
The fat in the skim milk is made up very largely of small globules which fail to 
separate or rise as soon as the others. According to Babcock of the Wisconsin Station 
(B. IS, R. 1889, p. 63) milk, like blood, contains a material called fibrin, which coagu- 
lates after the milk is drawn, forming a network of fine elastic fibers which entangle 
the fat globules nnd hinder their separation. In blood the formation of these fibrin 
fibers causes clotting. The fibrin begins to form very soon after the milk is drawn and 
the clots of fat globules which it produces are soon visilile under the microscope. 
Studies of the subject have indicated that the coagulation or formation of fibrin 
begins at the surface and in contact with the sides of the vessel; that it is hastened 
by any contact with a rough surface, by agitation and by exposure to air; and that 
it is retarded by heat, by cold, and by certain chemicals. As the clots of fat rise 
more difficultly than the free globules the creaming is most efficient when the condi- 
tions are such as to retard or prevent the formation of fibrin threads. In practice 
this may be best accomplished by setting the milk directly after milking in cold 
water in a vessel of bright metal which can easily be kept clean. The formation of 
fibrin is believed to present iio hindrance to creaming by centrifugal separators, so 
that the latter method is the most efficient with milk that has been transported or 
delayed in setting. 

H. Snyder of the New York Cornell Station {B. 29) found that in the case of sev- 
eral cows whose milk creamed difficultly, the thoroughness of creaming bore no rela- 
tion to the amount of fibrin, i. e., in these cases other factors aft'ected the creaming 
quite as much as fibrin. 

Trials at several stations have indicated that the feeding of cotton seed or cotton- 
seed meal may imx>rove the creaming of milk set at 70^ or in ice water, and that 
these foods also affect the butter, making it firmer and harder, and lighter colored. 

Tests at the New York Cornell Station {B.S9) showed that aerated milk creamed 
nearly or quite as completely as untreated milk. 

Shallovs^ setting. — At the Illinois Station {B. IS) when milk Avas set 3, 6, and 9 
inches deep in a room at about 70° F., the cream rose more rapidlj' and more com- 
pletely for the 3-inch setting than for either of the others. The same station found 
that the loss in skinuning milk set in pans was very much larger when the milk was 
skimmed after twelve hours than after twenty-four hours. The New York Cornell 
Station (/>. 20) found twenty-four hours to be sufficient for shallow setting. 

Deep setting. — It has been calculated that in raising cream in snbmeregd cans 
18 inches deep and skimming after twelve hours, the fat globules in the lower por- 
tion of milk must rise about IJ inches per hour, but owing to the minuteness of these 
globules their comparatively slow progress is in fact relatively rajjid. since it re- 
quires the smaller globules to move each second over a space two hundred times 



CREAMING OF MILK. 109 

greater than their diameter. If we suppose a balloon 25 feet in diameter rising with 
equal relative velocity it would rise about 1 mile per second. The larger globules 
reach the surface first; some of the smaller globules, as the microscope shows in 
skim milk, fail to reach the surface at all. 

Com])arison8 were made at the Wisconsin Station (B. 29) of the Cooley and "shot- 
gun " deep setting cans. These differ in the manner of skimming, the cream being 
removed from the latter with a conical dipper. Much more care was found neces- 
sary in skimming tlie shotgun cans, and the author suspects that in practice the loss 
with this can is greater than with the Cooley can. The same station found that the 
efficiency of creaming by deep setting in ice water was greatly influenced by the 
character of the herd. The average loss in fat in creaming per 100 pounds of milk 
set ranged from 0.08 to 0.324 pound witli ditiereut herds. 

The Connecticut State Station (B. 1S91, p. 120) found the percentage of fat in 
cream brought by creamery patrons who set their milk in deep submerged cans for 
twelve to twenty-four hours to vary from 13.8 to 24.9, averaging 19.85 per cent. On 
one day the cream furnished by the patrons of a creamery ranged from 13.8 to 21 
per cent of fat; on another from 18.3 to 24.9; and the smallest variation noticed at 
any one creamery was 19 to 21.9. This illustrates the injustice of paying for cream 
by the volume instead of by the composition, as referred to elsewhere. 

A trial at the Vermont Station (i?. 1890, p. 113) of adding soda to the milk to assist 
in creaming resulted disadvantageously both to the rising of the cream and the 
quality of the butter. 

The Texas Station {B. 14) found that the milk of cows advanced in the milking 
period creamed less perfectly in deep scttiug at 70° and at 45° F. th*in that of cow 
nearly fresh. 

As to the advantages of warming milk before setting, a number of tests at the 
Wisconsin Station {R. 1SS4, p. 21) of warming milk to 110^^-120° F. showed no advan- 
tage over immediate setting and a positive loss in a majority of cases. Tests at the 
New York Cornell Station {B. 5) were not concordant, hut indicated that " while 
there may not be any very great increase of butter when the milk is heated there 
is no risk of injuring the quality of the butter by incorporating an excess of casein 
even when the milk is heated as high as 135° F." 

A description and trial of the Kellogg deep-setting system of creaming milk are 
reported in TTis. U. 1885, p. 45. 

Temperature of deep setting. — At the New York State Station {B. 1889, p. 210) 
a comparison of submerging milk in cans in spring water at 56° F. and in ice water 
gave f of a pound more butter per 100 pounds of milk from the use of ice. The 
Wisconsin Station (E. 1884, p. 17) found that the loss by setting in water at 55° 
might be nearly a third larger than at 45° and a tenth larger than 50°. 

Snyder {Minn. B. 19) found that the first change in warm milk set in cold water 
took place in the bottom layer, which after fifteen minutes became poorer in fat. 
Throughout the creaming the upper layer of milk was always richer in fat than the 
middle layer, the middle layer richer than the bottom layer, and the latter layer was 
always the poorest in fat. This is of importance in taking the samples of the skim 
milk for analysis. During the first five or six hours the same relationship exists as 
to temperature, the middle section having an intermediate temperature between the 
bottom and top sections, which have, respectively, the lowest and highest tempera- 
tures. He also found that the temperature of th£ water at the time of setting was 
of much more importance than that of the milk; that creaming was more rapid and 
more complete in ice water than in water at 60° F. ; and that " a prolonged setting 
can not make up for a low temperature at the time of setting." 

Babcock ( Wis. B. 29) concluded from trials with herd milk set at from 35° to 58° 
F. and skimmed after eleven or twelve hours, that the loss of fat per 100 pounds of 
milk was from i to 1 pound larger without than with ice. " Where the temperature 
of the water used is not lower than 50° F. the loss is excessive, reaching in some 
cases as much as 25 per cent of the total fat in the milk." 



110 CREAMING OF MILK. 

Jordan {Me. E. 1S80-S7, p. 118) found that the creaminj; was more complete at a i 
tempei'atnre below 45*-' than at hif;her temperatures. About 9 ounces more of butter 
were obtained per 100 pounds of milk by setting at 48° or below than at 60^^. That 
station found that in every instance the cream raised in cold setting was more vo- 
luminous but poorer in fat than that raised in moderately warm water, and tliat the 
cream Avas richer from twenty-four hours' than from twelve hours' standing with 
the colder setting. Tests in the Southern States have shown that ice can not be used 
there with economy. 

Delay in setting. — Regarding the effect of delay in setting milk on the efficiency 
of creaming, the experiments made by the stations indicate that while no serious 
loss may be expected from delaying the setting for from one to three hours, it is ad- 
visable to set as soon as liossible after milking to avoid the possibility of loss. 

At the Wisconsin Station {B, 29) a large number of trials were made of delaying 
the setting from tifteen minutes to three hours and then setting the milk in open air 
or iu ice water and skimming after twelve hours' standing. The delayed milk was 
.mixed before setting. The losses were slight, but differed with different herds of 
cows, being as a rule somewhat larger with the rich milk than Avith poorer. No 
advantage was noticed from keeping the milk warui during the delay of thirty min- 
utes. In similar tests on a smaller scale at the Maine and New York Cornell Sta. 
tions, delaying setting fi'oin one-half to three and one-half hours did not materially 
affect the thoroughness of creaming, especially if the milk was kept warm (about 
80° F. ) in the meantime. When milk was allowed to cool before setting in the creamer, 
Roberts, of the New York Cornell Station, found that the creaming was less effect- 
ive. Heating as high as 135° F. before setting did not injure the quality of the 
butter, and slightly improved the creaming. As a rule where the creaming is re- 
tarded in any Avay the volume of the cream will be larger than where it is not 
retarded, i. e., the cream will contain more water, and so the percentage of fat will 
-be lower. This was found to be true in a large majority of the trials at the Wis- 
consin Station. The matter of delay in setting has an important bearing on the 
fermentations of milk, provided the setting is in cold water (see Milk fermentations). 

Skimming. — It was found at the Illinois Station {B. IS) that when milk was set iu 
deep cans in Avater at 45° to 48° F. there was a small gain from letting it stand forty- 
eight hours. 

Snyder {Minn. B. 19) found that with milk set in cans at from 47° to 60° F. the cream- 
ing was practically completed in tAvelve hours. 

At the Kansas Station {B. 1888, p. 159) milk was set in glass fruit jars submerged 
in water at 60° F. Under these conditions "more butter of better quality was 
obtained when the milk was set about forty-eight hours." 

The Wisconsin Station {B. 1884, p. 17) concluded that eleven hours was practically 
sufficient for raising the cream if the water was kept ice cold, and the Maine Station 
{B. 1887, p. 116) found twelve hours sufficient when the temperature was below 48° 
F. At higher temperatures there Avas advantage in alloAving milk to stand twenty- 
four hours. 

The Texas Station {B. 14) found that in cold deep setting at 70° and at 45° F. the 
milk of cows nearly fresh and others well advanced iu the milking period creamed 
more perfectly in twenty-four hours than in tweh'e hours. 

At the NeAv York State Station {B. 1889, j>. 210) tAvelve hours setting in ice water 
was found insufficient and twenty-four hours was adopted. As to the closeness of 
skimming milk set in Cooley cans, the Illinois Station (^. i5') finds that " draAving 
off the skim milk to within one inch of the bottom of the cream can be done without 
loss of cream if the faucet is set so that the skim milk does not stop running until 
closed; repeated opening and closing of the faucet has a tendency to mis the cream 
so that it flows out with the skim milk." 



CREAMING OF MILK. Ill 

In tests at the Wisconsiu Station (B.S9) tlie loss of cream was "practically the 
same whether 1 or 2 inches of skim niiliv were left with the cream. There is, how- 
over, a very material increase in tlie loss when another half inch of skim milk is 
drawn oft'." 

(Ala. College B. 7, n. ser.; Conn. Slate R. 1S91, p. 110; Me. B. lSS6-'87, p. 118, B. ISDO, 
p. 46; N. Y. Slate B. ISSr,, p. 275, B. 1889, p. 210, B. 1890, p. 199; N. Y. Cornell 
B. 5, B. 29; Tex. B. 14; Vt. B. 1890, p. Ill, B. 1891, p. 100; Wis. B. 29, B. 1885, pp. 
45, 118.) 

Cream raising by dilution.— It has been suggested that in deep setting the sep- 
aration of tlie cream may be improved by diluting the milk with water, and that 
by this means cream may bo raised iu deep cans without the use of ice. The results 
secured at the stations are somewhat at variance, as will be seen from the following. 

The Illinois Station {B. 12, B. 18) has made two series of laboratory trials, using 
wide-mouthed bottles in each case, set in the open air. The milk was diluted with 
an equal volume of cold water. From ^ pint to a quart of the mixture was used iu 
each test, filling the bottle from 4 to 8 inches deep. It was found that in the case 
of cows well along in milk or which gave a large quantity of moderately rich milk 
dilution with cold water hastened the creaming and made it more complete. Rich 
milk from a new milch cow creamed as completely without as with dilution. The 
cream raised by dilution under the above conditions was thinner, i. e., occuined a 
larger volume. 

Both the Vermont Station {Newspaper B. S, B. 1890, p. 104, B. 1891, p. 103) and the 
New York Cornell Station (Z>. 20, B. 20, B. 39) have made quite extensive experi- 
ments on this subject, setting the milk in deep cans in a Cooley creamer. In these 
exjieriments portions of the milk were diluted from one-fourth to one-half (by vol- 
ume) with either cold or hot water (about 135"^ F.) and set along side of other por- 
tions which were not diluted. The temperature of the water in the creamer was 
varied, being in some experiments ice water (about 40°) and in others 55°-60°. 

From a summary of its experiments the Vermont Station concludes that " there 
has been a gain in every case by diluting the milk when it was to be set at 60°, while 
at 55^^ there was a gain with cows fresh in milk but no gain with those far advanced 
in lactation." 

The earlier experiments at the New York Cornell Station failed to show any advan- 
tages from dilution with either hot or cold water, but more recent experiments have 
been favorable to dilution when the milk was set at 60° F. The station concludes 
that " when milk is set at 60° or thereabouts there is considerable advantage so far 
as the efficiency of creaming is concerned, in diluting it one-fourth with warm 
water ; but this dilution can not be regarded as a substitute for setting in ice water." 

No advantage has been observed from diluting milk set in ice water and neither 
the New York Cornell Station nor the Vermont Station has observed any advantage 
from dilution with cold water over no dilution, whether the setting was in warm 
water, ice water, or the open air. The use of hot water has everywhere caused the 
cream to sour rapidly, in some cases affecting the quality of the butter. As the 
water which is added largely passes into the skim milk, dilution injures the skim 
milk for feeding purposes. 

The New York Cornell Station reports a case in which the creaming of the milk of 
5 cows, which creamed very imperfectly, was much improved by mixing it with an 
equal quantity of herd milk. Dilution with water did not aid the raising of the 
cream on this obstinate milk, but mixing it with herd milk had the efi"ectof making 
it cream nearly as readily as the herd miliv alone. 

The Vermont Station found no advantage from diluting milk with either hot or 
cold water when the skimming Avas done after forty-eight hours' standing. 

Separating. — The creaming of milk by centrifugal force in separators is an im- 
provement over setting in several respects. The fat is more completely separated 
than by any other means ; conditions which aftect the raising of the cream by setting 



112 CREAM-RAISING. 

are largely or wholly overcome, and no ice is required, which is a very important 
consideration in localities where ice is expensive. By separating the milk iniuio- 
diately after milking, the danger from mischievous organisms (bacteria), which cause 
undesirable fermentations, is largely avoided. 

The Vermont Station (R. 1891, p. 40) tested the efficiency of the De Laval Turl)ine, 
the Baby No. 2, the Sharpies Russian, and the Danish- Weston separators, and the 
butter extractor. The average jjercentage of fat in the skim milk was 0.08 with the 
De Laval Turbine, 0.1 with the Baby No. 2, 0.23 with the Sharpies Russian, 0.1 with 
the Danisli-Weston, and 0.14 with the extractor when used as a separator. For an 
account of the extractor see Butter extractor. 

In experiments at the New York Cornell Station (Z?. 39) the average percentage of 
fat left in the skim milk was 0.19 by the De Laval horizontal separator, 0.09 by the 
Baby separator No. 2, and 0.23 by cold deep setting. 

Of the hand separators, the Delaware Station (J?. 17) found little difference in 
efficiency between the Victoria and De Laval (Baby), and that they skimmed as 
closely as the power machines. Under proper conditions of temperature and speed 
the skim milk should not contain over 0.1 per cent of fat. The milk should have a 
temperature of about 70° F. to prevent clogging. With less than forty turns per 
minute of the De Laval crank and forty-six of the Victoria, the creaming was not 
efficient. The Victoria required about twice as much power to skim the same quantity 
of milk as the Baby separator. 

In trials at the Pennsylvania Station (B.20) the skim milk from the Baby sepa- 
rator No. 2 did not contain over 0.05 per cent of fat. 

From a comparison of creaming the milk of a herd of registered Jerseys by means 
of the Cooley system and the De Laval separator, the Alabama College Station (B. 
7, m. se»'.) concluded that "under our conditions the centrifugal is more economical 
than the deep-setting system." 

A comparison at the Wisconsin Station {B.29) of the Cooley system with ice and 
the Baby separator, on different herds, gave results considerably in favor of the sepa- 
rator, the loss of fat by that method being only a third of that by cold settiug. The 
Illinois Station (B. IS) also obtained better results with the Baby separator than by 
any method of setting. 

The Texas Station (B. 14) has found that although the feeding of cotton-seed meal 
seemed to improve the creaming of milk set in cans, it had no effect on the thor- 
oughness of centrifugal creaming. 

Regarding the profit from the use of the separator, the Delaware Station (B. 17) 
calculates that with a herd averaging 100 pounds of milk morning and night the 
year through, the separator would save about 280 pounds of butter in the year, 
which at 25 cents per pound would be a gain of $70 over cold settiug; " but if fair 
wages be counted tor the hand labor, the profit would be much reduced if not wiped 
out." It is suggested that horse or other power be used in place of hand power. 

The Berrigan separator is an apparatus in which tlie diluted milk is treated to an 
air pressure of 30 pounds for two minutes. The milk is then set in ordinary vessels, 
and it is claimed that the treatment facilitates the raising of the cream. The New 
York Cornell Station {B. 39) found little if any advantage from the treatment. 

{Del. B. 9, R. lSS9,p. 164; Nev. B.16; Tex. B. 6; IF. Va. B. IS, R. 1S90, p. 29.) 

Cream-raising. — See Creaming of milh. 

Cream separators. — See Creaming of milk. 

Cress. — Six varieties of cress (belonging presiunably to Barharea or Lepidiuvi) 
were grown at the New York State Station (R. 1SS4, p. 286, R. 1885, p. 191). Germi- 
nation tests of seeds are recorded in N. Y. State R. 1883, p. 68; Ohio R. 1885, p. 168; 
Ore. B. 2 ; Vt. R. 1889, p. 104. Tests of seed of water cress {Nasturtium officinaU) are 
reported in N. Y. State R. 1883, p. 71, 

Crimson clover. — See Clover, 



, 



CUCUMBER BEETLES. 113 

Cucumbers (Ciicumeris sa/irMs).— Variety tests are recorded in Ala. CoUeqe B. 2 
{1881); Colo. R. 1888, p. 147, 11. 1889, pp. 100, 121, R. 1800, pp. 48, 192; La. B. 3,2d8er.; 
Mich. B. 70, B. 79; JUiun. li. 1888, p. 200; Xehr. B. 6, B. 12; Nev. R. 1890, p. 29; N. Y. 
State R. 1882, p. 12G, R. 1883, p. 1^5, R. 1884, p. 206, R. 1885, p. 123, R. 1886, p. 239, R. 
1887, p. 322; Ore. B. 4; Fa. B. 14; Utah B. 3; Vt. R. 1889, p. 137, R. 1890, p. 159. In 
N. Y. State R. 1887, p. 230, a classification of varieties is given under twenty-fonr 
names, with full descriptions, synonyms, and index of synonyms. Tlie snake encum- 
ber, a long and slender form of the muskinelon and the West India gherkin, here 
regarded as a distant species of encumber, are also described. 

At the Arkansas Station {R. 1890, p. 32) the plan was tested of placing cucumber 
hills one on each side of a triangular pit filled with manure, other hills being placed 
in the same position without pits or manure. The average advantage from the pits 
in this experiment was not sufficient to recommend tlie jdan. At the New York State 
Station {R. 1885, p. 124) the experiment was tried of i)inching off the ends of the 
runners at the length of 2 or 3 feet. The yield at lirst was somewhat larger, but in 
the aggregate there was little difference. At the New York Cornell Station exper- 
iments were made in crossing and grafting cucumbers and other plants, for which 
see Muskmelon. 

N. Y. Cornell B. 25 contains an article upon the forcing of English cucumbers, a 
group of very long, smooth varieties, which can only be grown indoors. The gen- 
eral requirements for growing them are discussed, descriptions of particular varie- 
ties and of the character of the group are given with historical notes of some length, 
together with an account of crosses undertaken at the station to secure improved 
field varieties and of the enemies to be overcome in culture. "The English forcing 
cucumber demands a rather high temperature, brisk Jiottom heat, abundance of 
water, and a very rich soil." Germination tests of cucumber seed are recorded in 
.V. Y.' State R. ish, pp. 59, 68; Ohio R. 1884, p. 197; Ore. B. 2; Vt. R. 1889, p. 104. 

Cucumbers, bacterial disease.— Usually the first indication of this disease, 
which infests all melons as well as cucumbers, is a decay near the root, followed l>y 
a wilting of the plant. Sometimes a leaf or two are first attacked and soon die, to 
be followed shortly by the whole vine. In the cucumber the fruit is more often at- 
tacked than the vine, but in either case both suffer. The indications of its presence 
are numerous watery spots on the fruit. These soon run through it, leaving a shell 
holding the watery rotten mass in shape. A microscopic examination would show 
this mass to be teeming Avith bacteria. That they are the cause of the infection has 
been demonstrated by numerous cultures and inoculations. It is also known that in 
addition to melons of all kinds this disease may be transmitted to the potato and 
tomato, causing them to rot in the same way. It is important that this be recog- 
nized and that infected land should not be used for crops subject to this disease. 
All diseased plants and fruits should be promptly removed to prevent, as much as 
possible, the spread of the disease where it once gets a start. Spraying with Bor- 
deaux mixture is recommended as a preventive agent. {N. J. R. 1891, p. 273.) 

Cucumber beetles.— The striped cucumber beetle (Diahrotica vittata) is one-fourth 
inch long and of a yellow color, with three black stripes on the back, one on each of 
the wings and the other on the edge of the wings just where they come together. 
The beetles feed upon cucumbers, melons, and squash vines by preference, but will 
eat quite a number of plants if their favorites are not to be had. They burrow at 
the roots to lay their eggs, and also to meet the young plant before it can reach 
the surface. The larv.e are similar to those of the spotted beetle, about two-fifths 
inch long and slightly thicker than an ordinary pin. The adult beetles probably 
pass the winter in the soil and under rubbish. 

The ordinary treatment by means of poisons, kerosene, etc., has little eftect upon 
these beetles. The free use of tobacco stems and dust about the hills seems to drive 
them away. Placing over the hill some kind of frame or tent and covering it with 
cheese cloth or similar thin goods is one of the best means of protection. Two half 

209^— No. 15 8 



114 CUCUMBERS, DAMPING OFF. 

hoops from barrels or two •wires Lent iu a similar manner, with the ends stuck in the 
ground, make good frames for this coshering and the clotli may be covered with earth 
at the edges. If protected in this way until they get four or five leaves the plants 
are generally able to withstand any subsequent attack of these beetles. {Del. Ii.4; 
Iowa B. 5; Ky. B. 40; Miss. B. 14; N. J. li. 1890,2). ^SO; N. C. B. 78] Ohio B. rol. II, 6, B. 
vol. Ill, 8 and 11; S. Dak. B. IS.) 

The spotted cucumber beetle (Diabrotica 12-punviata) is a small yellow beetle 
having twelve black spots upon its back. It is rather common, occurring- on cucum- 
bers, melons, squashes, and occasionally on corn and other plants. It is destructive, 
as a larva and also as a beetle. It lays its eggs at the root of the plant and a small 
slender white grub hatches out to feed there. The beetle eats the leaves and stem. 
It is very destructive to the young plants. The treatment is the same as that for 
the striped beetle. {N. Mex. B. 3 ; Ohio B. vol III, 4.) 

Cucumbers, damping off {Pythhim de harijannm). — A fungous disease attacking 
the plants while in the greenhouse or hotbed, Avhere especial efforts have been made 
for forcing the plants. As in the case of a similar disease in the egg-plant its at- 
tack is near the ground. An examination at that part of the stem will show abun- 
dant threads of this fungus. The immediate removal and burning of any plants 
showing affection is urged. Probably early and repeated spraying with Bordeaux 
mixture or some other fungicide would prove beneficial. {Mai^s. State li. 1800, p. 220.) 

Cucumber mildew ( I'lasmopara [Peronosjwra^ cninisis). — A fungous disease which 
made its appearance very suddenly a few seasons ago and Avas very destructive to 
cucumbers and squashes. It is first seen as])atchcs of fungus scattered over the leaves. 
These arenot compact, as in many of the mildews, and arc seldom visible to thenaked 
eye. The leaf soon becomes yellow and lifeless and falls from the vine. This con- 
tinuing from leaf to leaf soon involves the whole plant to a considerable extent. Its 
attack and spread may probably be prevented by | ounce of sulphide of potassium 
iu a gallon of water, although no record is given of its having lieen tried. (Conn. 
State B. 1890, p. 97; Mass. R.1890, p. 210.) 

Cucumbers, spotting (C/arfos^ocJwm ciicumeriinim). — A fungous disease first noticed 
at the New York State Station in 1887, where it ruined the crop of that year. The 
spots first appear upon the fruit when it is about an inch long, and show as gray 
slightly sunken places usually about i of an inch across. These grow and run 
together, especially toward the flower cud. Drops of a gummy substance frequently 
appear, as if caused by insect punctures. The spots grow darker with age, becom- 
ing greenish black, and form a small cavity just beneath the fungous covered sur- 
face. This is caused by the filaments penetrating the tissues of the plant. In this 
cavity the filaments grow rapidly, soon forming a mat of filaments and dried gum, 
from which are developed myriads of spores. These germinate rapidly iu water 
thus spreading the disease. Although very destructive in 1887 no trace was seen of 
it in the following year. No fungicides have been tried upon it, but no doubt themore 
coumion ones would prove beneficial if applied in time. {Ind. B. 19; N. Y. State B 
1887, p. 316.) 

Cucumbers, powdery mildew {Ery^iphe cichoracearmn).— A fnugouti disease con- 
fined so tar to cucumbers grown under glass, although the fungus is well known and 
rather abundant upon sonu^ of our late-blooming plants, sach as the asters "-olden- 
rods, etc. It ordinarily appears upon tlie upper side of the cucumber leaf, some- 
tijues on the stem, in the form of small, round, Avhite spots of a peculiarly powdery 
appearance, suggesting small splashes of flour upon the leaves. These spots increase 
in size until the leaf is more or less involved. The tissues become yellow, then brown 
and dry ana the plant becomes worthless if not entirely killed. The disease is rap- 
idly spread from plant to plant, and healthy, vigorous plants are as liable to its attack 
as weaker ones. Where this disease becomes established the soil should be renewed 
and the greenhouse thoroughly fumigated with vapors of sulphur. The spraying of 
plants with aromoniacal carbouate of copper or 1 ounce of sulphide of potassium in 



r 



CURRANT. 115 

4 gallons of water will protect them from attacl<8 of the fungus. In fumigating 
with sulphur care must be taken that it does not take fire, for a few minutes exposure 
to the fumos of burning sulphur will kill any plant. Heating the sulphur to the boil- 
ing point over a small oil stove is the best method to pursue. {Mass. B. 1891, p. 32:i.) 

Cucurbits (Cucurbitacew). — Vegetables of this family (cucumbers, melons, pump- 
kins, s(juashes, etc., are in general noted under their particular names, but some 
general experiuients may here be referred to. As reported in N. Y. Cornell B. 15, 
"the belief that new or fresh seeds of squashes, pumpkins, and melons produce 
plants which ' run to vine' more than those from old seeds" was put to test at that 
station by an experiment in which about four hundred and fifty plants of squashes, 
watermelons, muskmelons, and cucumbers were grown and measured. No evidence 
whatever was obtained that older seeds give shorter and more productive vines. 

At the same station {B. 25) experiments in herbaceous grafting showed that the 
muskmelou will unite with the watermelon, and both of these, as also the cucumber, 
with the wild cucumber {Echhiocystis lohata). Observations Avith regard to the pro- 
gression of flowers made upon squashes, muskmelons, watermelons, and cucumbers 
showed that the staminate flowers are from six to twenty-four times as numerous as 
the pistillate, and that the latter ajipear later, from five days in the cucumber to 
even thirty in the muskmelou. 

For experiments in crossing pumpkins and sqiiashes see Squash. For an experi- 
ment showing that muskmelons are not spoiled by cucumbers i)lanted near see 
Muskmelou. 

Curled dock. — See Weeds. 

Currant (7? J6es spp.). — Variety tests of the common red and white currants (/?. 
rubrum) are recoriled as follows: Cal. B. 1SSS-S9, pp. SS, 110, 197 ; Colo. B. 1S8D, pp. 
24, 30, B. 1S90, p. 200; Del. B. 1SS9, p. 103; III. B. 21; Ind. B. 5, B.IO, B. SI, B. 33; 
Iowa B. 16; Me. B. 1889, p. 256; Mass. Hatch B. 4; Mich. B. 55, B. 59, B. 67, B. 80; 
Minn. B. 1888, pp. 235, 285; N. Mex. B. 2; N. Y. Cornell B. 15; N. Y. State B. 1883, 
p. 226, B. 1884, p. 22, R. 1885, p. 230, B. 1886, p. 257, B. 1887, p. 338, B. 1888, jjp. 96, 
101, B. 1889, p. 311, B. 1890, p. 282; N. C. B. 72; Ohio B. 1884, p. 129; Pa. B. IS; B. I. 
B. 7 ; S. Dak. B. 23; Tenn. B. 1888, p. 12; Vt. B. 1888, p. 118, B. 1889, p. 122, B. 1890, 
p. 184; Va. B. 2. 

While the number of varieties rises to a dozen or more, it is still questioned {Mich. 
B.80) whether any are better than the old red and white Dutch. Iowa B. 16 approves 
White Grape most highlj^ for home use in northern Iowa, and the Minn. B. 1888, p. 
235 calls special attention to Stewart Seedling. 

Ash analyses of red and white currants are given in Mass. State B. 1889, p. 306, B. 
1890, p. 305, B. 1891, p. 331. 

Notes on the manner of cultivating currants occur in Iowa B. 16 ; N. Dak. B. 2. At 
the New Jersey Station {B. 1889, p. 231) the experiment was tried of clipping at time 
of flowering the free end of the currant cluster, which usually dies. The berries on 
the stems thus treated were larger and of a nearly uniform size and ripeness. There 
were 15 per cent more berries per stem on the cut clusters, weighing 7 per cent 
heavier. 

In Mass. State B. 7 is reported an experiment with fertilizers upon currants, the 
object of which was to ascertain the influence of difterent chemical fertilizers upon 
the composition of the fruit. Four plats of bushes were dressed with various mate- 
rials and combinations aniuially for several years, 1 plat being left unfertilized. The 
berries from the several plats were analyzed, with the general result that the high- 
est color and the largest amount of vegetable matter and of mineral constituents 
was shown by the plat receiving 45 pounds dissolved boncblack, 18 pounds nitrate of 
potash, and 30 pounds kieserite. The analyses are given and discussed in some detail. 
The only ash constituent which appeared to be deficient in the soil was potash. A 
feature of the results deemed especially worthy of note was that the increase of pot- 
ash in the cuirauts was invariably accompanied by a corresponding decrease of phos- 



116 CUREANT BORER. 

pboric acid, and particularly of lime, a result coinciding with previous observations 
on grapes, strawberries, and peaches. 

Tests of varieties of the black currant (Ribes nigrum) are reported in Colo. It, 1S89, 
pp. 24, 31; Ind. B. 10, B. 31, B. 33; Mans. Hatch B. 4; Mich. B. 55, B. 59, B. 67, B. SO; 
Minn. B. ISSS, pp. 235, 2S5; N. Y. State R. 1883, p. 2.38, R. 1885, p. 230, R. 1886, p. 
257, E. 1887, p. 339, B. ISSS. pp. 96, 101; N. C. B. 72; Ohio R. 1884, p. 129; R. I. B. 
7; Vt. R. 1888, p. 118, R. 1SS9, p. 122, B. 1890, p. 184 ; Va. B. 2. The ]>lack currants are 
recommended more for jellies than for other purposes. In Iowa B. 16 it is thought 
that the Black Naples "has a value not realized, except by our settlers from Eng- 
land. By scalding the fruit for a few moments in boiling water and then putting 
into fresh water for cooling, the peculiar flavor of the skin is removed, and when 
canned for winter use it is much like the cranberry sauce in flavor and color." 

The Missouri or yellow flowering currant (Ribes aureiim) besides being grown for 
ornament is represented in the fruit garden by some large-fruited varieties, espe- 
cially the Craudall currant, a variety of which diverse opinions are expressed. It 
is noted in Iowa B.16; Mich. B. 55, B. 67, B. 80; R. I. B. 7 ; and most fully in N. Y. 
Cornell B. 15. In the last named publication the fruits are described as large and 
fair, bluish black and polished; the flavor sweet and agreeable, though not pro- 
nounced, without the grossness of the common black currants. " It makes good 
stews, pies, and jellies whether used green or ripe. The variety is wholly dis- 
tinct from every other. It represents a new type of small fruit, which, when fur- 
ther selected an d improved must come to be a staple." Other opinions are less 
favorable, owing perhaps to the variety being as yet not fully established. 

A test of currant seed is reported in Vt. R. 1SS9, p. 112. 

Currant borer (^geria tip uli for mis). — The adult insect is a slender, rapidly flying, 
dark blue moth, having three yellow bands across the body and a yellow collar. 
The larva is white, with a brown head and a few hairs scattered over its body. 
The female moth lays her eggs toward the latter part of May and usually near a 
bud on one of the outer branches. As soon as hatched, the grub eats its way to the 
center of the stem and lives in the pith until the following year, when it emerges a 
moth. Pruning ont and burning the affected canes, which are soon recognized, is 
the only safe means of protection. This species was imported from Europe. {Colo. 
B. 6; N. Y. State B. 35; Ore. B. 5.) 

Currant leaf .spot (Septoria ribis). — A fungous disease appearing about the mid- 
dle of summer as whitish spots with dark centers, which soon spread over the leaf. 
The leaves drop prematurely, often the whole bush being naked by September. 

Bordeaux mixture, ammoniacal carbonate of copper, and potassium sulphide solu- 
tions are recommeuded as having been successfully used to prevent this disease. 
(loica B. 13; Vt. R. IS 90, p. 143.) 

Currant vrorm, imported (Nemutus ventricosus). — The adult insect is a small, four- 
winged fly, about the size of the common house fly. The male fly is black, with 
some yellow spots, Avliile the female is a bright honey yellow, Avith a black head. 
During late spring and early sunmier the female lays her eggs in regular rows along 
the under side of the veins of the leaves. The eggs hatch in about four days. The 
larvai feed, molt, and within eight days buriow into the ground, where they remain 
about thirteen days before emerging as adult flies. Two broods appear during a season. 
When full grown the larvie are almost three-fourths inch long, and green, with numer- 
ous black spots. Just before leaving the bushes they shed their skins and are then 
light green, with sometimes yellow extremities. The last brood after leaving the 
bushes go into the ground, Avhere they remain until the following spring. This 
species is generally known as the imported currant worm, to distinguish it from a 
native species, I'risHphora [jrossulariw, of similar habits. 

White hellebore, a teasi)oonful in a gallon of water, sprayed over the bushes just 
as the worms begin their first attack, and again in about ten days, will usually kill 
all the worms j if not, a third application will surely do bo. If preferred, the helle-' 



DAIRYING. 117 

bore iTiay he mixed witli flonr and dusted over tlie bushes. Be sure to get it on the 
under side as well as on the npjier side of the leaves. {Ey. B. 40; Me. B. ISSS, p. 
182; Mass. Haich B. ISSS, p. 25; Mich. B. 76; N. T. State B. 35, B. 1S88, p. 146, B. 
1SS9, p. 333; Ohio B. vol. II, 1, 6, B. ISSS, p. 152; W. Fa. B. 1S90, p. 153.) 

Cut'wrorms {Agrotis, Hadcva, and Mamestra spp.). — There are a largo number of 
S])ecies, the larvce of which are called cutworms, from their habit of cutting olf 
plants. The most numerous and common (mcs belong to the genus Agrotis, of which 
about twenty-five sjiecies are mentioned in station literature. The adult is a night- 
UN ing moth or ''miller," well known as llutteriug about lights in summer. They 
are mostly of somber color, gray and l)rown iiredominating. They are an inch or 
two across tiieir wings and are rapid tilers. They lay many eggs which hatch ont 
greenish, greasy looking worms. These hide during the day eitlier in the ground or 
under rubbish and do their mischief at night. They attack quite a range of plants, 
often causing serious losses. One of the most successful means of destroying these 
pests is by scattering fresh clover or cabbage leaves, which have been soaked in 
Paris-green water, over the ground before setting plant.;. If this is done a few times 
and the leaves are changed every day or two but little loss will be experienced. 
Hand catching in the morning by digging them out of the ground is advantageous. 
They will be found a few inches from the plant attacked during the night. Plant- 
ing more seed and plants than usual, leaving the worms to do the thinning, is some- 
times tried. Salt and copperas water may be used. Salt should be used sparingly 
about plants as it will kill some if too much be used. Setting cones of tin or tar 
jiaper about the hills will protect the plants within. The tin or paper may be 
slightly sunken in the ground and allowed to stand up like a collar 2 or 3 inches 
above the surface. Holes an inch in diameter and 3 or 4 inches deep will trap many. 
{Ark. B. 1S89, p. 142, B. lS90,p. 70; Del. B. 12; Fla. B. 9; loxi-a B. 5, B.ll, B. 12, B. 
18; Ky. B. 40; Nebr. B. 5, B. 16; N. C. B. 7S; Ore. B. 5, B. 18; S. Dak. B. 13, B. 18.) 

Cypress {Taxodiitm distich mn). — The bald cypress, though a native of swamps and 
river lowlands, in the experience of the Kansas Station (B. 10), was perfectly hardy 
on dry u])lands. Set when two or three years old, at the end of eighteen years it 
was 23 feet high, and every way a handsome and healthy tree. It is a deciduous tree, 
more striking than beautiful when the foliage is off; but when in leaf, especially in 
spring, is rendered attractive by its rich, yellowish-green, feathery foliage. The 
twigs were occasionally injured in winter, but the tree endured the hot, dry weather 
apparently as well as most of the natives. 

Dairy apparatus. — For butter extractor see Butter extractor. For separators see 
Creaming of milk. For milk and cream coolers and aerators see Aerator. For appa- 
ratus for testing milk sec Milk tests. For creamers see Creaming of milk. For churns 
see Churning.. For description of milk tests and devices for nse in connection with 
milk testing at creameries, cheese factories, etc., see Milk tests and Creameries. (Del. 
B. 9; 3Iiun. B., ISSS, p. 109; Nev. B. 16; Vt. B. 27; W. Va. B. 4.) 

Dairy buildings. — Descriptions of dairy and creamery buildings, usually accom- 
panied by plans, have been j)nb]ished as follows: Ala. College B. 5 ; Nev. B. 16; N. 
T. Cornell B. 1; N. C. B. 6S ; Ontario (Can.) B. 1890, p. 54; Tex. B. 5; W. Va. B. 4. 

Dairying. — Work in dairying is carried on at 30 stations. This inclndes investi- 
gations of the separate processes of butter-making and cheese-making; the losses in 
these processes and means of eliniin ating them ; the effect of food, and of the quality 
of milk on the composition and yield of dairy products ; tests of dairy machinery and 
api)aratus ; the utilization of the waste products of the dairy ; management of cream- 
eries; and various matters relating to the handling of milk. Accounts of the work 
in these separate lines are given under Butter-making, Cheese-making, Creaming of milk, 
Churning, Creameries, Cheese factories, Milk tests, Dairy products, and Dairy apparatus. 



118 



DAIRY PRODUCTS. 



Dairy products.— COMrosiTiox. —The Vermont Station (li. 1891, p. 118) gives the 
following as the average of American analyses of dairy produfts: 

Average composition of dairy products. 





Total 
solids. 


Fat. 


Casein. 


Albumen. 


Milk 
sugar. 


Ash. 


Whole milk: 

Average 

Maximum 

Minimum 

Skim milk 


Per cent. 

13.00 

17.00 

10.00 

9.75 

25. 95 

9.50 

7.03 

80.90 

66.75 


Per cent. 

4.00 
8.00 
2.00 
0.30 
18.80 
0.50 
0.50 
85.00 
35. 50 


Per cent. 
2.60 
3.60 
1.60 
2.75 
2.00 
2.40 
0.15 
0.60 
24.65 


Per cent. 
0.70 
0.90 
0.40 
0.75 
0.50 
0.60 
0.78 
0.15 
0.00 


Per cent. 
4.95 
5.50 
4.00 
5.15 
4.15 
5.30 
5.00 
0.00 
4.50 


Per cent. 
0.75 
0.90 
0.60 
0.80 
0.50 
0.70 
0.60 
0. 15 
2.10 


Buttermilk 

Whey 


Butter 


Cheese 





Fertilizing ingredients in dairn products. 





Nitrogen. 


Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 


Potash. 


Whole milk 


Per rent. 
0. 53 
0.50 
0.40 
0.48 
0.15 
0.12 
3.93 


Per cent. 
0.19 
0.20 
0.15 
0.17 
0.14 
0.04 
0.60 


Per cent. 
0.175 
0.185 
0.130 
0. 158 
0.181 
0.036 
0.120 








Whey 


Butter 







Dandelion. — Attention is called in the Minn. B. ISSS, p. 262, to the importance of 
this plant, grown as greens for the market or for private use. The sn^ieriority of 
the large-leafed double variety is pointed out, and directions are given for gen- 
eral culture and for forcing. The seed is to be sown early in the spring, the plants 
cultivated through the growing season and slightly mulched during the winter, 
when they will be ready for cutting early in the spring. It is held to be best to 
sow every year. 

At the New York State Station {11. 1S87, p. 354) a comparison was made of the 
variant forms of the Avild and cultivated dandelion to see whether there is a corre- 
spondence between them. The wild were found to foriu four classes, specimens of 
which were transierred to the garden. When well grown none of the plants ap- 
proached the cultivated varieties in shape of leaf or habit of growth. The chief 
change during growth, aside from increase in size, was the greater or less dissection 
of the leaves. 

A germination test of dandelion seed is recorded in J't. U. 1889, p. 104. 

Date palm {Phoenix dactylifera). — This tree was found quite hardy at the Califor- 
nia (Berkeley) Station {R. 1880, p. 66) even as a seedling. In Cal. It. 1882, p. 102, it is 
the subject of favorable discussion. While it will not ripen fruit at Berkeley on 
account of its proximity to the sea and its cool summers, it is believed that there 
are many localities in the State where it would ripen fruit and be a great acquisi- 
tion. Good-sized trees of this palm Avill bear cold below 18'^ F., provided it comes 
between November and March; the hot winds of the desert do not injure it, and it 
will thrive in a climate too hot for any other known fruit tree if supplied with water, 



DODDER. 1 19 

(•veil ;ilk;iliiie. 'I'lu'ihilc [>;\\u\ is ♦'sj)t'ii;illy adajtlcd to the soiitlifin part ol' the yreat 
San Joaquin plains wherever water ran he i»roeured. Suitahle varieties mast ho 
obtained as euttings and roots; growing from seed can not he relied upon. Cal. J!. 
/.v5^/,^j.£?i, contains conesj ondence from jjarties who liad received seedling date 
palms, which in many eases were doing well. It is also grown as an ornamental 
tree. The date palms (the ahove and 1', canariensis) have a much wider range in 
California than has heen ordinarily understood, the fruit heing set as far north as 
the head of the Sacramento Valley. 

Dehorning cattle. — The practice of dehorning cattle has heen quite generally 
advocated hy the stations which have tried it. It appears that if properly done the 
oi)eration need not necessarily he cruel or very painful. The animals have usually 
r('C(>\ ered from all ill efiects of the operation in a few days. The practice materi- 
ally lessens the danger of animals injuring each other, especially in transportation, 
and is strongly recommended in case of quarrelsome or vicious animals. 

Cauterizing with potash or soda has been successfully tried for preventing the 
growth of horns in young calves ( Wis. li. 1S91, p. 2S9; N. Y. Cornell B. 54. This 
method appears to be effective, cheap, easy of application, and almost painless when 
carefully applied. 

As to the temporary efit'ect of dehorning on the milk see MUk, composition. 

(Ark. E. lS8S,p. £?; Minn. B.19; Miss. B. 10; N. Y. Cornell B. 37; Tcnn. B. Vol. I, 
1; Tex. B. 6; Wis. B. 1886, p. 19, B. 1888, p. 14:3, B. 1889, p. 57, B. 1991, p. 289.) 

Delaware Station, Ne-wark. — Organized in May, 1888, as a department of the 
Delaware College under the act of Congress of March 2, 1887. The staif consists of 
the president of the college, director, botanist, meteorologist, horticulturist and 
entomologist, and chemist. The principal lines of work are chemistry, field experi- 
ments with crops, horticulture, diseases of plants and animals, and dairying. Up 
to January 1, 1893, the station had published 3 annual reports and 19 bulletins. 
Revenue in 1892, $15,000. 

Devon cows. — See Cows, tests of dairy breeds. 

Dewberry. — A thorough investigation of the dewberries in this country is rej^orted 
in detail by the New York Cornell Station {B. 34). The name in its popular sense 
is referred to all trailing blackberries, but the best distinction between the dew- 
berries and bush blackberries lies in the flower cluster, which in the former is 
cymose, the centi-al flower opening first, and has but few and scattered flowers. 
The cultivated dewberries are derived either from the Northern Riibns canadensis 
and its varieties, Windom, Lucretia, Uartel, etc., or from the Southern R. trivialis, 
including the Manatee, etc. The peculiar merits of the dewberries as cultivated 
fruits are their earliness, large size, attractive appearance, and easiness of pro- 
tection in winter; their peculiar demerits are failure of flowers to set, formation of 
nubliius, and difficulty of jiicking fruit. This fruit is believed to be an acquisition, 
though not likely to prove as ^lopular as the blackberry. Twelve varieties have 
been named, of which those mentioned above are the best. The AVindom is prom- 
ising for the Northwest; the Lucretia has been found profitable over a large terri- 
tory, but not uniformly; the Bartel has found favor with some growers from 
Wisconsin to Nebraska; the Manatee is probably valuable for the South. 

Varieties. — Tests commonly of 1 to 3 varieties are noted in Ind, B. 10; Mich. 
B. 67; Minn. R. 1888, p. 235; X. Y. State R. 1886, p. 257, R. 1888, p. 100; X 
Dale. B. 2; Ohio B. 1886, p. 192; B. I. B. 7 ; Vt. R. 1888, p. 117, B. 1889, p. 122. 

For an experiment in cross-fertilizing with blackberries and rasiiberries see Black- 
berry. 

Dhoura. — See Dnrra. 

Digestibility of feeding stuffs. — See Foods, digestibility, and Feeding farm animals. 

Dock. — See Weeds. 

Dodder. — See Weeds. 



120 DOGWOOD. 

Dogwood {Cornns florida). — A small tree, -with showy ■white flowers in spring and 
very hard, tough wood, too small for nse except for tool handles. It is briefly de- 
scribed in Ala. College B. 2, v. ser. The fuel value of its wood has been determined 
as reported in Ga. B. 2. Ash analyses of the Avood and baik are also given. For 
partial analyses see Appendix, Table V. 

Drainage. — Drainage in one form or another has long been recognized as essential 
to successful farming. The excess of water in soils must be gotten rid of before 
crops can be successfully grown. The oldest and most generally practiced method 
of accomplishing this even at the present time is some system of open drains or 
ditches. Improvements on this method have been gravel or rock drains (ditches 
partially filled with rocks and covered over); drains similarly jjrepared except that 
brush, poles, or sods are substituted for stone; and finally tile drains which accom- 
plish thoroughly the desired object of gradually but effectiially disposing of excess- 
ive rainfall and of keeping the soil warm, mellow, and tillable. 

Opkn ditches. — Open ditches possess the advantages of cheapness and ease of 
construction. On the other hand they carry away much of the fertile surface soil 
in removing the excess of surface water while contributing little to the drainage of 
the lower depths of the soil. They are, however, the only means of drainage avail- 
able in many cases. The proper construction of hillside ditches is described and 
illustrated in N. C. B. 71. 

TiLK DKAINS. — It is atlmitted that all the advantages of tliorough drainage under 
ordinary conditions are obtained by the laying of baked clay tiles at depths offroni 
2 to 4 feet, at intervals of from 20 to 30 feet, and with a fall sufficient to insure flow 
of the diaiuage water. Some details of construction are given in Md. R. lS90,p. 102. 
The most serious drawback to the extended use of this system of drainage is the 
large first cost. In experiments at the Texas Station {B. 16) in laying 3-inch tiles 
at varying depths the cost per rod was found to be as follows: 20 inches, $0.88; 
2| feet, $1.12; 4 feet, $2.17. The cost may vary in different cases from $25 to $50 per 
acre, but when projierly laid the tile drains last indefinitely, and it has been the 
common experience that the advantage from the use of land which would otherwise 
be wasted in open ditches and drains and from increased yield and improved quality 
of crops from tile-drained lands in a few years repays the cost of laying tiles. 

Effects of drainage. — The most obvious result of draiuage of course is the re- 
moval of the excess of water from the soil. The promptness with which this is done 
by tile drains is illustrated by observations at the Alabama Canebrake Station {B. 
3, B. 6). From October 22-25 the rainfall on 3 acres of tile-drained land was 305jl48 
gallons; the outflow observed October 24-29 was 208,353 gallons, or 68 per cent. 
Similar observations on the same land in A^iril of the next year showed an outflow 
equal to 23 per cent of the rainfall. The promptness Avith which the drains carry 
off excess of water tends to mitigate floods. This is not true of open ditches, as shown 
by investigations at the Michigan Station (B. lSS9,p. 76). Observations by this sta- 
tion show that open ditches, together Avith deforesting increase floods, while tile 
draining, although it may increase flood in the spring and winter when moisture 
conditions are unusual, in the warm months mitigates both flood and drouth. The 
prompt removal of the excess of water warms the soil {Ala. Canebrake B. 6, B. 10) and 
puts it in a condition which permits the roots of plants to grow freely and draAv 
Avater and plant food from a greater area. 

In expei'iments at the Texas Station (B. 16) with cabbages and potatoes on tiled 
and untiled land, the results were highly favorable to the drained plats both as 
regards earliness, yield, and quality. 

Kesults obtained at the Louisiana Station (B. 7, B.20) on sugar cane bear on this 
j)oint. The average increase in tonnage on tiled plats was in 1887, 24.2 per cent; in 
1888, 34.5 per cent. The increase of available sugar Avas 23 per cent and 27.5 per 
cent, respectively. At the Mississippi Station {11. lS8S,p.Sl) the advantage of tile 
drainage for silage corn was 3,552 pounds, or $6.10 per acre. In Mass. State B.1890, 



r 



DURRA. 121 



' p. 19?, is given an acoount of experiments in wliicli an nnsightly swampy meadow, 
covered with a comparatively wortliless vegetation, lias been brought up by the aid 
of tile-draining to a yield of 3 to 4| tons of good hay per acre. 

El rECT OF MANURES ON DRAiXAGE. — The uiechaiiical oftectof bulky manures, such 
as barnyard manures is, of course, to make a soil light and to facilitate percolation. 
Another explanation of the improvement of the drainage of soils by manures is sug- 
gested by Prof. Whitney (S. C. li. lSS9,p. 64; Md. R. ISDl, p. 257). The surface ten- 
sion of the soil water is reduced by the substances dissolved from the manure. This 
causes the snuxller soil particles to adhere closely to the larger, thus opening the 
pores of the soil and permanently improving the drainage. As we have already seen 
under CJaii, ammonia and the caustic alkalies tend to prevent this flocculation of 
soil particles, thus making the soil close and retentive, and lime produces the oppo- 
site effect, improving the drainage of close, wet soTls. 

Composition of duainagr water. — That the drainage water removes from the 
soil a certain amount of all of the fertilizing elements is shown by analysesmade at the 
Massachusetts State Station (/?. 1SS3, p. 27) of the drainage water collected May 22 
from tiles laid under plats of worn soils. 

Nitrogen as ammonia parts per million 0.07- 0.42 

Nitrogen as nitrates do 0.05- 0.27 

Potassium oxide do 0.43-44.00 

Phosphoric acid trace 

It will be observed that the loss falls hca\iest on the nitrogen and potash. The 
examination was made at the season when the proportion of nitrates is smallest in 
soils, otherwise the amount of nitrogen would probably have been much larger. 

Soils which need drainage. —The larger part of all agricultural soils need 
drainage of some kind, although the nature and value of the land in each case must 
determine how far this system of im]n'ovemcnt can be profitably carried. On the 
damp, retentive, black slough canebrake soils of Alabama it has been found that 
"drainage pays better than manuring and pays permanently and annually. " On 
the other hand experiments in tile drainage at the Missouri Station (B.14) on roll- 
ing clay upland have not given decisive results either for or against the system. 

It has alreadj' been explained under Alkali soils how essential drainage is to the 
improvement of such soils. The unusual fertility of such soils renders the laying of 
tile drains in many cases a good investment {Cal. B. SS). 

(Ala. Canebrake B. 3, B. 5, B. 6, B. 10, B. 13; Cal. B. 83, App. to R. 1890; Fla. B. 14; 
La. B. 7, B. 20, B. 17, 2d set: ; Md. F. 1S9'), p. 102, R. 1891, p. 257 ; Mass. State 1883, 
p. 27, R. 1890, p. 193 ; Mich. R. 1889, p. 76; Miss. B. 1888, p. 31; Mo. B. 14; JSf. H. 
R. 1888, p. 91 ; N. C. B. 71 ; Tex. B. 16.) 

Dried blood. — See Fertilizers. 

Duroc-Jersey pigs. — See Pigs, breeds. 

Durra (Sorghum vulgare or Andropogon sorghum var.) [variously spelled dhoura, 
doura, etc.]. — Akindof non-saccharine sorghum similar to Kaffir corn and millo maize. 
Durra (locally known as Egyptian corn) has been grown in California for many 
years and has proved of great value as green forage for stock in summer. The seed 
is widely used for poultry and to some extent as a substitute for barley as horse feed. 
It does best in the interior valleys, especially in the upper Sacramento Valley. On 
the coast it does not mature {Cal. R. 1878-'79, p. 93, R. 1890, p. 210). 

The experience of the Kansas Station {B. 18) with durra and other non-saccharine 
sorghums favors planting them in drills and cultivating as for corn. The rows 
should be 3 feet apart, the stalks 4 to 8 inches apart in the row. While a larger 
yield can be obtained by closer planting cultivation is rendered more difficult. As 
soon as the seed becomes hard the crop should be cut and shocked. By cutting off 
the seed heads the fodder is more easily handled. For feeding purposes the grain should 
be threshed out and ground fine and the fodder should be fed in racks. The variety 
known as brown durra as grown at the Kansas Station requires a full season in which 



122 DYNA^rOME'l'KR TICSTS. 

to iiiatiire Jind is liable, to iujiiry )).v (\-iily frost. Tlic plants j)ro\v vigorously and 
stool profusely, from 5 to 10 full stalks growing from a single seed. The stalks are 
tall, coarse, and short jointed, with Y<'ry heavy foliage. The heads are heavy, short, 
and thick and hang pendant on a siiort "gooseneck." The seed is light yellow, 
slightly flattened. In 1889, a favorable season, the yield per acre was 13^ tons of 
dry fodder and 40 bushels of seed. 

At the Louisiana Stations {B.S, «. .«-)■.) white dnrra grows to a height of 8 to 10 feet 
with a head 12 to 14 inches, weighing 6 to 8 ounces. If cut and cured when the seed 
is in the dough it makes an easily cured forage which keeps well in outdoor shocks 
and is relished by stock through the winter. It is also excellent as green fodder and 
more than one cutting can be made in a season. In the climate of Louisiana it ma- 
tures in from 90 to 100 days. At the North Louisiana Station it produced 12^ tons 
of dry fodder and 43 bushels of seed in 1890. 

At the Nebraska Station {B.12) durra grows well and yields a large amount of 
seed. 

An analysis of the ash made at the Texas Station {B. 20) gave the following per- 
centages of fertilizing constituents: Lime 2.32, magnesia 16.77, phosphoric acid 40.71, 
sodium oxide 4.45, potash 26.88. The same station rei)orts an analysis of silage made 
from durra {Tex. B. 13). For food constituents of brown durra see 0. E, S. B. 11. 

Dynamometer test.s of farm implements. — A dynamometer is an apparatus for 
measuring the amount of force ex])euded in moving a load or operating a machine. 
Tests of farm implements have been made with the dynamometer by Prof. Sanborn 
at the Missouri and Utah Stations. Among the results of thpse trials are the follow- 
ing : 

Harkows. — Rolling cutters, especially cutaway harrows, loosen the soil deepest; 
spring-tooth harrows till to a medium depth but leave the under soil uneven and 
compact; square-toothed and smoothing harrows do not stir the soil deeply but com- 
press it more than the other harrows. Harrows move less earth for a given amount 
offeree than plows do, but less force is required to fit a given surface area of soil for 
crops with the harrow than with the plow {Mo. B. 4 ; Utah B. G). 

Mowing machi.vks. — A 6 foot cutter bar drew more easil3'per foot than a 4^ foot cut- 
ter bar ; a pitman box settight gave a less draft than one run quite loosely. Draft was 
decreased when the cutter bar was inclined upward and increased when the cutter 
bar was not near right line with the pitnam rod, when the guards Avere not true, and 
when the sections of the sickle did not strike in the center of the guard ( L'iah B. 7). 

Plows. — Colters increased and trucks under the Ijeaui d(^creased draft. A poorly 
sharpened share drew harder than a dull one. No loss of draft was found Avhen the 
share was made straight on its base or on its land side. A three-wheeled sulky plow 
without pole gave a light draft. Walking plows drew only a little easier than sulky 
plows with rider. The wider the furrow up to the standard cutting width of the 
plow the less the force required to turn a square inch of soil {Mo. College B. 32 ; Utah 
B. 2). 

Sleds drew harder than wagons over the same ground; change of load from the 
front to the rear end of the sled did not effect draft ( TJiah B. H). 

Wagons. — When the load was placed over the hind wlieels it drew 10 per cent 
easier than Avhen it was placed over the front wheels. The incline of the reach 
toward the front wheels increases the draft. Higher front wheels will reduce draft. 
A long hitch increases draft. I^oose l)urrs decrease draft. Draft \aried with the 
kind of axle grease used, lard being the best kind tried. The draft on ditl'erent roads 
varied very greatly, the difference between the best and poorest local roads being 
nearly 300 per cent ( Utah B. 4). The importance of good roads and the advantages 
of broad-tired wheels for farm wagons are shown in tests reported {Mo, College B. 13). 

Eau celeste. — See Fungieides. 

Eggplant {Solatium melongena) . —Testf^ of varieties are reported in Colo. E. ISSS, 
p. 1*36, E. 1800, p. 212; Nebr. B. 6; N. Y. Slate E. ISS'3, p. 192, E. 18S6, p. 243, E. 1887, 



EGGPLANT, STEM ROT. 123 

p. S73; N. Y. Cornell B. S6. A brief note ou the availability of the t-ugplant C.r 
culture in I'lorida occurs in Fla. JL 1801, p. IS. 

In K. Y. Staic B. lSS7,i}. ,^75, a classilication of varieties nuniberinfj 12 is given, 
with full descriptions, Enj^lish and foreign synonyms, and an index. The varieties 
were found to be generally distinct, and separable into four classes according to 
their purple, strijied, white, or scarlet fruit. 

A classified description of 14 varieties, with illustrations, is given in ^V. 1'. Cornell 
B. 26, Avhere also the botanical relations of the plant are shown. 

At the New York State Station {K. ISSfJ,}). 15S) the main roots of a speciuieu exam- 
ined were found to radiate from the stem at various angles, but in the larger number 
of cases inclined to be perpendicular. 

In X. Y. Cornell B. 26 directions are given for the culture of the eggplant in the 
North, which is regarded as quite feasible. An account is also there given of ex- 
periments in crossing. Numerous crosses in three series were obtained of varying 
degrees of promise. 

In B. 25 of the same station experiments in herbaceous grafting were reported, in 
which, among other results, eggplants, tomatoes, and pejipers were found to grow 
upon the European husk tomato {Pity sails alkeken(ji) and peppers and eggplants to 
unite reciprocally. 

Germination tests of the seed of the eggplant are reported in N. Y. State R. 18S3, 
pp. 60,69; Ohio li. 1885, pp. 168, 176; Ore.B.2; S. C. E. 1888, p.83; Vt. li. 1889,p. 104. 

Eggplant anthraciiose.— See Anthraowse of eggplant. 

Eggplant, ashy mold (Botrytis fascienlaris). — A fuugus disease of the fruit. 
It begins with a change, in spots, to a tan color, followed by a rapid softening and 
development of gray mold over the surface. The whole fruit finally becomes a rot- 
ten mass. This disease is liable to cause great loss after the fruit has been marketed. 
Bordeaux mixture is recommended for this disease. {X. J. li. 1890 p. 357.) 

Eggplant, damping off or seedling stem blight {Phoma solani). — A fungous 
disease, showing itself in the hotbed, or soon after the plants have been trans- 
planted. It is called "damping off'' on account of its occurring near the ground, 
at which point the young plants decay and break down. Plants only slightly 
affected will make a feeble growth, but finally become worthless. Many specimens 
may be found completely girdled by the fungus. The diseased portion is discolored, 
shriveled, and hard. Spraying with Bordeaux mixture or ammoniacal carbonate of 
copper, begun when the plants are quite small, will, to a great degree, prevent this 
disease. {K. J. B. 1891, p. 277.) 

Eggplant, leaf spot {PhyllostUta hortorum). — This fungus causes large brown, 
lifeless, patches in th(! leaves, and recently has been found to affect the fruit. The 
leaf spots are first indicated by a pale yellowish color followed by brown or gray 
dead patches, over which suuill dark specks develop. The tissue afterwards breaks 
up, leaving a hole. Upon the fruit soft somewhat sunken patches develop, and over 
these the small pimples as on leaves. The fungus spreads until tJie whole fruit is 
involved. The same fungicides are recommended as for "damping off" and the con- 
tinuation of the treatment begun in the hotbed will usually result in preventing 
any attack from fungi. Diseased plants should be destroyed to prevent the spores 
infecting the ground for the next year's crop. {N. J. 11. 1891, p. 279.) 

Eggplant, stem rot {NectrUi ipomoa^. — Although known but a very short time, 
wherever this fungous disease has appeared it has proved very destructive. Its 
l)rcsence is manifested by the jdants, when aboiit half grown, becoming yellow and 
sickly in appearance. Tlie leaves wilt and usually the plant soon dies. If the stem 
be examined near the ground it will be found covered with a white mold which 
extends below ground. Clustered upon the decayed surface will be found minute 
pink bodies, the spore cases of the fungus. It has been recently demonstrated that 
this fungus attacks the sweet potato in the same way. Nothing is known as a pre- 
ventive remedy as yet. (iV. J. K. 1891 p. 281.) 



124 EGGS. 

Eggs. — See FouHnj. 

Egyptian rice corn (Sorghum rulgare or Andropogon sorglinm var.). — A variety of 
non-saccbariiie sorgluini similar to durra (see Durra), As grown at the Kansas Sta- 
tion {B. 18) this plant tillered very little and had stalks of moderate height with 
rather long joints and few leaves. The heads were large and the seeds white, large, 
and sweet. In 1890 this croii yielded Z\ tons of drj' fodder and 16^ bn.shels of clean 
seed per acre. The seed ripens early and is excellent for feed. It should he cut 
before ripening, as much of it is lost if allowed to mature before cutting. It seems 
to be a favorite food of English si)arrows. 

At the North Louisiana Station {B. 8, n. ser.) in 1890 Egyjitian rice corngrew4to6 
feet high and yielded 11 tons of dry fodder and 22 bushels of seed per acre. 

Elder rust (JEcidium samhuci). — A fungous disease rather common some seasons 
upon the common elder and the cultivated and ornamental varieties. It occurs upon 
the leaf stalks and leaves, causing abnormal growths of a fleshy character. These 
contain the spores and greatly distort the leaves. But little is known of the life 
history of this fungus. What has been observed is considered a phase only, and the 
other host or hosts upon which its cycle is completed are unknown. But little can 
be done towards overcoming it until all ])hases are known. To cut out and burn all 
parts affected is the only suggestion regarding treatment to be given at present. 
(Mass. It. lS90,p. 823.) 

Electroculture of plants. — Two classes of experiments have been carried on in 
this country and Europe with a view to determining whether electricity may be 
used to aid in the culture of plants. In one class are the experiments in which elec- 
tric currents are transmitted directly to the growing plant, usually by wires placed 
in the soil; in the other class are the experiments in vrhich the electric light is used 
at night to determine the effects of prolonged exposure to light on the growth of 
plants. 

In Mans. Hatch B. 16 is given a brief r<^sum6 of European investigations on the 
effect of electric currents on the growth of plants and a report on experiments at 
the station with lettuce and grasses grown under the influence of dynamical elec- 
tricity. A considerable number of the European investigations seem to show that 
electricity may aid in promoting the vigor and health of certain kinds of plants. 
Similar results were obtained at the Massachusetts Hatch Station. The lettuce 
plants "subjected to the greatest electrical influence were hardier, healthier, larger, 
had a better color, and were much less affected by mildew than the others. Experi- 
ments were made with grasses, but no marked results were obtained." 

In N. Y. Cornell B. 30 is given a resume of experiments in Europe to determine the 
influence of the electric light on the growth of plants, and an account of similar 
experiments Avith several kinds of vegetables and ornamental i)lants at the station. 
In the latter a naked arc light was run either all or a part of the night, or a light 
protected by an opal globe was run all night. The naked light running all night 
hastened maturity, but injured some plants and in no case was foimd profitable; the 
naked light running apart of the night benefited lettuce and some other plants; 
the protected light run all night produced similar but less marked effect than the 
naked light. In further experiments recorded in N. Y. Cornell B. 42 an arc light 
covered with a clear glass globe was hung above the greenhouse and run for a part 
of the night. Lettuce was greatly benefited by the light; radishes, beets, and 
spinach were somewhat benefited; cauliflower tended to grow taller and make fewer 
and smaller heads; violets and daisies bloomed earlier; with endives the results 
were negative. 

Elms (Ulmus spp.). — The white elm (U. americana), called also swamp and water 
elm, is an approved forest and ornamental tree in the West, as noted at several sta- 
tions. According to <S. Bak. B. 29, "the elm seems to be especially adajited for culti- 
vation in prairie regions. It is hardy and a rapid grower. It has several i)eculiarities 
in youth which are apt to bother the grower. The first is a tendency to form forked 



EUCALYPTUS TREES. 125 

brandies, the two parts btuiijj of such equal streii<>;th that one is tempted to begin 
pruning at once." In hirge trees, however, one branch always gets the lead of tho 
other. Tlie jack rabbits injure this tree worse than others by girdling, the tough 
bark being torn off in strips. Notes on the white elm, with favorable testimony, are 
also contained in Minn. B. 24; Iowa B. 16 ; Nebr. B. IS. In Minn. B. 24 are noted 
also the English elm ( TJ. cami)Csir\H) , which was quite promising where on trial in that 
• State; the red, slippery, or moose elm ( U.fnlra), considered desirable for forest, but 
less so for street planting ; weeping slippery elm, an ornamental variety of the red elm ; 
cork or rock elm ( U. raceniosa), with hard, strong wood, recommended for ornament 
and timber ; camperdown weeping elm, a variety of the European U. montana, a very 
beautiful weejiing tree found hardy at the station, though not generally so regardetl 
in the State. In California the European cork elm (U. suhcrosa or U. campcsiiin var. 
suberosa) docs remarkably well as a shade tree (Cal. R. 1SSS-S9, p. 4S). 

"The so-called Japanese elm (Planera cuspidata) succeeds well on the coast, but 
like other Japanese deciduous trees, suffers somewhat from our hot and drying north 
winds (Ibid, p. 49). 

Emperor moth, cecropia(Jf/rtCHs[P/«/(/sa?nia] cecropia). — The adult insect is one of 
the largest as well as handsomest moths. It not in frequent! j' measures 6 inches across 
its wings. The prevailing color is brown, each Aving bearing near the middle a 
kidney-shaped white spot, shaded with red and edged with black. The caterpillars 
when first hatched are black, but they go through numerous transformations until 
full grown. They are then a bluish green in color, 3 or 4 inches long, and as thick 
as a man's thumb. Each joint of the body has several knob-like tubercles and these 
change color from time to time, finally becoming blue, except the four next the head, 
which are red or yellow. Each tubercle has a whorl of short, stiff black hairs near 
the top. After attaining full growth the caterpillar spins a large cocoon in which it 
spends the winter. It attacks trees of many kinds, especially the apple, box elder, 
and soft maple. The natural enemies of this moth are numerous and will usually 
keep it in check. If not, spraying with Paris green or London purple will poison 
the caterpillars. The cocoons are large and easily seen, and if destroyed will keep 
the insects from increasing rapidly. {Me. R. 1S90, p. 121; Nebr. B. 14 ; S. Dale. B. 
IS, B. 18, B. 22.) 

ISndive {Chicorium endivia). — A salad plant closely related to chicory. Data were 
published for 15 varieties planted at the New York State Station {R. 1SS4, p. 2S5). 
The next year IG nominal varieties were grown, of which all but one appeared dis- 
tinct {R. 1S85, p. 192). A variety is recommended in Minn. R. ISSS, p. 2G0. 

Germination tests of the seed are reported in N. Y. State E. 1SS3, p. 60; Ore. B. 2; 
Vt.R. 18S9,p.l05. 

Ensilage. — See Silage. 

Entomology, — The work of the stations in ento"mology includes the study of the 
life history and habits of insects, with special reference to the benefit or injury 
which they cause to agriculture, the identification of insects sent to the station by 
farmers and others, and experiments for the discovery or application of methods for 
the repression of injurious insects. Much useful information regarding insects has 
also been disseminated by the stations in cominled bulletins. An ofdcer called an 
entomologist is employed at 30 stations. 

Esparcet. — See Sainfoin. 
Essex pigs. — See Pigs, breeds. 

Ether extract. — The crude fat in feeding stuffs is sometimes called ether extract 
(see Feeding farm animals). 

Eucalyptus trees. — Several species of Australian gum trees {Euealyptus) have been 
planted in California {R. lS:8-'79, p. 75, R. 18S3-'86, p. 120, R. 18S8-'89, p. 48). The 
blue gum {E. globulus) on account of its resistance to drought and marvelously rapid 
growth has found " universal acceptance for relieving the dreariness of treeless land- 



126 EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD. 

scapes in the coast range and for fire wood, railroad tics, etc." Yet the soft spongy 
character of its wood renders it uusnited to meet the want in California of a wood 
"that will make a hoe-handle, or a wheel-spoke, or a plow-beam." It is thonglit, 
however, that its merits as a timber tree are not snfficicntly appreciated. The red 
gum (A\ viminalis) is next in general adaptation. Of other species the noted jarrah 
{E. mar(/iria1a) of western Australia lias been tried on the station grounds for a 
number of years and also distributed to a limited extent, and it has thus been proved" 
beyond doubt that large areas, es])ecially in Southern California near the coast, 
would be well suited to the growth of this tree. "The chief value of the jarrah lies 
in its extremely hard wood, which is not attacked by any known borer." 

Exoei'lment Statioa Retiord. — A i)ublication issued In monthly parts by the Office 
of Experiment Stations, which contains abstracts of current publications of all the 
stations, of the several divisions of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, and of re- 
ports of foreign investigations in agricultural science. General information is also 
given regarding the stations and kindred institutions in this .and other countries, 
and suggestions regartling methods and lines of investigation which may usefully be 
followed by our stations are made in articles by the editors and by distinguished 
experts in different specialties at hoiiie and abroad. A detailed subject and author 
index is published with each volume. As the condensed form of the Record makes 
its language necessarily somewhat technical, it is distributed only to such persons 
and institutions as make a special request for it after examination of a sample copy. 

Experiment station. — See Agricultural experiment stations. 

Extractor separator. — See Butter extractor. 

Failyer and Willard milk test. — See Milk tests. 

Fall -webworm. — See Webirorm, fall. 

Farcy. — See Glanders. 

Farm animals, feeding. — See Feeditui farm animaU. 

Farm buildings. — See also Z)«/r.i/ buildiuffs and »Vi7o. The farm buildings of the 
stations have in many cases been intended to serve iu some measure as models. Il- 
lustrated descriptions of various kinds of such buildings occur in the station litera- 
ture, sometimes with detailed specifications. In Utah B. 1 the dwelling and barn of 
that station are quite fully described. The barn of the North Carolina Station is 
described with constructional details {R. 1SS8, p. 125). A barn at the Vermont Sta- 
tion, briefly described in R. 1S91, p. 10, has two features which call for particular 
attention, ventilation and Avatering, "The ventilating shafts pass from manure 
cellar to cupola, -being .51 feet in perpendicular height; there are eighteen 8 by 20- 
inch shafts which open into the roof shafts and they have thus far given satisfac- 
tion. Each has openings on each floor and any part of the barn can be ventilated 
at will. 

"Watering is done by what is known as the Buckley watering device. Fastened 
on a post ill front of the stanchion, between each two cows, is .an iron bucket holding 
a little over a gallon. They are .all connected with a water tank containing a ball 
valve. Any draft of water iu any bucket lowers the level and water Hows into t-he 
tank to restore it." The arrangement is further stated to be much liked by the 
cattle. 

Wis. R. ISSS, p. 154, presents an improved plan for a hog-house, based upon one in 
use at that station. Points in the plan which are esjiecially emph.asized are, the 
div'isiou of each pen into a feeding and a sleeping room, insuring a clean, dry place 
to feed; facilities for ventilation and light; a system of yards into which the sleep- 
ing rooms open and by which they are kept clean and the hogs permitted to have 
exercise at will. A piggery at the Nebr.aska Station is described in Xel). B. 6, and one 
at the New York State Station, more briefly in N. Y, State R.lSS9,;p.0G, togother 
with a poultry house aud a set of stalls for bulls. 



FEEDINCx FARM ANIMALS. 127 

In Wis. E. lS91,p. 2S1, is givoii a full acconnt of an elaborate sheep barn built at 
tliat station. The space in the extensive wings may be nsed either as one room or 
hyniovable partitions be divided into pens. .Speeial emphasis is laid upon the ar- 
rangement of outside doors and windows, by which adequate ventilation is seeured, 
and the building can be readily and completely changed according to Avcather from 
au open to ;i> closed slu^d or tiie reverse. When doois and windows are closed \ enti- 
iation is secured tiirough shafts. A second story is Jilso arranged lor sheep. Tiiere 
is a special lambing room, anil the main i)art of the building contains a shepherd's 
room, shearing and ins))ection room, etc. The figures include a hay-rack and a de- 
vice for fastening windows wliii-h are thought to be es])eeially well planned. Some 
features of the buihling adapted to experimental work can be changed to suit ordi- 
nary conditions. 

\n N.Y. State li.lSSB, i*. 2',HS, is described a ])hitlbrm constructed for the storage 
of manure with cisterns beneath for the reception of liquids. The platform is 
made of stone and cement, the edges being slightly raised to prevent overflow except 
into the cisterns. A wind-mill is provided for pumping the liquid into a tank whence 
itcau he had for distribution. N. Y. Cornell B. ?7 exhibits the ground plan and eleva- 
tion of the "frame of a chca]), durable, and easily cimstructed covered yard" for the 
storage of manure till re(iuircd lor use, with explanations and directions for building. 

In Mo. B. 3 a chute or stall, with stanchion for holding heifers during the process 
of spaying, is fully ligured and described. 

Farm implements. — See Djinainomefer iest-s of farm inn>Jements. 

Farm manure. — See Barni/ard iiiaiinrc and Green mautiriitg. 

Fat globules in milk. — See Milk. For liabcock's method of mounting and enu- 
merating see ^Y. Y. State li. ISS5, p. :i70. 

Pat in feeding stuffs. — See F'eediny farm anhnah, and Appendix, Tables I and II. 

Feeding experiments. — See Cattle, Cows, Horses, Milk, Pif/x, and Sheep. 

Feeding farm animals. — See also Foods. The animal body is made up mainly of 
four classes of substances, water, ash or mineral matter, nitrogenous matter, and fat. 
Water constitutes from 40 to 60 per cent of the body and is an essential part. 
From 2 to 5 per cent of the weight of the body is ash. This occnrs mainly in the 
bones. The fat varies greatly with the condition of the animal, but seldom falls 
below G per cent or rises above 30 jier cent. The nitrogenous materials or protein 
include all of the materials containing nitrogen; all those outside this group are 
free from nitrogen, or non-nitrogenous. The nitrogen referred to here is the same 
as that mentioned in connection with fertilizers, and is the element which consti- 
tutes about four-tifths of the atmosphere. It occurs in plants and animals in various 
compounds grouped under the general name of protein. Lean meat, white of the egg, 
and casein of milk (curd) are familiar forms of protein. The albuminoids are a class 
of compounds included under protein. Protein is undoubtedly of first importance 
in the animal economy. The flesh, skin, bones, muscles, internal organs, brain, and 
nerves, in short all of the working machinery of the body, is composed very largely 
of nitrogenous substances (protein). 

PRixcirLEs OF sciKNTiFic FEEDING. — The proportion in which these four differ- 
ent classes of substances occur depends upon the age of the animal, treatment, pur- 
poses for which it is kept, etc. The substances of the body are continually break- 
ing down and being consumed. All work, movement, breathing, digestion, etc., 
result in a breaking down of the tissue. To keep the animal in a healthy condition 
there must be a constant suiiply of new material. If this is lacking or insufficient, 
hunger and finally death result. To keep up this supply is one of the chief func- 
tions of food, but in addition to this the food maintains the heat of the body and at 
the same time furnishes the force or energy whi'^h enables the animal to move the 
muscles and do work and also to perform the fuiictions of the body. 



128 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS. 

If iu addition to repairing the waste of the system and furnishing it with heat 
and energy, growtli is to be made, as in the case of immature animals, or milk 
secreted, an additional supply of food will be required. To supply food in tlie right 
proportion to meet the requirements of the animal without a waste of food nutrients, 
constitutes scieutitic feeding. It is by carefully studyiug the composition of feeding 
stufls, tlie proportion in which they are digested by difi'ereut animals and under dif- 
ferent conditions, and the requirement of animals for the various food nutrients 
when at rest, at work, giving milk, or producing wool, niuttou, beef, pork, etc., 
that the principles of scientific feeding have been worked out. 

Composition of feeding stuffs — The food of herbivorous animals contains the 
same four groups of substances found in the body, viz, water, ash, nitrogenous 
materials, and fat; and in addition to these a class of materials called carbohydrates. 

Water. — However dry a feeding stuff may appear to be, Avhether hay, coarse fodder, 
grain, or meal, it always coutains a considerable amount of water, which is invisible 
and imperceptible to the senses, but which can be driven out by heat. This water is 
probably of no more benefit to the animal than water which it drinks and from 
which the chief supply is derived. As the amouut of water in a food is a, useless 
bulk, comparisons of different kinds of foods are usually made on a dry or water- 
free basis, which shows the percentage of ash and food ingredients in the dry matter. 

Ash is what is left when the combustible part of a feeding stuffis burned away. It 
consists chiefly of lime, magnesia, potash, soda, iron, chlorine, and carbonic, sul- 
phuric and phosphoric acids, and is used largely in making bone. From the ash 
constituents of the food the animal body selects those whichit needs and the rest are 
voided in the manure. 

Fal, or the materials dissolved from a feeding stuff by absolute ether, includes, 
besides real fats, wax, the green coloring matter of plants, etc. For this reason the 
ether extract is usually designated crude fat. The fat of food is either stored up 
in the body as fat or burned to furnish heat and energy. 

Carbohydrates ure usually divided into two groups — nitrogen-free extract, includ- 
ing starch, sugar, gums, and the like, and cellulose or fiber, the essential constituent 
of the walls of A'egetable cells. Cotton fiber and wood pulji are nearly pure cellu- 
lose. The carbohydrates form the largest part of the dry matter of all vegetable 
foods. They are not permanently stored up as such in the animal body, but are 
either stored up as fat or burned in the system to produce heat and energy. 

Protein (or nitrogenous materials) constitutes the flesh-forming materials of the 
food. It furnishes the materials for the lean flesh, blood, skin, muscles, tendons, 
.nerves, hair, horns, wool, the casein and albumen of milk, etc. For these purposes 
protein is absolutely indispensable in the food of animals. No substances free from 
nitrogen can be worked over into protein or fill the place of protein. Under certain 
conditions it is believed protein may form fat in the body, and finally it may be 
burned like the carbohydrates and fat, yielding heat and energy. 

The sources of heat and energy, then, are the carbohydrates of the food and the fat 
and protein of the food or the body, for the fat and protein in the body may be burned 
like those in the food. The fuel value of fat is about two and a half times that of 
carbohydrates and protein. The sources of fat in the body are the fat, carbohydrates, 
and probably the protein of the food; and the exclusive source of protein in the body 
is the protein in the food. 

The composition of feeding stuffs is determined by chemical analysis. A large 
number of such analyses have been made in this country and these have been com- 
piled and published in Bulletin No. 11 of the Office of Experiment Stations. For a 
summary of these analysis see Appendix, Tahle I. Such analyses usually give the 
percentages of water, ash, cellulose (fiber), fat, protein, and nitrogen free extract. 
But only a portion of each of these various ingredients in a feeding stuft' is digested. 

Digestibility of feeding stuffs. — A portion of the food which is eaten is dis- 
solved and otherwise altered by the juices of the mouth, stomach, and intestines, 



1 



FEEDING FARM ANIMALS. 



129 



taken np from tbe alimentary cunnl, and in the form of chyle passes into the blood 
aud finally serves to nourish and sustain the body. This portion is said to be dij^ested 
and assimilated and from it alone the animal is nourished. The other portion, which 
is not digested, xiasses on through the body aud is excreted as manure. As the rates 
of digestibility are not constant for different foods and as only the digestible portion 
is of any nutritive nse to the animal, it is essential to know in the case of each feed- 
ing stuff what part of its protein, fat, and carbohydrates, the total quantity of which 
is shown by analysis, is actually digested by the animal. This is determined by ac- 
tual feeding trials with animals, and to secnre approximately accurate iigures the 
trials are repeated with a large number of animals and under various conditions. 
Many such prsctical trials have been made chietly at German experiment stations. 
The larger number of these have been with cattle and sheep, though some luive also 
been made with horses and swine. 

Amounts of digkstible nuthients in different feeding stuffs. — Combining 
the tables of composition of American feeding stuffs and the average coefiicienis of 
digestibility, we have the following table which shows the average amounts of di- 
gestible food materials iu each of a number of couunon feeding stuffs. 

Dig est'iMe food iiigrcdieuis iri 100 pounds of feeding stuffs. 



Green fodders : 

Corn fodder * 

Rye fodder 

Oat fodder 

Kedto]) (Hci d's grass) 

Orchard grass 

Meadow fescue 

Timothy 

Ked clover before bloom 

Ked clover in bloom 

Red clover after bloom and in seed 

Alsike clover 

Cowpea 

Alfulfa (luceru) 

Snja bean 

Corn silage 

Hay and dry, coarse fodder: 
Hay from — 

Redtop (Herd's grass) 

Orchard grass 

Timothy (in bloom) 

Timothy (soon after blooming) 

Timothy (nearly ripe) 

Hungarian grass 

Red clover 

Alsike clover 

"White clover 

Alfalfa (lucern) 

Cowpea 

Corn fodder, field cured 

Corn stover, field cured 

"Wheat straw 

Rye straw 

Oat straw 



Pounch. 
79.3 
76.6 
62.2 
65.3 
73.0 
69.9 
61.6 
72.0 
72.7 
68.2 
74.8 
83.6 
71.8 
74.8 
79.1 



8.9 

9.9 

15.0 

14.2 

14.1 

7.7 

15.3 

9.7 

9.7 

8.4 

10.7 

42.2 

40.5 

9.6 

7.1 

9.2 



Water. Protein. ^^S'- 



Founds. 
1.45 
2.06 
2.69 
1.37 
1.52 
1.37 
1.51 
3.70 
3.17 
2.88 
2.39 
1.6G 
3.89 
2.07 
0.82 



3.87 
4.74 
2.93 
2.78 
2.44 
4.50 
8.06 
7.85 
11.49 
10.81 
11.45 
2.17 
1. 52 
0.80 
0.74 
1.5S 



Pounds. 
11. 78 
14.04 
22.36 
16.47 
11.43 
14.27 
18.56 
14. CO 
14.29 
15.04 
11.34 
7.16 
11.92 
11.44 
10.89 



39.69 
38.89 
41.00 
41.95 
42.88 
45.60 
39.07 
41.07 
39.50 
39.66 
38.08 
31.98 
25.60 
38.04 
42.70 
41.63 



Fat. 



Pounds. 
0.38, 
0.45 
1.04 
0.44 
0.46 
0.39 
0.59 
0.52 
0.64 
0.63 
0.40 
0.12 
0.45 
0.30 
0.68 



0.93 
1.33 
1.47 
1.47 
1.08 
0.88 
2.14 
1.28 
1.47 
1.24 
0.87 
1.07 
0.33 
0.46 
0.35 
0.74 



Fuel 
value. 



Calories. 
26, 210 
31,845 
50, 980 

35. 040 

26, 030 
30, 735 
39, 830 

36, 790 
35, 175 
36, 000 

27, 225 
16, 910 
31,305 
26, 395 
24, 655 



84, 945 
86, 765 
87, 915 
89, 380 
88, 850 
96, 795 
96, 695 
90, 395 
101, 045 
99, 110 
95, 795 
68, 035 
51, 835 
74,230 
82, 275 
83, 490 



' Average for all varieties. 



2094— :^^o. 15- 



130 



FEEDING FARM ANIMALS. 



Dif/estibh food inf/rcdicnts in 100 pounds offcediiuj stuffs — Continued. 



Water. I'roteiu. 



Eoots aiul tiibu's: 

Pot.'ltdC.S 

Red beets 

Sugar beets 

Maiigel-wiirzels 

Turnips 

Rutabagas 

Carrots 

Grains, seeds, anil milk i)ro(lntts: 

Corn, kernels of dent vavictits 

Corn, kernels of flint varieties 

Barley 

Oats 

Corn meal 

Oatmeal 

Barley meal 

Pea meal 

Ground corn and oats, eijiial jarts . . 
Waste products: 

. Gluten meal , 

Malt s])routs 

Brewers' grains: 

Wet 

Dry 

Rye bran 

Wheat bran 

Wheat middlings 

Wheat shorts , , . . , 

Cottonseed meal , , . 

Linseed meal : 

Old process , , 

New process 

I'alm-iuit meal, , 



^r-arbohy- 
d rates. 



'otinds. 
78.9 
88.5 
8G.5 
90.9 
90.5 
88.6 



10.6 
11.3 
10.9 
11.0 
15.0 
7.9 
11.9 
10.5 
11.9 

9.6 
10.2 

75.7 
8.2 
11.6 
11.9 
12.1 
11.8 
8.2 

9.2 
10.1 
8.3 



I'oumh. 
1.27 
1.15 
1.12 
0.87 
0.63 
0.74 
0.68 

7.85 
8.00 
8.69 
9.25 
7.00 

11.52 
7.36 

17.00 
7.39 

24.99 

18.73 

3. 93 
13. 71 

6.04 
11. 17 
11.32 
10.81 
36.67 

28. 22 
27.06 
13.62 



Pounds. 

15.57 
8.58 

10.21 
6.12 
6.68 
8.42 
8.82 

66.97 
66,40 
64.01 
48.31 
C6.21 
52. 00 
62.36 
57.14 
61.20 

49.80 
43.51 

9.50 
36.95 
38.89 
54.25 
57. 55 
55. 93 
18.77 

32.90 
32. 82 
54. 13 



Fat. 



Pounds. 



0.20 
0.20 
-.1. 20 
0.37 

4.28 
4.28 
1.60 
4.17 
3.25 
5.93 
1.C6 
0.90 
3.74 

4.79 
1.16 

1.34 
4.53 
1.40 
3.52 
.3.52 
3.96 
12.50 

7.10 
2.74 
3.12 



Fuel 
value. 



Calories. 
31, 325 
18, 100 
21,075 
13, 845 
14, 441 
17,885 
19, 230 

157, 230 
156, 440 
143, 090 
124, 655 
149, 885 
143, 175 
143, 480 
137, e.50 
143, 365 

1.59, .325 
120, 665 

30, 635 
113,345 

89, 480 
136,535 

142, 954 
140, 850 
155, 870 

143, 630 
122,945 
139, 190 



The last item indicates the so-called ''fuel value" of the food. This is measured 
in so-called "heat units" or calories. A calory of heat is the amount required to 
raise the temperature of a pound of water about 4 de<!,rees (Fahrenheit). Thus, the 
fuel value of 1 pound of digestible fat is estimated to be 4,220 calories and of 1 
pound of digestible protein or carbohydrates, 1,860 calories. 

The meaning of the figures in this table maj' be explained by the following example : 
In 100 pounds of green corn fodder containing an average amount of water (79.3 
pounds) there are contained approximately 1.45 pounds of digestible protein (mate- 
rials containing nitrogen), 11.78 pounds of digestible carbohydrates (starch, sugar, 
hber, etc.), and 0.38 pound of digestible fat; and these nuxterials Avhen burned in the 
body will yield 26,210 calories of heat, furnishing energy for work and maintaining 
the temperature of the body. 

Feeding standards. — It will be remembered that the two primary functions of 
food are to repair the waste of the body, to promote growth in immature aniuuils, 
and to furnish heat and energy. The value of the food for these purposes is repre- 
sented by the digestible protein and the fuel value. The food requirements of 
animals differ with the purpose for which they are kept. It is plain that an ox re- 
maining at rest in the stall requires less food than one which is worked hard every 



FEEDING FARM ANIMALS. 



131 



day. This means that less protein is required to repair the tissue of the body which 
is broken down in work and less carbohydrates and fat to furnish en^-rgy and heat. 
The attempt has been made to formulate the food reciuirenieuts of various kinds of 
animals under different conditions in what are called feeding standards. These are 
notliing more nor less than tlie average results of many carefully conducted experi- 
ments. They are not infallible formulas to be blindly followed, but simply aids to 
rational feeding. Exact recipes to take the place of intelligent observation on the 
part of the feeder are nowhere to be found. The standards worked out by Dr. Emil 
WoUf, an eminent German experimenter, have been widely used. They are as 
follows: 

Wolff's feeding standards. 

PER DAY AND PER 1,000 POUNDS LIVE WEIGHT. 



Oxen at rest in stall 

"Wool sheep : 

Coarser breeds 

Finer breeds 

Oxen: 

Moderately worked. 

Heavily worked 

Horses : 

Moderately worked . 

Heavily worked 

Milch cows 

Patteuing oxen : 

First period 

Second period 

Third period 

Fattening sheep : 

First period ■ 

Second period 

Fattening swine : 

First period 

Second period 

Third period 



Digestive nutritive sub- 
stances. 



Protein. 



Pounds. 
0.7 

1.2 
1.5 

1.6 
2.4 

1.8 
2.8 
2.5 



Carbo- 
hydrates. 



2.5 


3.0 


2.7 


3.0 


3.5 


5.0 


4.0 


2.7 



Pounds. 

8.0 

10.3 
11.4 

11.3 
13.2 

11.2 
13.4 
12.5 

15.0 
14.8 

14.8 

15.2 
14.4 



Fat. 



Fu el 
value. 



27.5 
24.0 
17.5 



Pounds. 
0.15 

0.20 
0.25 ' 

I 

0.30 
0.50 

0.60 
0.80 
0.40 

0.50 
0.70 
O.GO 

0.50 
0.60 



Calories. 

16, 815 

22, 234 
25, 049 

25, 260 
31,126 

26, 712 
33, 508 

29, 588 

35, 660 

30, 062 
35, 082 

35, 962 
35, 826 

00, 450 
52, 080 



132 



FEEDING FARM ANIMALS. 
PER HEAD AKD PER DAT. 





Age. 


Average 
live weight 
per head. 


Digestible nutritive sub- 
stances. 


Fuel 
value. 


■ 


Protein. 


Carbo- 
hy- 
drates. 


Fat. 




Growing cattle 


Months. 
2- 3 


Founds. 
150 


Poimda. 
0.6 


Pounds 
2.1 


Founds 
0.30 


Calories. 
6,288 






3- 6 


300 


1.0 


4.1 


0.30 


10,752 






6-12 


500 


1.3 


6.8 


0.30 


16, 332 




Growing sheep 


12-18 
18-24 
5- 6 


700 

850 

56 


1.4 

1.4 
0.18 


9.1 
10.3 
0.87 


0.28 
0.2G 
0.045 


30, 712 
22, 859 
2,143 






6-8 


67 


0.17 


0.85 


0.040 


2,066 






8-11 


75 


0,16 


0.85 


0.037 


2,035 






11-15 


82 


0.14 


0.89 


0.032 


2,050 




Growing fat swine 


15-20 
2- 3 


85 
50 


0.12 
0.38 


0.88 


0.025 


1,956 
3,497 




1.50 






3-5 


100 


0.50 


2. 50 


5,580 






5- 6 


125 


0.54 


2.96 


6,510 






6-8 


170 


0.58 


3.47 


7. 533 






8-12 

1 


250 


0.02 


4.05 


8,686 





of r.; f M '"; ? '^'""^"''^ '''^^' ^^'2* I^""'^^^'' of digestible protein, 12^ pounds 

t alltf f" ^ "'^f "' ''^"' '■' ''''''''' '' '''^''''"^'^ ^^*' -' - oiher words, 
rrlnoo ^"™f ^°^2i pounds of digestible protein and 29,590 calories of beat 

lent of twiT "^\f .*^7— 1« --y ^e varied and leave tbe rest to tlie jndg- 
rnroteinl 11 ., ^^^^^^^^^^ ^J «ome tbat tbe standards of Wolff are too lot 

tbem «i fell ""i? 7" ^l '''''''''' ""^ " "^'-^y ^"^ «^^*^^y ^«— <! tl^-t in using 
tnem the leeder will not go far amiss. 

2 5^nonnTT ^ .^^^'^^^^-Wolff's standard for a cow of 1,000 pounds calls for 

LrnXe co^ r' f '? "'^'^^"^ ^*' "^^-^^ l^"' '^'^^^- S"l>PO- 'bat cloverbay 
corn silage, com meal, and wbeat bran be taken as a basis for aration ffivinsr 10 

izTmZZrr''' ^' ^"T' ^'^^ ^' ^^""'^ «^ ^^•^^"' ^^^*' -^^^ ^^^ ?5- *'^ 

fiirnisb 96,695 calories of boat. Ten pounds would furnish one-tenth of tbese 
amounts or 0.8 pound of protein and 9,670 calories of beat. Reckoning in this way 

10 lbs. clover bay =0.81 lbs. protein and 9,670 calories 
20 lbs. corn silage =0.08 lbs. protein and 2,465 calories 

5 lbs. corn meal =0.35 H)s. protein and 7,494 calories. 

5 lbs. wbeatbran=0.56 lbs. protein and 6,826 calories. 

Total ration . . 1.80 lbs. protein and 26,455 calories. 
There are still needed 0.7 pound of protein and about 3,100 calories of heat to 
make up the amounts called for by the standard. These amounts can only be fur- 
nished in the form of a feeding stuff very rich in protein, for anv other luatei'l 

2 pounds of this would furnish 0.73 pound of protein and 3,117 calories of heat 
makinga total of 2.53 pounds of protein and 29,572 calories, which iV.suffici n W 
close to the standard. Tbe ration per day and per 1,000 pounds live weight wouW 



FERTILIZEES. 133 

tlion bo 10 pounds clover bay, 20 pounds corn silage, 5 pounds corn meal, 5 pounds 
■vvlieat bran, anddi pounds cotton-seed Tueal. 

As a matter of fact the rations commonly fed to cows fall considerably sbort of 
these amounts. But the rations commonly fed are believed to be too low in protein, 
for in order to secure the best results from food it must be rich in protein. And 
tills brings out the necessity not always for more grain but for more leguminous 
crops. It will be seen by referring to the table of feeding stuffs given above that 
hay from the leguminous crojjs — clovers, lupines, alfalfa, cowpeas, etc. — contains 
three or four times the quantity of digestible protein that hay from the grasses does. 
By growing more leguminous crops the amount of grain required is diminished, the 
value of the manure is enhanced, and the soil is enriched in fertility. Not only do 
the leguminous crops contain relatively large amounts of nitrogen, but they are able 
to derive the larger part of this nitrogen during their growth from the atmosphere, 
requiring little manuring with nitrogenous manures. They therefore enrich tiie Roil, 
the ration, and the manure in nitrogen whicli they derive from the atmosphere with- 
out cost to the farmer, besides imjiroving the mechanical and physical condition of 
the soil. (See also Soiliutj.) 

Value of manurk from various foods. — The question of the manurial value of 
a crop is a most important one in selecting crops to be grown and fed, especially in 
localities where fertilizers or manure have to be relied upon. From three-fourths to 
nine-tenths of the fertilizing constituents (nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash) of 
the food may be recovered in the manure if properly cared for. The proportion 
varies with the kind and condition of the animals fed. A number of stations take 
the value of the manure into account in calculating the results of feeding experi- 
ments. Comparatively few jiersons realize the wide difference between the value of 
the manure from different crops or foods. At the current prices for fertilizers in the 
East, Prof. Goessmann (Mass. State E. 1S91, p. 321) calculates the fertilizing value jier 
ton as follows: Hay $4.75 to $6, clover hay $8.40 to $9.75, alfalfa $8.12, serradella. 
$9.83, sqja bean $8.6(5, root crops $0.95 to $1.15, corn meal $7.31, wheat bran $13.23,. 
gluten meal $15.77, cotton-seed meal $23.50, etc. Assuming three-fmirths to be recov- 
ered in the manure, which is a fair estimate, the manure from a ton of hay would be- 
•worth on this basis from $3.50 to $4.50, from a ton of clover hay from $6.30 to $7. .30^ 
from cotton-seed meal $17.60, etc. The value of the manure subtracted, fi-oin the 
cost of the feed per ton gives the net cost of the feed. These values apply of course- 
only to localities where barnyard manure and commercial fertilizers are relied upon- 
for keeping up the fertility of the soil. In localities where no manure is apx)lied to 
the soil or where commercial fertilizers can not be profitably used as yet, the ques- 
tion of the manurial value of feeding stuffs is of less importance. 

For experiments in feeding animals, see Cows, Milk Cattle, Sheep, Pigs, Horses. For 
feeding stuffs, see Foods. 

Popular articles on the principles of feeding, feeding standards, etc., have been 
published as follows: Del. B. 7; Ga. B. 7; III. College B. 1; Iowa B. 9; Me. B. 1S88, 
p. 102; Miss. R. 188S, p. 33; N. H. B.4; B. 1888, p. 29, N. J. B. 10; N. C. B. 64, B. 
66; Pa. B. 1889, pp. 42, 50, B. 1890, pp. 19, 27; B. I. B. 3; Tex. B. 6, B. 1888, p. 69; 
rt. B. 1S87, pp. 105, 112; Wis. B. 1885, p. 77. 

Feeding stuffs. — See Foods. 

Fennel. — See Heris. 

Fertilizers. — See also Manure. In this article the term fertilizer is restricted to 
the materials and artificial mixtures put on the market under that name for use as 
manure, that is, commercial fertilizers. 

Use. — Although bones and certain phosphatic manures had been used to a limited 
extent from early times {N. C.B. 1879, p. 149; N. Y. State B.26, n. ser.), it was not 
until 1840, when Liebig announced his theory of plant nutrition, that commercial 
fertilizers (especially superphosphates) attained any extended use. 



134 FERTILIZERS. 

The principles underlying tlie use of commercial fertilizers are concisely stated in 
four laws laid down by Liebig, as follows: 

" (1) A soil can be termed fertile only when it contains all the materials requisite 
for the nutrition of plants in the required quantity and in the proper form. (2) 
With every crop a portion of these ingredients is removed. A part of this j)ortion 
is added again from the inexhaustible store of the atmosphere; another part, how- 
ever, is lost forever if not replaced by man. (3) The fertility of the soil remains 
unchanged if all the ingredients of a Crop are given back to the land. Such a resti- 
tution is effected by manure. (4) The manure produced in the course of husbandry 
is not sufiQcient to maintain permanently the fertility of a farm. It lacks the con- 
stituents which are annually exported in the shape of grain, hay, milk, and live 
stock." 

Plants contain fourteen elementary substances which are necessary to their growth : 
Carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosi^horus, sulphur, chlorine, silicon, calcium, 
iron, magnesium, manganese, potassium, and sodium. Of these, all except carbon, 
hydrogen, and oxygen are derived almost exclusively from the soil. Niti'ogen in ex- 
ceptional cases may be partly drawn directly from the air (see Green manuring 
and Leg uminous plants). Nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are the elements most 
likely to be deficient in soils or most readily exhausted by the production and re- 
moval of crops. Commercial fertilizers are prepared and used with a view to meet 
the deficiency of these elements; consequently the value of such fertilizers is 
determined by" the amount, chemical combination, etc., of the nitrogen, phosphorus, 
and potassium they contain. The following discussion of the essential elements of 
fertilizers is taken from Conn. State B. 1891, p. 21: 

"Nitrogen is the rarest and commercially the most valuable fertilizing element. 

"Free nitrogen is indceduniversally abundant in the common aii-, but in this form 
its effects in nourishing vegetation are as yet obscure. 

"Organic nitrogen is the nitrogen of animal and vegetable matters, which is 
chemically united to carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. 8onie forms of organic uitro- 
gen, as those of blood, flesh, and seeds, are highly active as fertilizers; others, as 
found in leather and peat, are comparatively slow in their effect on vegetation, 
unless these matters are chemically disintegrated. 

"Ammonia and nitric acid are results of the decay of organic nitrogen in the soil 
and manure heap, and contain nitrogen in its most active forms. They occur in 
commerce — the former in sulphate of ammonia, the latter in nitrate of soda; 17 parts 
of ammonia or 66 parts of pure sulphate of ammonia contain 14 parts of nitro- 
gen. 85 parts of pure nitrate of soda also contain 14 parts of nitrogen. 

"Phosphorus is, next to nitrogen, the most costly ingredient of fertilizers, in 
which it always exists in the form of phosphates, usually those of calcium, iron, and 
aluminum, or, in case of some ' superphosphates,' in the form of free phosphoric, 
acid, 

"Soluble phosphoric acid implies phosphoric acid or phosphates that are freely 
soluble in wai?er. It is the characteristic ingredient of superphosphates, which 
are produced by acting on 'insoluble' or 'reverted' phosphates with diluted 
sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol). Once well incorporated with the soil, it gradually 
becomes reverted phosphoric acid. 

"Reverted (reduced or precipitated) phosphoric acid means, strictly, phosphoric 
acid that was once easily soluble in water, but from chemical change has become in- 
soluble in that liquid. In present usage the term signifies the phosphoric acid (of 
various phosphates) that is freely taken up by a strong solution of ammonium citrate, 
which is therefore used in analysis to determine its quantity. ' Reverted phosphoric 
acid' implies phosphates that are readily assimilated by crops. 

" Recent investigation tends to show that soluble and reverted phosphoric acid are 
on the whole about equally valuable as plant-food, and of nearly equal commercial 
value. 



PERTILlZKliS. 135 

" lusolnble pliosplioric acid iiupli.js various i»liospliates not soluble in water or am- 
niouium citrate. In some cases tiie i)ho8i)horic acid is too insoluble to be readilj' avail- 
able as plant-food. This is especially true of tlio crystallized green Canada apatite;. 
Boneblack, bone ash, South Carolina rock, and Navassa phosphate when in coarse 
powder are commonly of little repute as fertilizers, though good results are occasiou- 
ally reported from their use. When very linely pulverized (floats) they more often 
act well, especially in connection with abundance of decaying vegetable matters. 
The phosphate of calcium in raw bones is nearly insoluble, because of the animal 
matter of the bones, which envelops it; but when the latter decays in the soil the 
phosphate remains in essentially the ' reverted ' form. The phosphoric acid of Thomas 
slag and of Grand Cayman's phosphate is freely taken np by crops. 

'''phosphoric acid in all the station analyses is reckoned as ' anhydrous phosphoric 

acid'(P,O.0. 

"Po<ass;»m is the constituent of fertilizers which ranks third in costliness. In 

l)lant8, soils, and fertilizers, it exists in the form of various salts, such as chloride 

(muriate), sulphate, carbonate, nitrate, silicate, etc. Potassium itself is scarcely 

known except as a chemical curiosity. 

•' Potash signifies the substance known in chemistry as potassium oxide (K2O), 
which is reckoned as the valuable fertilizing ingredient of potashes and potash salts. 
In these it should be freely soluble in water and is most costly in the form of sul- 
phate, and cheapest in the form of muriate (potassium chloride)." 

The' extent to which fertilizers are used in the United States is indicated by the 
fact thatmostofthe Atlantic and Gulf coast states and several of the Western States 
have found it necessary to pass laws regulating the manufacture and sale of com- 
mercial fertilizers. Where the soil has long been under cultivation or where special- 
ized intensive farming is engaged in, commercial manures are veiy generally used, 
since they supply in concentrated and convenient form the fertilizing elements 
required by special crops and soils and furnish a valuable supplement to farm ma- 
nures. On the deep, rich soils of California, the prairies of the West generally, and 
on the black slough soils of Alabama the use of fertilizers is as a rule unnecessary 
(Ala. Canehrake B. S, B. 10, B. 11, B. 14; III. B. 4, B. S, B. 11, B. 13, B. 15, B. 17, B. 
W, Ohio B., vol. Ill, 1, 2, 6), but it has already been found that in many cases the 
California soils need to have their natural resources of plant-food supplemented by 
concentrated fertilizers {Cal. B. 8S), and this probably will eventually be true for 

the others. 

Experiments at theNew Jersey Station {B. 85, E. 1891, p. 409) suggested that the vari- 
ous chemicals used in commercial fertilizers may be made a means of destroying 
numerous insects (cutw(n-ms, wireworms root lice, etc.) infesting the soil. It is 
advised " whenever possible to apply potash in the form of kainit and nitrogen in 
the form of nitrate of soda, and both as top-dressing." Experiments at the New- 
York Cornell Station {B. f,3), however, throw doubt on the efficiency of this method 
as applied to wireworms. 

Composition. — See Appendix, Table IV. 

Home mixing.— The question of home mixing of fertilizers has been studied by 
several stations, in some detail by the Connecticut State, New Hampshire, and New 
Jersey Stations. These investigations have shown that "from such raw materials 
as are in our markets, without the aid of milling machinery, mixtures can be and 
are annually made on the farm which are uniform in quality, fine and dry, and equal 
in all respects to the best ready-made fertilizers" (Conn. State R. 1889, p. 101). The 
special advantages of this practice, aside from economy, are a knowledge of the 
kind and form of plant food used, and the ability to vary the proportions at will to 
supply the needs of different soils and crops {N. J. R. 1891, p. 29). 

Whether the mixing of superphosphates with nitrates results in the loss of nitro- 
gen has been the sul),ject of investigation at the Maine Station {R. ISSS, p. 211). The 
results indicate that the loss from this source is insignificant. 



136 FERTILIZERS. 



Inspection. — Fertilizer inspection is required ])y law iu at least twenty-six States 
In some cases tlie Secretaries of the State Boards of Agriculture and Commissioners 
of Agriculture are responsible for the carrying out of the executive details of inspec- 
tion, but quite often this duty devolves upon the station officers, and in almost every 
case the analytical work is done in the laboratories of the stations or agricultural 
colleges of the diHerent States. 

The laws enacted for the control of the fertilizer trade are generally of two classes, 
those which require an analysis (or license) fee, and those which provide for a ton- 
nage tax. An illustration of the former as interpreted by the official inspector is 
afforded by the following abstract from the Connecticut law, with comments, given 
in Conn. State B. 1S91, p. 13. 

" (1) In case of fertilizers that retail at $10 or more per ton, the law holds the 
seller responsible for affixing a correct label or statement to every package or lot 
sold or offered, as well as for the payment of an analysis fee of $10 for each fertiliz- 
ing ingredient which the fertilizer contains or is claimed to contain, unless the man- 
ufacturer or importer shall have i^rovided labels or statements and shall have paid 
the fee. (Sections 1 and 3.) 

"The station understands the ' fertilizing ingredients' to be those whose deternii- 
nation in an analysis is necessary for a valuation, viz, nitrogen, phosjihoric acid, 
and potash. The analysis fees in case of any fertilizer will therefore be $10, $20, or 
$30, according as one, two, or three of these ingredients are contained or claimed to 
exist in the fertilizer. 

•' (2) The law also requires, iu case of any fertilizer selling at $10 or more iier ton, 
that a sealed sample shall be deposited with the director of the station by the man 
ufacturer or importer, and that a certified statement of composition, etc., shall be 
tiled with him. 

"A statement of the per cents of nitrogen, phosphoric acid (P.2O5) and potash 
(K2O), and of their several states or forms, will suffice in most cases. Other ingre- 
dients may be named if desired. 

" In all cases the per cent of nitrogen must be stated. Ammonia may also be given 
when actually present in ammonia salts, and ' ammonia equivalent to nitrogen' may 
likewise bo stated. 

"The per cent of soluble and reverted phosphoric acid may be given separately or 
together, and the term 'available' may be used in addition to, but not instead of, 
soluble and reverted. 

" The percentage of insoluble phosphoric acid may be stated or omitted. 

" In case of bone, fish, tankage, dried meat, dried blood, etc., the chemical compo- 
sition maj' take account of the two ingredients, nitrogen and phosphoric acid. 

"For potash salts give always the per cent of potash (potassium oxide); that of 
sulphate of potash or muriate of potash may also be stated. 

"The chemical composition of other fertilizers may be given as found in the sta- 
tion reports. 

" (3) It is also provided that every person in the State, who sells any commercial 
fertilizer of whatever kind or price shall annually report certain facts to the director 
of the experiment station, and on demaud of the latter shall deliver a sample for 
analysis. (Section 4.) 

" (4) All 'chemicals' that are applied to laud, such as muriate of potash, kainit, 
sulphate of potash and magnesia, sulphate of lime (gypsum or land plaster), sul- 
phate of ammonia, nitrate of j)otash, nitrate of soda, etc., are considered to come 
under the law as 'commercial fertilizers.' Dealers iu these chemicals must see that 
packages are suitably labeled. They must also report them to the station, and see 
that the analysis fees are duly paid, in order that the director may be able to dis- 
charge his duty as prescribed in section 9 of the act. 

"It will bo noticed that the State exacts no license tax cither for making or deal- 
ing in fertilizers. For the safety of consumers .and the benefit of honest manufac- 
turers and dealers, the State requires that it be known what is offered for sale, and 



I 



FERTILIZERS. 137 

■wlietlicr fertilizers are -R'liat tliey jiurport to be. With this object in view the law 
provides, iu section 9, tliat all fertilizers be analyzeil, and it requires the parties 
making- or selling them to pay for these analyses in part, the State itself jiayiug iu 
part by maintaining the experiment station.'' 

The second class of fertilizer laws is illustrated by the following digest of the 
North Caridina law (JST. C. B. S6h). 

"No manipulated guauos, superphosphates, commercial fertilizers, or other fertil- 
izing material shall be sold or oflered for sale unless a tonnage charge of 25 cents 
per ton has been paid. Each barrel, package, or bag shall have attached a tag rep- 
resenting this fact, which t<ag shall be issued by the commissioner of agriculture 
according to regulations prescribed by the department of agriculture. The de- 
partment of agriculture has power at all times to have samples collected of any 
fertilizer or fertilizing material on sale, which must be taken from at least 10 per 
cent of the lot selected. These samples are taken from the goods in the h:inds of 
dealers after they are shipped from the manufacturers and accordingly represent the 
true grade of fertilizers ottered for sale. 

"Every package of fertilizer offered for sale must have thereon a plainly printed 
label, a copy of which must be filed with the commissioner of agriculture, together 
Avith a true sample of the fertilizer which it is proposed to sell, at or before the ship- 
ment of such fertilizer into the State, and which label must be uniformly used and 
not changed during the year. This label must set forth name, location, and trade 
mark of the manufacturer, also the chemical composition of the contents and real 
percentage of the ordinary ingredients, together with date of analyzation, and that 
' all charges have been paid. There must be no variation in the guaranteed percent- 
ages, but the bags must be branded Avith the exact chemical composition of the con- 
tents. 

" It is a misdemeanor, punishable by a fine of ten dollars for each bag, for an agent 
or dealer to offer for sale any such fertilizer or fertilizing materials not properly 
tagged, or a consumer to remove it, or railroad agent to deliver it. Goods keut over 
from last season must bo tagged to represent this fact, and all dealers are required 
to report the amount on hand at the close of the fiscal year on November 30. No 
fertilizer can be sold with a content of less than 8 per cent of available phosphoric 
acid, 2 per cent of ammonia, and 1 per cent of potash. The following articles are 
exempt: Land plaster, agricultural lime, oyster-shell lime, marl, and cottou-scGil 
meal when not sold as a fertilizer; also materials in bulk when sent to manufactur- 
ers for mixing in fertilizers. 

"Any fertilizer that is spurious and does not contain ingredients as represented by 
the label, is liable to seizure, and after being established on trial, its value is recov- 
able by the board of agriculture. Any person who offers for sale fertilizers or fer- 
tillziug material without having attached thereto labels as provided by law, is liable 
to a fine of ten dollars tor each separate package, one half, less the cost, going to the 
party suing, and the remainder to the department; and if such fertilizer is con- 
demned, the department makes analysis of the same, and has printed labels giving 
the true chemical ingredients of the same put on each package, and fixes the com- 
mercial value at which it may be sold. The department of agriculture can 
require agents of railroads and steamboat companies to furnish monthly statements 
of the quantity of fertilizers transported by them. The experiment station ana- 
lyzes samples taken by the oflficial inspector, and publishes the results when deemed 
needful." 

Although the laws of the different States vary in detaUs the essential features of 
the two classes as illustrated above remain the same. 



138 



FERTILIZERS. 



The following tablf gives in brief the roquireiiients of the laws in the different 
States: 



State. 


Requirements. 




License fee of $1 for eacli brand and tax of 50 t;'nts jiur ton for ta^3. 

Analysis fee of $15 for each brand. 

Analysis fee of $30 to $40. 

Tax of 50 cents per ton for tags. 


Arkansas 






Analysis fee of $2 and $1 per 100 for tags. 




Analysis fee of $15 and $1 per hundred for taga. 

Tax of 50 cents per ton for tags. 

License fee of $50 for first brand, and $15 for eacli additional brand. 






Maryland 


License fee of $5 for the first 100 Ions or part thereof, and $J for each addi- 
tional 100 tons or part thereof. 
Analysis fee of $5 for each essential element guaranteed. 
License fee of $20 per brand. 
Analysis fee of $20 per brand. 
License fee of $50 per brand. 
Analysis fee of $15. 






New Hanipsliirc 






Ohio 


License fee of $50 poi' brand. 


Pennsylvania 

Rhode Island 

South Carolina 


License fee of $10 for 100 tons, $20 for 100 500 tons, and $30 for 500 toi. . 

more. 
Analysis iee of $6 for each essential element guaranteed. 
Tax of 25 cents per ton for tags. 
Tax of 50 cents per ton. 

License fee of $100 for all; one license covers all brands of eachmanufact.irer. 
Analysis fee of $10 for each essential element guaranteed. Tags, which must 


Vermont 




be attached to each package, are furni.slied by the inspector at 50 cents per 
hundred. 



Violatious of the provisious of the different laws are punishable iu different cases 
by fines varying from ii^lO to .$500, or imprisonment from two to five years. 
• It will be seen from the table that iu every case except one (New York) the 
expenses of inspection are provided for by a fee or tax reqnired of the manufacturers 
or dealers. In some States this tax or fee is fixed at an amount barely sufficient to 
meet the expenses of inspection, while in others it is so high as to yield a large 
revenue. In some cases this revenue is used in scientific investigations ; in others 
it is turned into the State treasuries. 

(Ala. College B. ISSS, p. 7 ; Ark. B. 10, II. 1S89, p. 13; Conn.' Storrs R. ISOt, p. 13; 
Ind. B. 22; Ky. B. U; La. B. 12, 2d ser.; Me. B. 1SS6, p. 21; Md. Spedal B., Oct., 
1890; Mich. B. 52; N. J. R. 1888, p. 225; N. Y. State R. 1888, p. 22, E. 1890, p. 72; 
N. C. B. 86b; Pa. B. 7; R. T. B. 16; S. C. B. 3; Tenn. R. 18S3-'84, p. 137; Vt. R. 
1890, p. 25 ; tF. Va. B. 18.) 

The perfecting of methods of examination of fertilizers naturally occupies a con- 
siderable part of the time of the stations. The results of this work Appear annually 
in the Proceedings of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, published 
by the U. S. Department of Agriculture. 

It has been proposed to distinguish fertilizers containing readily available organic 
nitrogen (in the form offish, blood, bone, cotton-seed meal, etc.) from those containing 
nitrogen in the form of difficultly soluble substances (horn, leather, wool waste, etc.) 
by digestion with an acid pei>sin solution. This method has been thoroughly inves- 
tigated at the Connecticut State Station {R. 1885, p. 115, R. 1886, p. 80). The prin- 
cipal results are summarized as follows: ''Seventy-five per cent or more of the 
nitrogen, of dried l)lood, cotton-seed, castor pomace, and maize refuse, under the 



FERTILIZERS. 139 

conditions of tlio experiment, was soluble in pepsin solution. Fifty -two per cent or 
more of the nitrogen of tish, tankage, horse meat, etc., and of bono was soluble. Iti 
no case was more than 36 per cent of nitrogen of leather (roasted, steamed, or 
extracted with benzine) soluble, and the nitrogen of horn shavings, horn dnst, 
ground horn and hoof, cave guano, felt, and wool waste, was considerably less solu- 
ble than that of leather." 

Those results have been substantially con firmed at the Maine Station {E. 1889, p. 30)^ 
the conclusion being reached that a solubility of less than 50 per cent of nitrogen 
originally jirescnt "is to be regarded as indicating the presence of organic material 
of a lower grade than dried blood, diied flesh, and dried fish." The method has 
been applied in the practical work of fertilizer inspection at the Maine and Vermont 
Stations. 

Valuation. — In many of the stations the practice of computing the commercial 
value of fertilizers is followed. The nature and uses of this valuation are thus 
explained in the Conn. State R. 1891, pp. 22, 24, 25 : 

" The valuation of a fertilizer, as jiracticed at this station, consists in calculating 
the retail trade value or cash cost (in raw material of good quality) of an amount of 
nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash equal to that contained in 1 ton of the fer- 
tilizer. 

"Plaster, lime, stable manure, and nearly all of the less expensive fertilizer's have 
variable prices, which bear no close relation to their chemical composition, but 
guanos, superphosphates, and similar articles, for which $30 to $50 per ton are paid, 
depend chiefly for their trade value on the three substances, nitrogen, phosphoric 
acid, and potash, which are comparatively costly and steady in price. The trade 
value per pound of these ingredients is reckoned from the current market prices of 
the standard articles which furnish them to commerce. 

"The consumer in estimating the reasonable price to pay for high-grade fer- 
tilizers, should add to the trade value of the above-named ingredients a suitable 
margin for the expenses of manufacture, etc., and for the convenience or other 
advantage incidental to their use. * * * 

"The uses of the 'valuation' are two-fold: 

"(1) To show whether a given lot or brand of fertilizers is worth, as a commodity 
of trade, what it costs. If the selling price is not higher than the valuation, the 
purchaser may be tolerably sure that the price is reasonable. If the selling price 
Is 20 to 25 per cent higher than the valuation, it may still be a fair price; but in 
])roportion as the cost per ton exceeds the valuation there is reason to doubt the 
economy of its purchase. 

"(2) Comparisons of the valuation and selling prices of a number of similar fertil- 
izers will generally indicate fairly which is the best for the money. 

"But the valuation is not to be too literally construed, for analysis cannot decide 
accurately what is fheform of nitrogen, etc., while the mechanical condition of a 
fertilizer is an item whose influence cannot always be rightly ex^jressed or appre- 
ciated. 

"For the above first-named purpose of valuation, the trade-values of the fertiliz- 
ing elements which are employed in the computations should be as exact as possible, 
and should be frequently corrected to follow the changes of the market. 

"For the second-named use of valuation frequent changes of the trade-value are 
disadvantageous, because two fertilizers cannot be compared as to their relative 
moncy-wortli, when their valuations are ileduced from different data. 

"Experience leads to the conclusion that the trade-values adopted at the begin- 
ning of a year should be adhered to as nearly as possible throughout the year, notice 
being taken of considerable changes in the market, in order that due allowance may 
l)e made therefor. 

"The agricultural value of a fertilizer is measured by the benefit received from its 
use, and depends upon its fertilizing effect, or crop-producing power. As a broad, 



140 



FERTILIZERS. 



general rule, it is true tliat Peruviau guano, superphosphates, fish-scraps, dried 
blood, potasli salts, etc., have a liigh agricultural value which is related to their 
trade value, and to a degree determines the latter value. But the rule has many 
exceptions, and in particular iustances the trade value cannot always be expected 
to fix or even to indicate the agricultural value. Fertiliziug eifect depends Iarge]y\ 
ujion soil, crop and weather, and as these vary from place to place, and from year to. 
year, it cannot be foretold or estimated except by the results of past experience, andl 
then only in a general and probable manner." 

For valuation of bones and tankage see Bones. 

ExPERiMKNTS.— Many of the stations, cooperating with farmers, have carried out' 
experiments with fertilizers for the purpose of ascertaining the local peculiarities ^ 
and needs of the soils of their respective States. The following plan recommended ' 
by the Office of Experiment Stations (.Circular Xo. 7) has been followed in all essen-- 
tial details in these experiments : 

iwe/(?.— Length, 213 feet 4 inches; width, 204 feet; area, 43.520 square feet (One 
acre is 43,560 square feet.) 

PZfl/».— Length, 204 feet; width, 10 feet 8 inches; area, 2,176 square feet. (One- 
twentieth of an acre is 2,178 sqnare feet.) 

Strips between and outside the experimental plats.— L(ingn\,20i: feet- width 3 feet 
4 inches, ' ' 

The kinds and amounts of fertilizing materials recommended to be used on these 
plats are given in the following table: 

Fertilizers to he used on experimental plats. 



Pertilizing material. 



Kinds. 



Nitrate of soda 

Dis.solved bone-black 

Muriate of potash . . . 

Nitrate of soda 

Dissolved bone-black 

Nitrate of soda 

Muriate of potash . . . 

Dissolved bone-blaclc 
Muriate of potash . . . 

Nitrate of soda 

Dissolved boiie-bhiclc 

Muriate of potash 

Phuster 



Amount 
per plat. 



Pounds. 



Amount 
per acre. 



Pounds. 

160 

320 

160 

160 
320 

160 
160 

320 
160 

160 
320 
160 

160 



Valuable ingredients. 



Kinds. 



Nitrogen 

Phosphoric acid 
Potash 

Nitrogen 

Pliosphoric acid 

Nitrogen 

Potash 

Phosphoric acid 
Potash 

Nitrogen 

Phosphoric acid 
Potash 



Amount 
per acre. 



"oiencf*. 
26 
51 



The action of farm manures, lime, and other fertiliziug materials mav also be 
tested. "^ 

The directions for the experimenter's use are in brief as follows: 
"(1) Have your plans all made and everything readv before you start Remem- 
ber that worn-out soil for the soil tests, uniform soil for all, plats long and narrow 
and accurately measured and staked out, and right application of the fertilizers are 
essential to the best success. 

" (2) Select a fair average portion of the field to be tested and lay it out as accu- 
rately as you can. Leave an unraanured strip at least 3 feet wide between each 
two plats, to prevent the roots of the plants from feeding on their nei.rhbor's ferti- 
lizers. 

" (3) Designate each plat by a number, as suggested in the diagrams, and corre- 
sponding to the number of the fertilizer. 

''(4) Distribute each fertilizer eveuly over its plat, and do not let it get outside, 
and mix well with the soil, especially when it is put near the seed. 



FIG. 141 

" (5) Be as systematic and as accurate as you can, not only in starting the experi- 
ments, l)iit in carrying them out, harvesting and measuring the produce, and noting 
the results." 

While the results of most of these coijperiitive experiments have of coiirse heen 
of local value only, in a few instances facts have been brought out which are apjili- 
cable to comparatively large areas of soil, and which are, therefore, of more general 
interest. 

Such experiments have indicated that there are large areas of soil in Kcntuchy, 
-Ni w Hampshire, and Massachusetts which are deficient in yjotash; that phosphoric 
ai id is needed on the upland soils of Alabama; and that on much of the soil of the 
A\ est and on the " black slough" canehrake soils of Alabama the use of fertilizers 
is unprofitable. 

Taken altogether, these experiments show in general that — 

" Soils vary widely in their capacities for supplying crops with food, and conse- 
quently in their demand for fertilizers. 

" Some soils will give good returns for manuring; others, without previous amend- 
ment, by draining, irrigation, tillage, or use of lime, marl, etc., will not. 

" Farmers can not afford to use commercial fertilizers at random, and it is time 
they understood the reason why. 

" The right materials in the right places bring large profits. Artificial fertilizers 
rightly used must prove among the most potent means for the restoration of our 
agriculture. 

" The only way to find what a soil wants is to study it by careful observation and 
experiments." (At water.) 

{Ala. Canehrake B. S, B. 10, B. 11, B. 14; Ala. College B. 12, n. ser., E. 23, v.ser., 
B. 34, n. ser.; Cal. B. 88; Conn. Stale B. 1880, p. 101, E. 1891, jjp. 13, 22; Conn. Storra 
B. 1891, p. 173; Del. B. 11 ; Ga. B. 15; III. B. 4, B. 8, B. 11, B. 15, B. 17, B. 20; Ey. 
B. 26; Me. R. 1888, pp. 69, 211, B.1890, p. 79 ; Mass. Haich B. 9, B. 14; N. H. B. 6, 
B. 10, B. 12; N. J. B. 85, E. 1891, pp. 29, 409; N. Y. State B. 26, v. ser. ; N. C. B. 65, 
B. 71, R. 1879, p. 149; Ohio B. vol. HI, 1, 2, 6; E. I. E. 1891, p. 35.) 

Fescue. — See Grasses. 

Fibrin in milk. — See Creaming of milJc. 

Fig. — The fig has been studied at several stations with reference to varieties and 
method of culture. Exijerimental plantations are noted in Ala. College E. 1888, p. 5 ; 
Cal. E. 1888-89, pp. 87, 137, 186; La. B. 22, B. 8,2(1 ser.; X. C. B. 72; E. I. B. 7; 
Tenn. B. vol. Ill, 5; E. 1888, p. 12, Tex. B. 8. 

At the California Stations {B. 96) the fig was regarded as promising to become one of 
the most important fruit trees of the State, and it was therefore decided to stock the sta- 
tions in different parts of the State with every distinct variety to observe their growth, 
hardiness, and characters. About 50 varieties were obtained and planted at the 
several stations, and the first results on the different soils and under the different cli- 
matic conditions, especially with reference to hardiness, are reported. Some varieties 
suffered from frost even at the Southern California Station, but success with some 
appears to have l>een indicated at all the stations, though a careful choice of locality 
seemed requisite at the Southern Coast Range Station. In Cal. B. 98 it is suggested 
that the search for a drying fig which shall enable the State to produce an article com- 
parable with the Smyrna fig of commerce has obscured efforts to add to the list of 
desirable table varieties, an unfortunate tendency, considering that a great portion of 
the State with the proper varieties can grow figs, while not all parts are suited to drj-- 
ing figs. Several newly introduced table varieties are ofi'ered for distribution. 
Special attention has also been given to fig culture at theXorth Carolina Station, as 
reported chiefly in B. 74. A large part of the State is said to be adapted lo fig cul- 
ture, and in every part a supply for home use ean be had by winter protection. In- 
structions are given for propagation by cuttings and layers and in greenhouses by 
single eyes. In frosty regions it is recommended to grow the fig in the form of ^ 



142 FILBERTS. 

sprearling bush, in order that the branches may be laid down and covered in Avinter. 
The plan for coveriug is to gather the branches into four bundles, fasten these down 
with a forked peg, and cover with earth; in very cold regions also with straw or 
leaves. It is thought that the cultivation of the (ig for drying, canning, ^nd pre- 
serving might be indefinitely extended in the State. The distiibutiou of 1,000 young 
fig trees is noted in iV^. C. R. 1891, p. 13. 

Filheits (Coi-ylus arellanavaT.). — Experimental plantations are reported in Cal. 
li. 18SS-89, pj). 110, 196; La. B. 22, B. 8, 2d scr.; IL I. B. 7. At the California 
Station 11 varieties were planted. Some portions of that State seemed too dry for 
thair success. An analysis of filberts from a foreigu source is quoted in Pa. B. 16. 

Fir trees (Abies s^j).). — The balsam fir {A.luUnmea) [also called Balsam spruce 
and Balm-of-Gilead fir") is noted in Minn. B. 2d as a "slender tree of much beauty in 
moist localities and rich soil, but not nearly so valuable for screens or oruainental 
planting generally as the white or Norway spruce," and to be " used very sparingly 
in dry localities. " The same as planted at the South Dakota Station is noted in R. 
1888, 1). 26, B. 12, and is mentioned in B. 2S as a tree which may be cultivated in the 
southern part of the State. The Western silver fir {A. co7ieolor) was found quite 
hardy at the Minnesota Station (B. 24), but of too slow growth to be popular. At 
the Kansas Station {B. 10) it did not seem at home in the soil and climate. The 
Douglas fir or spruce (also called Oregon pine), described in Kans. B. 10, did not 
permit recommendation for planting, but warranted Anther trial. The Siberian silver 
fir {A. inchta or sihirica) seemed at the same station to be a failure for that locality. 

Pish. — For composition of dried fish used as a fertilizer see Appendix, Tahle IV. 

Tlax. (Linum spp.). — An annual plant, Avith slender stems about 2 feet tall and 
flowers nearly blue. Its elongated bast cells form the fiber used in the manufacture 
of linen, laces, etc. The seeds, known as linseed and flaxseed, are used in medicine. 
They also yield linseed oil or may be ground into linseed meal for feeding purposes. 
The residue after the extraction of the oil is pressed into a cake, which is also used 
as a feeding stuff". Since the introduction of cheap cotton fabrics and the abandon- 
ment of hand-weaving, flax has been grown in this country chiefly for its seed. In 
recent years, however, the desire to diversify agricultural industries has led to re- 
newed attempts to grow flax for its fiber. The U. S. Department of Agriculture has 
taken a leading part in this movement. The experiment stations and private individ- 
uals have also made experiments in this line. The investigations are yet in their 
preliminary stage. Much information regarding flax culture has been distributed 
and experiments have indicated that good crops of fine fiber may be grown in cer- 
tain localities, especially in California and Minnesota. 

Minn. B. IH contains a useful summary of information, chiefly from foreign sources, 
regarding the culture of flax. The species known as Linum usHatissimnm is the most 
valuable. Other species or A-^arieties are: Perennial flax (7Jwwm |)erenHe), of little 
economic value; winter flax, a somewhat uncertain variety, adapted only to regions 
having a peculiar climate; Linum crepitans, so called from the crackling sound 
accompanying the explosive opening of its seed capsules, producing abundant seed 
but relatively small fiber; and white-floAvering American flax (Linum americanum 
album), a tall plant with white flowers, Avhich produces a large crop of good fiber, 
but which deteriorates so rapidly that the seed must be reneAved at least every 
second year. 

New Zealand flax (Phorminm tenax) is a perennial plant Aery different in appear- 
ance from the real flax. It has a strong fiber, used for making cordage, paper, etc. 
Strips of the leaves may be used for many purposes by the farmer and gardener. 
The plant does not thrive in a very hot and dry climate (Cal. R. 1890, p. 190). 

For its best dcA'cloiiment flax requires " a moist, moderately ATarm climate, free 
from late frosts in spring, with numerous rains during the growing season." The 
land should be comparatively level and the soil soft, light, and free from weeds. A 
deep layer of humus over a relatively moist subsoil is very desirable. The land 



FLOCCULATION OF SOILS. 



143 



must be tlioron<;lily drained. The .seed bed should be clean, deep, and fine. Deep 
plowiujf in the tall i.s imiiortant lor this crop. The more weeds the less flax. Flax 
may follow .-ilniost any crop that has been well manured, except turnips or beets, but 
should not be ^I'owu continuously on the same land. Great care should be exercised 
in the selection of seed. "A jjood seed should be moderately thick, short, and 
equal; should have a glossy yellowish-brown or greenish-yellow color; should be 
smooth and soft to the touch, and should taste sweetish." Carefully conducted ex- 
periments have indicated that strong iilants are produced from seeds roasted at a 
temperature of from 112^ to 122° F. Experience in Europe has shown that really 
good seed can be produced only on strong soil and with the most careful attention to 
cultivation and harvesting. Seed produced in certain regions of Russia is very 
highly esteemed. If grown for fiber, from 1| to 2 bushels of seed per acre should 
be used; if for fiber and seed, 1 bushel; if for seed alone, f bushel. The time of 
sowing will depend on climatic conditions, but should be relatively early. ''Who- 
ever wants a good crop of flax must tire his harrow." The seeding should ordinarily 
be broadcast, preferably with a machine. When rhe croj) is grown for seed only, 
the drill may be used. Fcdlow seeding with a light harrow and then with a roller. 
If the plants remain small and of unequal length, tine wood ashes or gypsum may be 
applied. Careful and thorough weeding mu.st be done Avhen the plants are 7 or 8 
inches high. Among the most troublesome weeds in tlax fields are the wild nnistard, 
pigeon grass, and wild morning glory. The dodder may also become a great pest. 
The most dangerous fungous disease aflecting flax is a rust {Melamspora llni). A 
diseased condition of this plant is also caused by gi-owing it continuously on the 
same land. 

An illustrated description of tlie structure of the stem of the flax plant is given in 
Minn. B. 13. 

Tksts of varieties. — Brief accounts are given in Cul. B. 90; Mass. Hatch B. 18; 
Miss. B. 1891; Nehr. B. 19; N. Y. State B. 1890, p. 35S. 

Composition. — The amount of soil ingredients withdrawn from 1 acre by flax is 
stated in Cal. B. 94 to be as follows : 





Crop. 


Potash. 


Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 


Nitrogen. 


Lime. 


Straw 


Pounds. 
1,800 
1,724 


Povnds. 

23.04 

20.60 

0.13 

43.77 


Pounds. 

7.87 
32.00 

0.72 
40.59 


Pounds. 
18.00 
56.24 


Poi'nds. 

13.63 
5.80 
3.27 

22.70 


Seed 


Fiber 


600 
4,124 













Flaxseed. — A feeding trial with flaxseed for cows is reported in Iowa B. 16. 

Plea beetles. — Among insects called by this name is the wavy-striped flea beetle 
(Phi/Ilotreta rittafa), which infests cabbage, turnip, mustard, radish, potato, straw- 
berry, and other plants, doing them serious injury, especially the young plants. It 
is about one-tenth of an inch long and may be easily distinguished from other spe- 
cies by its shining black color and two wavy yellow lines along its sides. All flea 
beetles when alarmed escape by jumping, whence their name. Paris green with 
flour, lime, ashes, powdered tobacco, are all recommended as useful if used on plants 
when wet with dew. Kerosene emulsion, tobacco decoction, iiyrethrura (dry or emul- 
sion), or the arsenite sprays, are all good, either in killing or repelling the flea beetles. 
There are several other genera and si)ecies of flea beetles, but the same treatment 
must be used for all. Their jumping habit will identify them as flea beetles. (Del. 
B. IS; Fla B. 9; Ind. B.3S; Iowa B. 1.5; Kij. I!. 1889, p. 23; Xebi: B. 16; A\ C. B, 78; 
Ohio B. vol. IF, 2; Ore. B. 5; W. Va. 11. lS90,p. 147.) 

Floats. — See Phosphates. 

Flocculation of soils. — See Clay. 



144 FLORIDA PHOSPHATES. 

Florida phosphates. — See I'hosphates. 

Florida Station, Lake City. — Organized in 1888 as a department of the Florida 
Agricultnral and Mechanical College, under the act of Congress of March 2, 1887. 
Substations have been established at Fort Myers and De Fiiniak Springs. The staff 
consists of the president of the college, director, horticulturist, botanist and ento- 
mologist, chemist, veterinarian, and two foremen of substations. The principal 
lines of work are chemistry, field experiments with crops, and horticulture. Up 
to January 1, 1893, the station had jjublished 3 annual reports and 19 bulletins. 
Eevenue in 1892, $15,061. 

Flour corn, Brazilian. — See Brazilian flour corn. 

Fodder corn. — See Corn. For feeding trials with fodder corn see Silage. For 
composition see Appendix, Tables 1 and II. 

Fodders. — See Foods. 

Foods. — The terms foods, feeds, fodders, feeding stuffs, etc., are used to mean all 
natural and artificial products which are used as food for animals. The term foods is 
also applied to materials used as food by man (see Food, human). The ingredients or 
constituents of foods arc called nutrients. The composition (food and fertilizing 
ingredients) of feeding stuff's and the functions of the various nutrients, is explained 
above under Feeding farm animals. The average composition of a large number of 
feeding stuffs, with reference to both food and fertilizing constituents is given in 
Appendix, Tables I and II, and a compilation of American analyses of feeding stufts 
is published in B. 11 of the Office of Experiment Stations, U. S. Department of Agri- 
culture. 

Foods, Human. — Investigations on the composition of human foods, the dietaries 
of persons of various callings and circumstances, the food requirements of persons 
engaged in different kinds of work, and the forms in which these nutrients can be 
most economically supplied, have been made by the Connecticut Storrs Station 
(iJ. 7, B. S, B. lS91,i>p. 41, 161). 

The following table (taken from B. 7) gives the amounts of nutrients contained in 
a number of actual dietaries in the United States and Canada, as compared with the 
standard dietiwies proposed by scientists who have investigated the subject: 



r 



FOODS. 

Standard vs. actual daily dietaries for i)cople of different classes. 
[100 grams=3.5 ounces or 0.-22 ]iounds. 1 ounce^28.35 grams. 1 pouiid=453.6 grams-l 



145 



Nutrients. 



Standards for daily dietaries. 

Voit et al: 

Children, 1 to 2 years (German) 

Children, 2 to 6 years (German) 

Children, 6 to 15 years (German) 

Aged woman (German) 

Aged man (German) 

Woman at moderate work (German) 

Man at moderate work (German) 

Man at hard work (German) 

Play fair: 

Man with moderate exercise (English) 

Active laborer (English) 

Laborer at hard work (English) 

Atwater : 

Woman with light exercise ( Amoriian) 

Man with light exercise (American) 

Man at moderate work (American) 

Man at hard work (American) 

Actiial dietaries in United States and Canada. 

French-Canadian working people in Canada 

French-Canadians, factory operatives, in Masaa. 

ch usetts • 

Other factory operatives.mechanics, etc., in Mas- 
sachusetts 

Glass-blowers, East Cambridge, Mass 

Factory operatives, boarding house, Mass 

Well-to-do private family, Connecticut: 

Food purchased 

Food eaten 

College students from Korthovn and Eastern 
States, boarding club, two dietaries, same club: 

Food purchased 

Food eaten 

Food purchased 

Food eaten 

College foot ball team, food eaten 

Mechanics (machinists), Connecticut 

Machinist, Boston, Mass 

Teamsters, marble workers, etc., at hard work, 

Massachusetts 

Brickmakers, Massachusetts 

U.S. Army ration 

U. S. Navy ration 



Protein. 



Orams. 

28 
55 
75 
80 
100 
92 
118 
115 

119 
156 

183 

80 
100 
125 
150 

100 

118 

127 

95 

114 

129 

128 



ICl 

138 
115 
104 
181 
105 
182 

254 
180 
120 
143 



Carbo- 
hydrates. 



Grams. 
37 
40 
43 
50 
68 
44 
5G 
100 

51 
71 

71 

80 
100 
125 
150 



204 

180 
132 
150 

183 
177 



204 
184 
163 
136 
292 
147 
254 

303 
365 
161 
184 



Total. 



Grams. 
75 
200 
325 
260 
350 
400 
500 
450 

531 

568 
568 

300 
360 
450 
500 



527 

549 

531 
481 

522 

467 
466 



680 
622 
460 
421 
557 
399 
617 

826 

1,150 

454 

520 



Grams. 
140 
295 
443 
390 
518 
536 
674 
695 

701 

795 
824 

460 

560 

700 

. 800 

745 



844 
708 
786 

779 
771 



Potential 
energy 
of nutri- 
ents. 



1,045 
914 
738 
661 

1,030 
651 

1,053 

1,443 

1,695 

735 

847 



Calories. 
765 
1,420 
2,040 
1,860 
2,475 
2,425 
3,055 
3,370 

3,140 
3,630 
3,750 

2,300 
2,815 
3,520 
4,060 

3,620 

4,630 

4,430 
3,590 
4,000 

4,145 
4,080 



6,345 

4,825 
3,875 
3,415 
5,740 
3,435 
5,640 

7,805 
8,850 
3,850 
5,000 



The composition of many materials used for human food is given in the Appen- 
dix, Tables I, II, and III. The results of the investigations by Prof. Atwater at the 
Connecticut Storrs Station in general indicate that Americans of differeut occupa- 
tions have a liberal and even wasteful diet ; that many people in this country con- 
sume exces.sive quantities of food, much of which is needlessly expensive; and that 
too much carbohydrates and fat aio produced and consumed, and too little protein. 
oo94_]vfo. 15 10 



146 FOODS. 

Foods for aximals, digestibility.— As explained under Feeding farm animals, 
only a portion of tlio protein, fat, and carbohydrates eaten are digested and made 
use of by the animal, and the proportions digested vary with different foods. Thus 
while less than oue-lonrth of the protein in wheat or rye straw is digested, from one- 
half to two-thirds of the protein in hay, and considerably over three-fourths of that 
in grain feeds is digested. Besides the method mentioned above of determining the 
rates of digestibility by digestion experiments with animals (the "natural" method) 
an artificial method has been worked out, which, however, is uised only for the pro- 
tein (nitrogenous matters). This depends upon dissolving from a sample of feeding 
stuff by artificial reagents approximately the same proportion of the nitrogenous 
materials as would be extracted by the animal in natural digestion. The reagents 
used are made from the stomachs of animals. The subject of artificial digestion has 
been discussed, and results of tests reported as follows: Conn. State li. 1885,]). 115 
R. 18S6, p. 80; Me. B. 1887, p. 127, R. 1888, pp. 90, 211, R. 1889, p. 30; N. Y. State B. 5, 
n. ser., R. 1885, p. 312, R. 1886, p. 337, E. 1888, p. 304. 

The subject of digestibility in general, experiments by the natural method, etc., 
have been discussed and reported as follows : 

Colo. B. 8; Conn. Starrs B. 7; Ga. B. 7; III. B. 5; Me. B. 26, R. 1885-'86, p. 59, 
R. 1887, p. 77, R. 1888, p. 91, R. 1889, p. 53, R. ISDO, p. 67; N. Y. State B. 37, 

B. 85, R. 1884, p. 26, R. 1888, pp. 270, 304, R. 1889, p. 95; N. C. B. 64, B. 80c; Ore. B. 6; 
Pa. B. 9, B. 15, R. 1888, pp. 47, 77, R. 1889, pp. 67, 113, R. 1890, p. 45; R. I. B. 3; S. 

C. R. 1889, p. 122; Tex. B. 13, B. 15; Ft. B. 1887, p. 84 ; Wis. R. 1884, p. 67, R. 1889, p. 
69, B.3. 

The digestion experiments (both natural and artificial) by the stations in this 
country are classified as follows: 

Alfalfa: Colo. B 8 (steers); N. Y. State R. 1889, p. 130 (cowa). 

Alfalfa hay : N. Y. State R. 1889, p. 131 (cows). 

Beans: N. Y. State R. 1885, p. 315 (artificial). 

Buttercup : Me. R. 1888, p. 91 (sheep). 

Clover, alsike: Me. R. 1888, p. 91 (sheep). White clover: Me. B. 1888, p. 91 
(sheep). Green fodder: Pa. R. 1888, p. 87 (steers). Clover hay: N. Y. State R. 
1885, p. 315 (artificial), R. 1888, p. 305 (natural and artificial) ; Me. R. 1887, pp. 72 81 
(sheep) ; Wis. R. 1884, p. 76 (sheep). ' 

Corn-and-cob meal: Me. R, 1886, p. 59 (pig). 

Corn fodder: Wis. R. 1888, p. 56 (cows), R. 1889, p. 69 (cows); Pa. R. 1888, p. 91 
(steers), B. 9 (steers), R. 1889, p. 67 (sheep), p. 113 (steers); R. 1890, p. 45 (sheep 
and steers) ; N. Y. State B. 85, R. 1884, p. 26 (cows) ; R. 1885, p. 315 (artificial) ; R. 1888, 
p. 304 (natural and artificial); Tex. B. 15 (cattle). 

Corn meal: Me. R. 1886, p. 59 (pig); N. Y. State R. 1885, p. 525 (artificial), B. 5,n. 
ser. (artificial), R. 1888, p. 304 (natural and artificial). 

Corn silage : Ore. B. 6; Pa. B. 9 (steers), R. 1890, p. 45 (sheep and steers) ; N. Y. State 
B. 37, B, 85, R. 1884, p. 26 (cows), R. 1885, p. 315 (artificial) ; Wis. R. 1888, p. 56 (cows). 
R.1889, p. 69 {cows). 

Corn, whole : Me. B. 1886, p. 59 (pig). 

Cotton hulls : .V. C. B. 80c (cow) ; Tex. B. 15 (cattle). 

Cotton-seed meal : X. Y. State R. 1885, p. 315 (artificial) ; Wis. E. 1884, p. 67 (sheep). 

Cotton-seed meal and hulls: N. C. B.80c (cows). 

Germ feed: N. Y. State R. 1885, p. 315 (artificial). 

Gluten meal : N. Y. State R. 1885, p. 315 (artificial). 

Grasses, blue joint: Me. R. 1888, p.91 {sheQj)); orchard, Me. R. 1888, p. 91 (sheep); 
N. Y. State R. 1888, p. 304 (natural and artificial) ; pasture, Pa. R. 1889, p. 67 (steers) ; 
timothy. Me. R. 1886, p. 56 (sheep), R. 1887, pp. 80, 133 (sheep and artificial), R. 1888, 
p. 91 (sheep) ; timothy hay. Me. R. 1887, pp. 72, 81 (sheep) ; N. Y. State R. 1888, p. 305 
(natural and artificial) ; wild oat. Me. R. 1888, p. 91 (sheep) ; witch grass, Me. R. 1888, 
p. 01 (sheep) ; green and dry grass, Pa. R. 1888, p. 64 (cows). 



FOODS. 



147 



Hay, mixed: iV. Y. State Ji. 1SS4, p. 26 (cows), B. 1SS5, _p. 5i5 (artificial), B. 1889,}). 
ISO (cow). 

Hay, clover, and timothy: Fa. B. 1S90, p. 45 (steers). 

Linseed meal, old and new process: N. Y. State B. 1SS5, p. 315 (artificial). 

Malt sprouts: Wis. B. 1884, p. 67 (sheep). 

Oat straw: Me. B. 1887, p. 75 (sheep) ; N. Y. State B. ISSS, p. 305 (artificial). 

Pea meal: Me. B. 1889, p. 66 (sheep) ; N. Y. State B. 1885, p. 315 (artificial). 

Potatoes, raw: Me. B. 1887, p. 79 (sheep); N. Y. State B. 1884, p. 26 (cows). 

Potatoes, hoiled: Me. B. 1887, p. 79 (sheep). 

Rye fodder: Pa. B. 1888, p. 81 (steers). 

Ship stuff: .V. Y. State B. 1885, p. S15 (artificial). 

Soja bean fodder: N. Y. State B. 1885, p. 315 (artificial); B . 1SS8, p. 504 (natural 
and artificial). 

Sorghum: Pa. B. 1889, p. 91 (sheep); Ttx. B. 13 (cows). 

Starch refuse: N. Y. State B. 1885, p. 315 (artificial). 

Wheat: N. Y. State B. 1885, p. 315 (artificial); B. ISSS, p. 306 (artificial). 

Wheat bran: Me. B. 1889, p. 64 (sheep); B. 1890, p. 61 (sheep) N. Y. B. 1885, p. S15 
(artificial) ; B. 1888, p. 306 (artificial). 

Wheat middlings: Me. B. 1889, p. 61 (sheep); B. 1891, p. 38 (sheep). 

White weed : Me. B. 1888, p. 91 (sheep). 

Mixed rations: N. H. B. 11 (pigs); N. Y. State B. 1889, p. 130 (cows and steers). 

Foods for animals, valuation. — An attempt has been made to calculate the 
commercial value of feeding stuffs on the basis of their composition, using definite 
prices per pound of protein, fat, and carbohydrates This is similar to the method 
of valuing commercial fertilizers (see FertHizers), and assumes that each pound of 
di"-estible protein, fat, and carbohydrates has a value. The prices of protein, fat, 
and carbohydrates are derived in much the same way as those for nitrogen, phos- 
phoric acid, and potash in the case of fertilizer valuation. They are calculated from 
the average market prices of a large number of feeding materials, usually grain and 
commercial feeds, taking the composition of these materials into account. Several 
stations have at diflerent times calculated the average cost of nutrients per pound. 
These very naturally vary in diflerent localities and at diflerent times, as they are 
based upon the market prices of feeding stufi's which are subject to fluctuation. 
The prices found for total protein per pound have ranged from 1 to 2.5 cents, for fat 
from 2.5 to 4.45 cents, and for carbohydrates from 0.5 to 1 cent. In applying these 
values to a feeding stuff the number of pounds of protein, fat, and carbohydrates in 
a ton of the feed are multiplied by the prices of protein, fat, and carbuhydrates, re- 
spectively, and the sum compared with the market price. The object in computing 
valuations is to secure a basis for comparison of the cost of food nutrients in diflerent 
feeding stuft's to aid in the selection of feeding stufts most economical for the local- 
ity. An example will illustrate. The New York State Station (B. 5^ «. se/-.) cal- 
culated the valuation of a number of feeding stufl's, using its own basis of valu- 
ation, and those of the Connecticut State and Indiana Stations. The results for a 
few foods are here given : 

Market price and valuation per ton. 



Linseed meal (new process) 

Cottou-seed meal 

Gluten meal 

Eye feed 

Corn meal 

Wheat bran 



Market 

price 

per ton. 



$26. OO 
26.00 
27.00 
24.00 
25.00 
24. 00 



Valuation per ton. 



Ind. 

Station. 



$27. 48 
39.72 
27.06 
19.61 
20. r.9 
19. 28 



Conn. 

Station. 



$24. 50 
33.19 
27. 66 
21. 6.5 
22.07 
22.06 



N. T. 
Station. 



$27. 52 
33.47 
27.52 
21.79 
20.89 
22. 05 



148 



FOODS. 



These figures do not mean that cotton-seed meal, for instance, is surely worth for 
feeding purposes from $7 to $14 more than it costs, or that corn meal is surely worth 
from $3 to $4 less than the market price ; nor do they mean that one is a more palatable 
or easily digested food than the other. They simply mean that valued on the same 
basis, the protein, fat, and carbohydrates in a ton of cotton-seed meal are worth from 
$13 to $20 more than those in a ton of corn meal, while the actual market price in 
this case differed by only $1 per ton. The tables of composition show the cotton- 
seed meal to be very much richer than corn meal in protein and fat, and the valua- 
tion shows that the protein, fat, and carbohydrates in the cotton-seed meal were 
very much cheaper than those in corn meal. Such indications might induce the 
farmer to try substituting cotton-seed meal for a part of the corn meal or gluten 
meal for the wheat bran. 

Assuming a fixed valuation of 1 cent per pound of digestible carbohydrates and 2^ 
cents per pound of digestible fat, the Massachusetts State Station (R. 1889, p. 56) has 
calculated the cost of protein per pound at the current market prices of feeding stuffs, 
with the following results : 

Cost of xn-otein per pound in different feeding stuffs. 



Com meal 

Corn meal 

Wheat middlings , 

Winter wheat bran 

Dried brewers' grains ... 
New-process linseed meal 

Gluten meal 

Cotton -seed meal 

English hay 



Market 


Cost of 


price per 
ton. 


protein per 
pound. 




Cents. 


$29. 00 


5.84 


23.00 


2.72 


20. 00 


3.13 


21.00 


3.93 


22.00 


3.37 


27.00 


2.68 


28.00 


2.46 


28.00 


2.34 


12.00 


1.36 



The subject of valuation has been discussed as follows: Conn. State B. 1888, p. 
141, B. 96; Del. B. 7 ; R. 1880, p. 157; Ind. B. 37; Mass. State R. 1891, p. 94; 2f. Y. 
State B. 31, n. ser.; Wis. R. 1891, p. 203. 

Foods for animals, preparatiox. — Under this heading are treated the trials on 
the effect of cooking, steaming, moistening, chopping,griudiug,and otherwise prepar- 
ing food for cattle, sheep, and pigs. Experiments abroad have indicated that cook- 
ing or steaming coarse or unpalatable food was advantageous, not on account of 
making the food more nutritious but iu inducing the animals to eat large quantities 
of it. In fact it has been shown for lupine hay and some other materials that the 
digestibility of certain of the food ingredients', notably the albuminoids was dimin- 
ished by steaming; and the cooking of potatoes, which was formerly believed advan- 
tageous, has been shown to be of no advantage whatever in case of milch cows, 
although it was of advantage to pigs. Julius Kiihn in his book on feeding, says : 
" Unless large amounts of straw and coarse foods are to be fed and the supply of 
good hay and hoed crops is scarce, it will usually be more profitable to omit the 
steaming. If the reverse condition jirevails, steaming will be found a very advanta- 
geous means of inducing the animals to eat sufficiently large quantities of the food." 

The experiments made by our experiment stations in prejjaring food have been 
mostly with pigs. 

Cooking and s^eamuii/.— Ladd reported analyses {N. Y. State B. 5, n. ser., R. 
1885, p. 315) of cooked and uncooked clover hay and corn meal, and determina- 
tions of the digestibility of the same by artificial means. These showed that the 
percoutages of albuminoids and fat and the relative digestibility of the albuminoids 



FORESTRY. 149 

-were more or less diminislied by cooking. A trial with one sheep at the Oregon 
Station (/>. 6) indicated that the digestibility of silage was improved by cooking, 
but more extended trials are necessary to settle the question. With reference to 
the value of cooking or steaming food for pigs, at least thirteen separate series of 
experiments in different parts of this country have been reported. In these cooked 
or steamed barley meal, corn meal, corn meal and shorts, whole corn, whole corn and 
Bhorts, peas, corn and oat meal, potatoes, and a mixture of peas, barley, and rye have 
been compared with the same foods uncooked (and usually dry). In ten of these 
trials there has not only been no gain from cooking, but there has been a positive 
loss, i. e.,.the amount of food required to produce a pound of gain was larger when 
the food was cooked than when it was fed raw and in some cases the difference has 
been considerable. In the three exceptional cases there was either no gain at all or 
only very slight gain from cooking or steaming, amounting to 2 per cent in one case. 
For further details on the subject see Pigs, feeding. 

Experiments in feeding steamed cotton-seed to cows are reported by the Missis- 
sippi Station (B. 15, B. 21, B. 1890, p. 26). The results seemed to be favorable to steam- 
ing. See also Cottonseed and cotton-seed meal for milk and butter production. 

Moistening and soaking. — Three stations have reported comparisons of dry and 
wet or soaked food for pigs. The food consisted of shelled corn in one case, of a 
mixture of corn meal and shorts in another, and of a mixture of corn meal, shorts, 
and linseed meal in a third. In every case the pigs ate more of the wet food and 
made larger gains on it. The additional gain was usually due to the larger amount 
of food eaten when moistened or soaked. For further details see Pigs, feeding. 

Boasting, — An experiment in feeding roasted cotton-seed to cows is reported in 
Miss. B. 15, R. 1891, p. 26. 

Cutting and chopping coarse fodder. — The Maine Station {B. 1890, p. 49) compared 
the value of chopped and unchopped hay for cows and found no evidence that the 
chopping had any effect. 

Cutting corn stover was found advantageous at the Wisconsin Station {B. 1884, p. 
11) (see Cows). 

The Indiana Station {B. 37) found that steers made better gains on cut than on 
unciit clover hay. A trial of feeding cut and uncut hay to horses has been reported 
by the Utah Station {B. 13). 

Grinding. — Four stations have reported experiments on the value of grinding 
corn for pigs. As a rule these exi>erimeuts have indicated that grinding does not 
pay. The Maine Station (/>'. 1886, p. 59) found that pigs digested a considerably larger 
percentage of the protein, carbohydrates, and fat from ground than from unground 
corn. One station found ground oats preferable to whole oats for fattening pigs, 
but not for maintenance of brood sows. For further account see Pigs, feeding. 

As between whole and ground corn for steers, the results at two stations have been 
very favorable to grinding, and at a third station the results in two years were con- 
tradictory. 

A trial of feeding whole and ground grain to horses is reported by the Utah Station 
{B. 9). 

Foods, preservation. — See Silos and Silage. 

Forestry. — This subject has excited interest chiefly in the northwestern prairie 
States, where, on account of extremes of climate, a forest growth is wanting and 
difficult to secure, and in California, where hardwood limber is specially deficient 
and where climatic conditions require special adaptation of species. Also in some 
States naturally well timbered the maintenance and utilization of the supply have 
been more or less considered. Investigations have naturally related to the adapt- 
ability and economic and ornamental value of native and foreign species and varie- 
ties, the best manner of treatment, and protection from insect pests. In Ala. Col- 
lege B. 2, B. 3, n. ser., a list of the timber trees of the State is given, with notes on the 
economic properties of some species. In Ga. B. 2 and B. 3 an investigation of the 



150 FOREST TENT CATERPILLAR. 

fuel value of several woods is reported, including asli analyses. Mich. B. 32 con- 
sists of a report of a forestry convention under the auspices of the Independent For- 
estry Commission at Grand Rapids, January. 1888, and contains discussions of many 
relevant topics. Mich. B. 39 discusses tree-planting, and on account of the insect 
enemies of the hard mai)le, elm, and locnst, advocates the substitution of basswood 
in roadside and other plantings. Mich. B. 45 consists of a pojjular appeal entitled 
Why Not Plant a Grove? 

At the South Dakota Station the adaptations of trees to the local cliuiate and the 
methods of rearing plantations have been continuously studied {B. 12, B. 15, B.20, 
B. 23, B. 29, 11. 1SS8, p. 15). The manner of combining species so that some more hardy, 
leafy, and rapid-growing trees should serve as nurses to slower-growing but more 
valuable sorts, especially by keeping the weeds down, has been a subject of partic- 
ular study. The box elder and the soft maple have been found the best nurse trees. 
In an unnumbered Iowa bulletin (1885) an account is given of several Russian pop- 
lars and willows obtained from Prof. Sargent's collection and distributed for trial. 
These have been tried also at the South Dakota and Minnesota Stations, and are 
found hardy and rapid-growing, though at the former the poplars were not exempt 
from the attacks of the cottonwood leaf beetle. In Iowa B. 16 a selection of trees 
and shrubs is recommended for planting on home grounds. Minn. E. 18SS, pp.200, 
223, contains a few notes upon Russian willows and poplars and an account of a suc- 
cessful experiment in growing them from cuttings; Minn. i?. 9 contains a fuller 
illustrated account of this class of trees; Minn. B. 18 contains a report of ex- 
periments in raising evergreens from seed; Minn. B. 24 is devoted to a list of orna- 
mental and timber trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants, noted with reference to 
their hardiness and desirability for planting in the State. Kans. B. 10 is occupied 
with data concerning a large number of conifers with reference to ornamental plant- 
ing in that State. 

In California much care has been given to the trial of exotic and. American tim- 
ber, shade, and economic trees in order to meet the deficiencies or eiilarge the 
resources of that State. Among the successful or promising trees are several Austra- 
lian acacias or wattle trees and eucalyptus or gum trees, the English or German oak, 
the cork oak, various mulberries, the camphor tree, species of cinnamon, the catalpji, 
the carob, and several bamboos. Eastern hardwood trees have in general been found 
to grow very slowly there. Cinchonas where tested proved too tender, except for a 
few especially warm localities. A rejiort upon trees planted on Mount Hamilton 
occurs in Cal. B. 1890, p. 267. (See also B. 1888-''89, p. 48, B. 1890, p. 236.) 

For data regarding individual kinds of trees see under their several names. For 
analyses of different woods see Appendix, TaMe V. 

Tovest tent caterpillar (CHsiocam2}a sjjlvatica). — An insect closely resembling the 
apple tree tent caterpillar and requiring similar treatment (see Apple tree tent cater- 
pillar). 

(Colo. B. 6; Me. B. 1888, p. 164, E. 1889, p. 188, E. 1890, p. 138; Mass. Hatch B. 12; 
Xehr. B. 14; Ore. B. 18.) 

Fowl meadow grass. — See Grasses. 

Foxtail grass. — See Weeds. 

Fungi (plural of fungus). — Plants forming a great group represented by several 
of the lower orders and all characterized chiefly by the absence of green coloring 
matter (chlorophyll). Fungi are divided into two classes based upon the sources 
from which they obtain their sustenance. If from living plants and animals, they 
are called parasites; if from dead and decaying organic matter, they are known as 
saprophj'tic fungi. The plant or animal from which the fungus derives its main- 
tenance is called a host. Some hosts are attacked by a single species of fungi, 
while others may harbor a dozen or more. Some fungi are restricted to a single 
host while others require two or three different hosts on which to pass the various 
phases making their life cycle. 



FUNGICIDES. 151 

Most fungi are comparatively simple in their life history. They have a vegetative 
phase correspoudiiig to the same pliase of ordinary plants and a reproductive phase 
more or less ditfercutiated according to the grade of the fungus. In many of the 
lower orders the two phases are so closely associated as to be almost if not entirely 
identical. This is true of the bacteria, slime molds, and similar organisms. Among 
the more highly developed fungi the vegetative phase is represented by a minute, 
threadlike lilament called a hypha. This is usually colorless, of greater or less 
length, and more or less bramhed. The hyphtc may occur singly or abundantly. In 
the latter case a thick, tangled mat may be formed called the mycelium, or a stem- 
like structure may be produced surmounted by various growths, as in the toadstools, 
and mushrooms. Some fungi send their lilaments through the tissues of their hosts 
ramifying in every cell, or they may send small disk-like suckers into the cells, by 
which their sap is stolen and the life of the host imperiled. 

The reproduction of fungi takes place in various ways. One is by division of one 
cell into two, both of which form complete individuals. Another is by the hyphfe 
sending branches to the surface of the host, or by aerial branches when the fungus 
is a superficial one, and from these numerous branches are developed multitudes of 
minute spores corresponding to the seeds of higher plants, for the immediate and 
rapid spread of the species; while deeper within the tissues are formed other spores 
by which the fungus is commonly carried over the winter or resting season. These 
spores, all of which are microscopic in size, are scattered everywhere by the wind 
and falling upon a suitable host develop new filaments. These filaments find their 
way into the tissues of the host, robbing it of its needed nourishment and prevent- 
ing the performance of its usual functions. 

As has already been said, fungi are divided into parasitic and saprophytic. They 
may also be classified as harmless and injurious, according to the effect they exer- 
upon their hosts, or as beneficial and injurious if viewed from their economic influ- 
ence, either direct or indirect. The saprophytic fungi are mostly beneficial, as many 
of them are important scavengers. Some of those which are parasites, especially those 
infesting insects and their larvaj, while injurious to their hosts are highly beneficial . 
in destroying many troublesome insects. Other parasitic fungi are injurious to cul- 
tivated plants. Among these are the fungi causing the rusts and smuts of grain, 
and the rots, scabs, and mildews of fruits and foliage. Associated with this class 
of fungi are some of the bacteria or fission fungi, for example, those thought to 
cause such diseases of plants as leaf blights and peach curl, and those causing 
anthrax, cholera, and many of the fevers of animals. 

The importance of fungi as producing diseases of many kinds was not recognized 
until within very recent years, and the various experiment stations are doing good 
work in studying the life history of fungi from both a scientific and an economic 
standpoint. 

Fungicides.— The various preparations used in the treatment of fungous diseases 
of plants are as a rule preventive remedies, and their successful use depends very 
largely on early and repeated applications. No fixed rule can be laid down as to 
when and how often fungicides should be used. Many diseases are greatly checked 
by drenching or washing the trees, shrubs, or vines before the buds begin to show, 
with a mixture of greater strength than that given in the ordinary formulas. For 
this purpose iornmlas 1 and 2, given below, may be used in double or triple strength. 
In some cases a second spraying should follow the falling of the flowers. Rain 
following soon after the application of fungicides is likely to wash them off. In 
such cases spray again as soon as possible after the rain. Care must be exercised 
not to use fungicide solutions which will injure foliage. In preparing fungicides 
it must be remembered that ordinary commercial chemicals vary in strength. For 
vegetables and annual plants in general the first spraying should be done after the 
plant is well up and in vigorous growth. The succeeding sprayings should be made 
at intervals of about two weeks throughout the season. Particular courses of treat- 



152 



FUNGICIDES. 



nient are roqnirecT for some diseases. The spraying should be thoroughly done so as 
to reach the whole plant, but care should be taken not to use too much of the fun -icide 
A small quantity thrown over a plant in the form of a very fine spray will do more 
good than a much greater amount imperfectly applied. A gallon or a gallon and a 
half should spray a tree of average size. The disease must first be determined and 
the treatment fitted to the disease. The indiscriminate use of fungicides may do 
more harm than good. Experience shows that Bordeaux mixture or ammoniacal 
carbonate of copper solutiou may be properly used for numerous diseases An 
objection to Bordeaux mixture, especially on fruits, is that it leaves quite a de- 
posit of solid material. This may, however, be easily washed off from the fruit with 
a sohition of vinegar (2 quarts to 10 gallons of water). All fungicides should be 
kept in wooden, glass, or earthen ware, never in iron vessels. 

Formulas for the more common fungicides, with brief directions for their prenara 
tion and use, are giveu below: 

(1) Simple solution of copper SULPHATE.-Copper sulphate (blue vitriol or blue 
stoue). 1 pound ; water (soft), 22 gallons. Dissolve the copper in the water This 
solution will keep indefinitely. It will cost about one-fourth of a cent per gallon 
Pans green or London purple (2 ounces to 22 gallons) may be added and the mixture 
may be used as a combined insecticide and fungicide 

r.2r%Z"l'T ^"^"^TZ •^^^^™^^-I-- «"^Pl"'^te (copperas), 5 pounds; soft 

J.nfd ^u r t *^' ''^1''''" ^^^ "^^ ^* «^«^- " «««*« about one-half 

cent per gallon. Insecticides may be combined with this funo-icide 

4 pounds , water, 22 gallons. Dissolve the copper in 16 gallons of the water and slack 
thehmem theother 6. Stir the lime well and strain thrthin whitewash into the cop 
per solution, stirring it well. Always observe this order of preparation, as it is said to 

irouce TT 1 ''' ir^'"''' ^"""^' "^*" *'^ ^"^^- ''^'^ --" ^^--1 -" - 
at once The tendency this mixture has to fill up the nozzle of the sprayer is its 

greatest drawback. Paris green or London purple (2 ounces to 22 gallons) mav be 

combined with this fungicide. It costs about 1^ cents per .^allon ^ 

as'gTd relultt.™"'' ' "'*'''' "' ' "•""'' "' '''''''' '"'P^''^*^ '' ^''''' -^*^ ^^out 

(4) EAUCELESTE.-Copper sulphate, 1 pound; ammonia (22°), U pints- water 22 

gallons D ssolve the copper in 2 gallons of hot water. When cool a!ld tLImmonl! 

::i^:d:rtrthis""°^^- '''- '-'- ^'-^^ ^ -^ ^- ^-"- "^^ r;;: 

Ju\ ^^'''^f ^'^^ CELESTE.-Copper sulphate, 2 pounds ; soda carbonate (washing 
soda , 21pounds; ammonia (22°), l^ pi„ts; water, 22 gallons. Dissolve the opper'n 
2 gallons of hot wa er and the soda in a like amount. Pour the soda into the copplr 
solution and mix thoroughly. Add remainder of the water and use at once This 
mixture will cost about 1* cents per gallon. No insecticide can be used with'it 
(b) Burgundy MixTURE.-Copper sulphate, 2i pounds; soda carbonate, 3^ roinids • 

the soda m 0. Strain the soda solutiou into the copper and stir well. Dissolve the 
soap in a half gallon of hot water and stir into the above solution. Never put tMs 

mi;Tur i: wi ; 'Vr^'J ^^ ""' -^^ ^^^^- ^^^^^^^^^^^ «- not be used w';; th 
mixture. It will cost about 1^ cents per gallon. 

(7) Ammoniacal copper carbonate COMPOUNO.-Copper carbonate 3 ounces, 
ammonia carbonate 1 pound; water, 50 gallons. Dissolve'copp;; . raLon": -' 
bonate in a half gallon of hot wator. Dilute to 50 gallons and use at once. Insect - 
cides can not be used with this. Cost of this mixture about one-half cent per gallon 
mon:rooofr f*'r '^t'"- --f«"-- Copper carbonate. 3 ounce!; Z 
ma, ana use at once. 



FLTNGICIDES. 153 

A tliird formula is ropper carbonate, 1 ounce; ammonja carbonate, Gonnces. Pow- 
der aud mix thorouglily. Tliis may be kept iu a dry state in air-tiffht vessels for any 
length of time. Wlien needed for use dissolve in 10 gallons of water and use at once. 

A fourth formula, which is said to be equal to any of tlie others and a little cheaper, 
but which has not been tested as much as the others, is copper sulphate, ^ pound; 
ammonia carbonate, 1 pound; water, 62 gallons. The ammonia carbonate should be 
hard and transparent, otherwise IJ pounds will be needed. Dissolve it in a pail of 
hot water. When foaming ceases add copper and stir as long as there is any foam- 
ing. Dilute to 62 gallons and use at once. 

These four formulas are practically the same or nearly so, and the solution 
formed is one of the most valuable with which to combat plant diseases. AVithout 
the objectionable feature of the Bordeaux mixture it probably ranks next that in 
efiSciency. However, insecticides can not be used with any of these, as they can 
with the Bordeaux mixture. 

In none of the solutions containing ammonia or carbonates in any form should 
Paris green or London purple ever be used, unless a quantity of lime is added, as 
the chemical compounds thus formed are injurious to foliage. 

(8) Potassium sulphide solution. — Potassium sulphide, I to ^ ounce; water, 1 
gallon. Dissolve and apply at once. This is one of the best of fungicides, but is more 
expensive than some of the others. 

(9) Copper and sulphur powder. — Copper sulphate, powdered, 1 pound; sul- 
phur, 10 pounds; air-slaked lime, 1 pound. Mix thoroughly and apply with any 
apparatus for spraying powders. 

(10) Nessler's powder. — Copper sulphate, 1 pound; air-slaked lime, 2 pounds; 
gypsum or road dust, 10 pounds ; water, 1 gallon. Dissolve the copper in the hot 
water; sift the lime in the solution. Mix gypsum or road dust with this and stir 
very thoroughly. This mixture is worthless if kept for more than three days. One 
ounce of Paris green or London purple as an insecticide may be added to the abov^e 
if desired. 

Hot water. — This is used as a fungicide chiefly in the so-called Jensen treatment 
for smuts of grain. For this treatment two large kettles over a fire or two wash 
boilers over a stove, and a reliable thermometer will be needed, as well as a coarse sack 
or covered basket to hold the seed. A special vessel to hold the grain may be made 
of wire or perforated tin. Never entirely fill the vessel with grain, and have in the 
kettles about five or six times as much water as there is grain iu the basket. In the 
first kettle keep the water at from 110° to 130° and in the other at 132^ to 133^, 
never letting it fall below 130° lest spores will not be killed, nor rise above 135^ lest 
the grain be injured. Place the grain in the basket and then sink it into the first 
kettle. Raise and lower it several times or shake it so that all may become wet and 
equally warm. Remove it from this and plunge it into the second kettle, where it 
should remain for fifteen minutes. Shake about several times while in this kettle. 
If the temperature falls below 132° let it remain a few moments longer; if it rises, a 
few less. Have at hand cold and boiling water with which to regulate the tempera- 
ture. Remove at the expiration of fifteen minutes and plunge into cold water, after 
which spread to dry. The seed may be sown at once, before thoroughly dry, or may 
be dried and stored until ready for use. For treating oats, keep them in the water 
at 132^^ for only ten minutes and spread to dry without plunging into the cold water. 
If this method of treatment be followed aud no smut be iu the ground or manure, no 
smut will be found in the coming crop or the amount will be so small as to be insig- 
nificant. On the other hand, the increased yield will more than pay for the trouble 
and time of treating. 

Spraying apparatus. — Of the various devices for this purpose, two kinds are iu 
common use. One is the knapsack sprayer, for use by a single individual, where a 
relatively small amount of sjiraying is to be done. It is sufBciently large for the 
spraying required in a garden or vineyard less than 10 acres in extent. As the name 



154 GAMA GRASS. 

indicates, it is to^Tse carrierl on a man's back. The piice of such a machine, -with 
■brass fittings, is about $14. For larger vineyards and orchards a double-acting force 
pump, arranged to be hauled by oue or two horses, is advisable. These can be had 
at various prices, depending somewhat upon the capacity of the machine. 

One of the most important parts of the sprayer is the nozzle. It must give a good, 
fine spray, and be not easily clogged, easily cleaned when clogged, and easily regu- 
lated. The Vermorel nozzle is undoubtedly one of the best for Bordeaux mixture 
and the Climax for clear solutious. It is well to have one of each of these nozzles. 
In selecting apparatus there is no economy in choosing cheap fixtures where brass 
can be had at a small advauced price. The copper sulphate will soon corrode iron or 
tin fixtures. 

(Conn. State B. 102, B. lS90,p. 104; Del. B. 3, B. 6; III. B. 15; Ind. B. S2, B. 38; 
Kans. B. 12, B. 22; Ky. Cir.3; Mass. Hatch B. 7, B.ll, B. 13, B.17; Mass. State B. 
39; Midi. B. 59, B. 83; Minn. B. 13; Mo. B. 13; N. J. B. 86, R. 1890, p'. 335; N. Y. State 
B. 1887, p. 348, B. 1888, p. 153, R. 1890, p. 102; N. Y. Cornell B. 35; N. C. B. 76; Ohio 
B. vol. III. 4, 8, 10; Ore. B. 10; Pa. B. 1888, p. 159 ; B. I. B. 15; Tenn. B. C; W. Va. B. 
21.) 

Gama grass.— See Grasses. 

Garget. — See Mammitia. 

Garlic. — See Weeds. 

Gas lime. — See lime. 

Georgia Station, Experiment (near Griffin)— Organized in 1888 as a department 
of the State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts. The staff consists of the presi- 
dent of the college, director, vice-director and chemist, assistant chemist and mete- 
orologist, agriculturist, horticulturist, secretary, aud dairyman. The principal lines 
of work are field experiments with fertilizers and crops, horticulture, and dairying. 
Up to January 1, 1893, the station had published 4 annual reports and 19 bulletins. 
Revenue in 1892, $22,000. 

Germination of seeds. — See Seeds. For references to germination tests of seeds, 
see under the names of different plants. 

Gid of sheep.— See Sheep, gid. 

Geology.— The geological work of the stations has been comparatively limited, and 
very naturally has been confined almost exclusively to investigations relating to the 
origin, formation, and classification of soils (see Soils). An officer called a geologist 
is employed at the stations in California, Louisiana, and Wyoming. 

Gingko (Gingko hiloha [Salishuria adiantifoliar\).— The gingko or maidenhair tree 
at the Kansas Station (B. 10) was found, contrary to expectation, to succeed fairly 
well. In some seasons the shoots were injured by severe frosts and the trunk was 
exposed to sun-scald ; but it is judged likely to succeed in good soil and protected situ- 
ations. In Minn. B. 24 it is stated that a few specimens have grown well near Minne- 
apolis for six years without protection. 

Glanders.— This disease and farcy are but difterent manifestations of the same 
afiection. It is a malignant, infectious disease, due to the presence of a specific 
microorganism (Bacillus mallei). It is one of the oldest diseases of which w^ have 
any knowledge and is contagious among horses, mules, and asses. It may be com- 
municated by the infection getting into wounds of sheep, goats, dogs, rabbits, 
guinea pigs, and even of man. It runs a variable course, nearly always result- 
ing in the death of the animal. The disease affects chiefly the lungs, mucous lining 
of the nasal passages, and the lymphatic glands. These are the organs primarily 
affected, but with the progress of the disease no part of the body is exempt from its 
effects. It is not contagious in the ordinary sense of the word, but is transmitted 
through food or drink or by coming in contact with the nasal discharges of infected 
animals in the stable or at bitching posts. 

The symptoms of the disease in one of its ordinary forms so resemble those of 
chronic catarrh as to render the correct diagnosis sometimes difficult. One of the 



GLUTEN MEAL. 155 

most common forms of glaiKlers may bo. ealloil ''nasal" j,'landers, from the fart that 
the nose is the part most conspiciiously affected. It seems to be both chrome and 
acute, differing in deoroo. The animal will have a discharge from its nose, at lirst 
thin and watery, but hiter becoming thick, of a dark color, and resembling linseed 
oil. If the nose be examined pustules or pimples of Yarying size will be found on 
the inside, most abundant upon the septum or division between the nostrils. Those 
are bard at first and of a grayish color, but they soon soften and break down, fur- 
nishiuo- the peculiar discharge. Often the submaxillary glands, just inside the lower 
jaw bo'^ie at the base of the tongue, will be enlarged and hard. Whichever nostril 
is discharging, the gland on that side will be affected and may be felt from the out- 
side just at the angle of the jaw. An ordinary chronic state of the disease may con- 
tinue for years. In an acute state the symptoms are greatly aggravated. The form 
usually called farcv attacks the lymphatics more prominently, causing the swelling 
of the legs, especially the hind ones, neck, and face. Numerous hard, button-like 
swelling^ may be felt through the skin. These are the farcy " buds " or farcy "but- 
tons," and they finally become soft and discharge a characteristic secretion. Before 
softening tlie buttons are hot and tender to the touch. Another form attacks the 
luno- and air passages and is more difficult of diagnosis. Of the above symptoms, 
all may be present in one case and most of them absent in another. It is the variable 
character of its symptoms that makes it difficult to limit or define the disease, and 
none but a competent veterinarian should pass upon a suspected case. 

Tliere is no treatment for the disease that will effect a cure. Good care, good food, 
and little work may enable the animal to live for years in comparative health, but 
a sudden change in these conditions may develop the disease at once. All affected 
Lnimals should be killed at once, as they are capable of spreading the disease, no 
matter how slight their attack, and death is the ultimate result in any case. {Ark. B. 
1SS9, J). 105; Mich. B. 78; Miss. B. 16; S. Dal: B. 25.) 

Gluten meal.— This material is obtained as a by-produet in the manufacture of 
starch and glucose sugar from corn. It consists largely of the germ (chit), the rich- 
est part of the corn, with more or less hulls and starcb. The supply of this sub- 
stance lias acquired considerable proportions in consequence of the development of 
the glucose industry in this country. As sliown by the analyses given in Appendix, 
TaWe I, it is a richly nitrogenous material, and it has found quite extensive use for 
feeding animals. The variations in composition are mainly due to modifications in 
the process of manufacture. 

Gluten meal for jiilk and butter production.— In 1883 tbe New York State 
Station (B. S4, B. 35) reported trials with gluten meal which indicated that, as com- 
pared with bran or corn meal, it was most profitable for milk production. "It surfeits 
the cattle easily and becomes unpalatable to them. Our impression is that unless 
fed with care it may prove an injurious food." 

Later the Massachusetts State Station {E. 18S4, p. 42) fed it with an equal weight 
of wheat bran "to compensate for its deficiency in phosphates of lime and magnesia 
and to render it more palatable. The desired amount of both substances was mixed 
and moistened and fed during milking." The results following the feeding were 
satisfactory and indicated it to be a valuable feeding stuff. It was compared with 
cotton-seed meal and old-process linseed meal {B. 41), with the result stated under 
Cotton seed and cotton-seed mcaJ. 

The New York State Station (B. 9, n. sev.) reports a case in which two cows diedafter 
being fed 8 quarts of gluten meal daily in connection with 4 quarts of middlings and 
corn°and-cob meal. This furnishes an excessive amount of albuminoids "which 
experience has shown is likely to produce sickness, and, if followed up, death. Our 
verdict must be : "The fault is in the user, not in the material." In a feeding trial at 
New York State Station (B. 1SS9, p. 198) gluten meal (6 pounds per day) gave a 
larger yield of milk than either corn meal, ground oats, or linseed meal, although 
the\atter was poorly eaten ; but the indications were that the gluten meal did not 
increase the solids and fat in proportion to the yield of milk. 



156 GOLDEN HAWKWEED. 

The New HampsTii- Station (B. 13) oliserved that gluten meal almost invariably 
increased the milk yield over corn meal, but made no mention of the quality. 

The Iowa Station {B.U) found that as compared with coia-and-cob meal, gluten 
meal improved the quality of the milk and decidedly increased the total amount of 
solids and fat contained in the milk (see also Milk, effect of food). 

Gluten meal appears to exercise an effect on the churnability of the milk fat and 
on the quality of the butter, as mentioned under Butter-making, effect of food on 
churnahility and on qnaJity of butter. 

. Gluten meal for beef production.— Gluten meal was fed in a ration with other 
grain foods to steers at Massachusetts State Station (B. 40). See also Cattle. 

Golden hawkweed. — See Weeds. 

Golden-rod. — See Weeds. 

Gooseberry {Rihes grossularia).—Y axxaiies, have generally been planted for test- 
ing at the Northern stations, and insect pests have been the subject of some investi- 
gation. Tests of varieties are reported in Cal. B. 1SSS-'S9, pp. &'S, 110, 197; Colo. R. 
1888, p. 85, B. 1889, pp. 24, 30, B. 1890, p. 200; Del. B. 1889, p. 103; III. B. 21; Ind. B. 
5, B. 10, B. 31, B. S3; Iowa B. 16; Me. R. 1889, p. 256; Mass. Hatch B.4; Mich. B. 55, 
B. 69, B. 67, B. 80; Minn. li. 1888, pp. S36, 285; N. Y. State R. 1885, p 230 
R. 1886, p. 257, R. 1887, p. 339, R. 1888, pp. 96, 100; N. C. B. 72; N. Dak. B. 2; Ohio 
R. 1884, p. 129, B. vol. II; 4 Fa. B. 8; R. I. B. 7; Tenn. R. 1888, p. 12; Vt R 1888 
p. 118, R. 1889, p. 122, R. 1890, p. 184; Va. B. 2. 

Gooseberry seed was used in a germination test, as reported in Vt. R. 1889, p. 112. 

For the cape gooseberry see Physalis. 

Gooseberry mildew (Sphcerotheca mors-uvw).— This fungus appears as a downy 
coating of the leaves, young shoots, and berries. 

In its early stage it is white from the innumerable summer spores ; later it becomes 
brownish, dotted with black specks, the winter stage. The first stage may be checked 
and the second prevented by the use of a solution of potassium sulphide (one-half 
ounce in 1 gallon of water). This should be used as a spray, beginning as soon aa 
the leaves expand, at intervals of two weeks during the growing season (JST Y State 
R. 1887, p. 339, R. 1888, p. 153, B. 36 n. ser.). 

Grain beetle (Si/lvanus surinamensis).— This is a small, brownish-colored beetle, 
one-tenth of an inch long, that sometimes infests stored grain. It is liable to be 
more abundant where the grain has become damp or heated in the bin. It is some- 
times called the wee grain weevil, and when abundant may cause considerable loss. 

Bins should be kept clean and well aired. If this insect should get into the grain, 
treating with the fumes of bisulphide of carbon will kill it. Care jnust be taken to 
avoid breathing the fumes, as they are very poisonous. All fire should be kept away 
for fear of its igniting the fumes (Mich. R. 1889, p. 94; Ore. B. 5, B. 14). 

Grain feeds.— See Foods. 

Grain louse.— See Flant lice. 

Grafting.— Methods of grafting trees and vines, and suitable stocks for different 
species are considered in the station literature in connection with accounts of work 
on various plants (see especially Cherry, Cottonwood, Grape, Fear, and Flum.) 

Work in herbaceous grafting is reported in N. Y. Cornell B. 25. The object was 
primarily to learn the best methods of grafting herbs, but a second object, con- 
sidered more important, was the study of the reciprocal influences of stock and 
scion. Eesults from the latter inquiry have not been published. 

Six hundred experimental grafts were made. It was found that the wood must be 
somewhat hardened to obtain the best results, but the stock must not have ceased 
from growth. Various styles of grafting were employed, of which the common cleft 
and the veneer or side graft were deemed to be perhaps the most satisfactory. 
'In most instances it was only necessary to bind the parts together snugly with 
bast or raffia. In some soft- wooded plants, as colens, a covering of common grafting 



i 



GRAPE. 157 

wax over the bandage was an advantage, probably because it prevented the drying 
out of the parts. The best results were obtained by placing the plants at once in a 
propagating frame, where a damp and confined atmosphere could be maintained." 
Many other snggestious are made and a number of plants are mentioned between 
which successful unions were secured "Coleuses of many kinds were used, 
with uniform success, aud the scions of some of them were vigorous a year after 
being set. Zonalo geraniums bloomed upon the common rose geranium. Tomatoes 
upon potatoes and potatoes upon tomatoes grew well and weve transnlanted to 
the open ground, where some of them grew, flowered, and fruited until killed by. 
frost. The tomato on potato plants bore good tomatoes above and good jjotatoes 
beneath, even though no sprouts from the potato stock were allowed to grow." 

Gramma grass. — See Grasses. 

Grape (Ft<is spp.). — Grapes have been very extensively grown to test varieties, 
study method of culture, aud investigate the enemies of viue and fruit. In Califor- 
nia the object chiefly in view has been wine aud raisin production. 

Variety tests are reported in Ala. College B. 3, n. ser., B. 10, n. set., B. 29, n, ser.; Ala. 
Cattehrake B. 6, B. 12; Ark. B. 7, B. 1888, p. 44, B. 1890, p. 46, B. 17; Cal. B. 8 {1875), B. 
18S8-'89, pp. 88, 111, 138, 197, B. 1890, pp. 193, 297; Colo. B. 1889, pp. 24, 119, B. 1890, p. 
35, B. 1891, p. 109; Fla. B. 14; Ga. B. 11; III. B. 21; Ind. B. 5, B. 10, B. 33; loiva B. 7, 
B. 16; Eans. B. 14, B. 28; La. B. 22, B. 8, 2d ser.; Md. B. 15; Mass. Hatch B. 4, B. 
17; Mich. B. 55, B. 59, B. 67, B. 80; Minn. B. 1888, pp. 218, 299; Miss. B. 1890, p. 36, 
B. 1891, p.31; Mo. B. 10; Mo. College B. 20, B. 26; Nev. B. 1890, p. 30; N. Mex. B. 
2, B. 4; N. Y. State B. 1885, p. 225, B. 1886, p. 167, B. 1887, p. 341, B. 1889, p. 344, B. 
1890, p. 325; JSf. C. B. 72; Ohio B. 1883, p. 147; Pa. B. 18; B. I. B. 7; Tenn. B. vol. V, 
1; Tex. B. 8; Vt. B. 1888, p. 118, B. 1889, p. 122; Fa. B. 2; Wis. B. 13, B. 1888, p. 157. 

The keeping quality of many varieties was tested at the Mass. Hatch Station (B, 
17). 

The number of varieties tested is very large, running as high, though not often, as 
165. The varieties are sometimes classified according to the siiecies from which they 
are derived, as in Ark. B. 1890, p. 46, B. 17, and Tex. B. 8. Some account of the 
species and their respective derivatives is given in Ark. B. 1890, p. 48; Minn. B. 1888, 
p. 218. The species noted are Vitis vinifera, the European wine grape, not successful 
in this country except in California; V. lahrusca, the Northern fox grape, the source 
of by far the largest number of the valuable American grapes ; V. cordifolia or riparia 
(these are now regarded as distinct species), the winterer frost grape; V. vulpinaof 
the South, source of the Miiscadine variety ; V. wstivalis, a summer grape ; aud V. 
ritpestris. In Cal. B. 1888-89, p. 197, a list of 145 varieties of the vinifera, cultivated 
at the stations of that State, is given, grouped according to 14 types ; also of 2 Ameri- 
can hybrids aud of 21 American and 3 Asiatic wild vines. In Minn. B. 1888, p. 221, 
are given engravings of the seeds of 12 varieties of different derivations, showing 
marked diversitj' in form and size. 

At the California Station the natiA^e American species have been carefully investi- 
gated with reference to their poAver of resisting Phylloxera and their fitness in other 
respects for use as grafting stocks for vinifera varieties {Cal. B. 1880, p. 84, B. 1882, 
p. 94, B. 34, B. 74, and especially Viticultural B. lSS5-'86, p. 141). The merits of 
V. riparia, F. cordifolia, F. wstivalis, and F. rupestris, from the Eastern States, and of 
F. californica, and F. arizonica from the West are presented and compared. The 
californica as a local native is considered to have a strong presumption in its favor, 
aud this is found to be confirmed by trial, so far as it is planted in the appropriate 
soils. These appeared to be such as are fertile, heavy, and rich in lime. The general 
adaptation of this vine is shown in its root habit, which is strongly downward, 
insuring access to moisture. Its soft root is scarred by the bite of Phylloxera, but 
escapes the deformity which is the cause of ultimate death in the case of non- 
resistant vines. Excellent success was obtained in grafting, and this stock had the 
special advantage in comparison with the riparia and rupestris that it was not out- 



158 GRAPE. 

grown in diameter by the vinifcra varieties when grafted upon it. Only one excep- 
tion had been found to this rule. Its seedlings are very vigorous and suitable for 
stock; and it starts later in the season, thus encountering less danger from frost. 
Various other stocks, however, are equally resistant and have good points. The 
arizonica was thought to deserve more attention than it had received. It had the 
advantage over all others that its stem is undivided for from 4 to 6 inches above the 
ground, thus facilitating grafting. The r'qyaria seemed to be a proper stock for cer- 
tain delicate varieties (Cal. B. 74); with strong-growing kinds exceeding it in 
•diameter it bears heavily at first (as when a tree is girdled), but its vitality and 
resistant power are soon exhausted. 

Numerous analyses of Easterjj grapes are contained in the Massachusetts State 
Station compilations (i?. 18S9, p. 303, B. 1890, p. 302, 11. 1S91, pp. 29G, 328). The com- 
position of wild and cultivated grapes is compared and the effects of girdling the 
vines and of fertilizing are illustrated. Some ash analyses are given (see Appendix, 
Table III). Analyses of fruit from girdled and not girdled vines may also be found 
in Mass. Hatch B. 7. An estimate of fertilizing ingredients withdrawn by a grape 
crop is given in Cal. B. 88, and an analysis of dried grapes witli reference to food 
and ash constituents in Cal. B. 97. 

General directions for the culture of grajies maybe found in Ala. College B. 4, n. 
ser., B. 10, n. ser., B. 29; Ark. B. 1888, p. 41, B. 1890, p. 46, B. 17; Iowa B. 7; Pa. B. 
1888, p. 158; Wis. B. IS, B. 1888, p. 157. In Minn. B. 1888, p. 297, the best climatic 
conditions are disctissed for grapes during five periods, into which their growing 
season is divided. At the Iowa Station {B. 7) deep setting was found efficacious 
against winterkilling of the roots, and covering the tips of the vines with soil, 
together with a slight motinding about the crown of the root, were found a sufficient 
winter protection. 

In Cal. B. 3 reasons for the failure of cuttings are discussed, one of them being, as 
believed, the planting of long cuttings with a crowbar instead of using a spade. 
The lower end is thus commonly left without contact with the soil and exposed to 
decay. In Pa. B. 1888, p. 158, pinching oft' the ends of the fruit-bearing shoots in 
summer is advocated. 

Notes on pruning and training occur among the general directions for culture. 
Methods of grafting vines are discussed at some lengtli in Cal. B. 1882, p. 96. The 
Englisli cleft graft or whip graft had been adoiited, chiefly on the ground of its 
adaptation to stocks of small diameter. The favor which this method has won in 
France is believed to be due to its merits, and it is shown not to involve an unreas- 
onable expense. The general methods of treating the stocks and the attendant cir- 
cumstances, as well as the results of two years' grafting, are shown in detail. 

The practice of girdling vines tojiromote fruitfuluess has been investigated at the 
Massacliusetts Hatch Station and elsewhere under its influence {B. 7, B. 13, B. 17, 
B. 1888, p. 18). The girdling consisteil in removing a section of bark on the branch 
above the point where it would be pruned off the next year or in compressing the 
branch with wire. The ripening of the fruit was hastened sometimes as much as 
ten or eleven days and the size also increased without loss of palatability if picked 
in good season. In a wet season the berries tended to crack open and to be too soft 
for marketing. The fruit on the branches not girdled was reduced in value. Obser- 
vations also seemed to show that girdling is a draft on the future life of the vine. 
There was evidence that girdling will not pay except where normal ripening can not 
be secured, and where after a season's girdling the vines may be allowed a year to 
recover. 

The favorable influence of electric currents upon vines as shown by a European 
experiment is noted in Mass. Hatch B. 16. 

Experiments have been made at several stations in bagging grapes as a means of 
protection from fungus and insect enemies and birds. {Ala. Canehrake B. 12; Ala. 
College B. 10, n. ser.; Kans. B. 28; Minn. B. IS; N. J. B. 82; N. Y. State B. 1886, p. 168.) 



K GRAPE, BLACK ROT. 159 

The bags are generally of mauilla paper of the 1 or 2 pound size, with a hole at the 
bottom to permit the escape of water. They are ^lit ou each side, drawn over the 
cluster and pinned upon the branch. They are found to afford an excellent protec- 
tion against all enemies that affect the fruit, even hailstorms, and also to secure 
finer-appearing clusters. At the Alabama Station, however, bagging was not found 
equally advantageous for all varieties and some were better without the sacks. 

Grape, anthracnose. — See Anthracnosc of grape. 

Grape, bitter rot (Melanconinm fitliginea). — This attacks the grapes at any time 
after they begin to rijien and continues until maturity. Great moisture is necessary 
for the rapid development and spread of this disease. Coming late in the season it 
is to be dreaded as it may destroy what the other earlier diseases havenot. The fungus 
attacks the shoots, the stems bearing the grapes, and the berries. Most damage is 
doneto the fruit. Arosy discoloration, most noticeable in the light-colored varieties, 
is the first manifestation of its presence. This discoloration extends rapidly until the 
whole berry is involved. The grapes retain their original shape for some time, being 
but little wrinkled and more juicy than usual. In a few days small pimples appear 
on the surface, from which spores escape to spread the disease. The berry then 
becomes shriveled and brown or purple, but not black as in black rot. Finally the 
berries loosen their hold upon their stems and fall at the least jar, while in black rot 
they remain, falling only with their pedicels. It is usually most abundant upon 
plants already weakened by mildew or other diseases. No remedy is known. It 
rarely is severe in its attacks on plants that have been treated for other diseases. 
(JV. Y. State B. 1890, p. 325.) 

Grape, black rot {Lccstadia hidtrellii). — This is one of the most serious diseases of 
the grape and the annual loss to the growers from this cause is enormous. It is most 
abundant in regions and seasons where there is considerable moisture and subse- 
quent high temperature, while in dry and hot climates it is nearly unknown. 

Certain varieties are more suscejitible than others. The fungus attacks both the 
leaves and the fruit. The a])pearance of sjjots npon the leaf will be seen from one 
to three weeks before any indications are shown upon the berry. The spots on the 
leaves are seldom large, but are distinctly marked, being of a dark reddish-brown 
color. These spots may appear quite soon after the leaves are put out and are still 
tender. In this case some of them will be killed. If the attack on the leaf occurs 
later but little apparent damage is done them. 

The rot first appears on the berry as a light brown spot caused by the decay of the 
underlying pulp. This spot increases in size until the entire berry is involved. At 
the same time the original spot becomes darker and then black and is covered with 
minute black pustules or pimples. Finally the whole berry dries and shrivels, 
crumpling the skin into angular folds. At this time the entire berry is covered with 
pustules, from which spores escape to spread the disease. This is only one of sev- 
eral ways by which it may be propagated. There are usually two periods of infec- 
tion; the first is mild and upon the young berries, the other is later and more 
severe. Quite commonly some of the berries on each cluster are not affected by the 
rot. 

Sometimes the disease is continued into the ripening season, when the berry 
becomes very black; the skin is distended, and decay is finished without the usual 
shriveling of the skin. The benefit derived from the proper use of fungicides to prevent 
this disease is well established. If the vines are well washed with a solution of cop- 
peras or blue vitrei (about 1 pound to 4 or 5 gallons of water), before the buds begin 
to swell, and this is followed with Bordeaux mixture or copper carbonate, the loss 
will be greatly lessened, if not entirely prevented. If the Bordeaux mixture is used 
the fruit is liable to show a discoloration due to a deposit of copper and lime upon 
the skin. This may be removed by washing the grapes in water, weakly acidulated 
with vinegar or acetic acid, and thoroughly riusiug afterward. Perhaps a better 
way would be to spray once or twice early in tlie season with the Bordeaux mixture 
and for subsequent treatment use the ammoniacal carbonate of coj)per, which does 



160 GKAPE, DOWNY MILDEW. 

not stain the fruit. The amount of copper deposited on the fruit is not sufficient to 
cause any harm -when eaten. (Conn. State B. Ill, B. lSOO,;p. 100; Del. B. 6; Ind. 
B. 38; Iowa B. 13; Mich.. B. S3; N. Y. State B.. 1890,]). 318; Tenn. B. vol. IF, 4.) 

Grape, downy milde^w (Perowosjjora viticola) [also called Brown rot]. — The same 
fungus causes two forms of disease. If the leaf is attacked the disease is called 
downy mildew ; if the fruit, brown rot or gray rot. It also attacks the young shoots. 
Leaves affected by this fungus show upon their upper surface spots of a greenish 
yellow or light-brown color, while on the lower side of the leaf, opposite these si^ots, 
may be seen a peculiar downy or frosty growth. 

These spots maj'^ be quite small and few in number or very abundant, the frosty 
growth almost covering the lower surface. In the smooth-leaved varieties of grapes 
this will be very conspicuous and striking. When the fungus is abundant the leaf 
soon yields to the disease, turns brown, and falls from the vine. In severe cases the 
disease extends to the young branches, which are checked in their growth or killed. 
It produces dark-colored, sunken markings, caused by the decay of the underlying 
tissues, but the epidermis is not lacerated nor does the spot resemble that of anthrac- 
nose. The attack upon the fruit is said to be quite early, causing many of the ber- 
ries to cease growing, turn brown, and fall off. At other times the attack does not 
occur until the fruit becomes nearly full grown. Purplish brown spots appear, the 
whole berry soon turns brown, and the pulp becomes soft and shrunken, leaving the 
wrinkled skin unbroken. In the gray rot many filaments thrust themselves through 
the skin and form summer spores. From the abundance of these, a grayish color is 
given the fruit. Unlike the powdery mildew, the downy mildew sends its mycelial 
threads through the tissues of the host and when once attacked no relief can be se- 
cured. This fungus also attacks the Virginia creeper or woodbine. 

In treating grapes for this disease can celeste or Bordeaux mixture may be used 
with good results. In some respects the former is to be preferred. Early washing 
of the vines is of advantage in freeing them from spores which may have found 
lodgment in the crevices of the bark. The first 8i>raying should be about ten days 
before blooming, the next a week after, and two or three more should be made during 
the season. Co7in. State B. Ill; Ohio B. vol. Til, 10; Mass. B. 1890, p. 222; Mich. B. 
83; N. T. State B. 1890, p. 320; Tenn. B. vol. IV, 4.) 

Grape, leaf blight {Cerospora viticola). — This disease is usually first noticed upon 
the lower leaves or wherever they are thick and shaded. It appears in small brown 
spots an eighth of an inch or less in diameter, with a darker colored border. These 
spots extend through the leaf. The upper surface of the spot is very smooth but 
by the aid of the lens the lower side shows numerous hairlike jirojections. As the 
disease progresses the tissues of the leaf next the spot become yellow and finally 
the whole leaf may die. When rather abundant, this disease may cause serious 
loss by depriving the vines of their leaves. Only one form of this fungus is now 
well known, but there are probably others not yet found. No remedy is known for 
this particular disease, but it is not liable to be troublesome on vines which have 
been treated for black rot or anthracnose. (iV. Y. State B. 1890, p. 324.) 

Grape-leaf folder (Desmia maculalis). — The adult moth is about one-half inch 
long and nearly 1 inch across its expanded wings. It is black, with white markings 
about the middle and toward the ti}} of its wings. There are two broods per season. 
The eggs are laid upon a leaf and upon hatching the young caterpillar folds the 
leaf, holding it together by a delicate web. Inside of tliis it feeds until either the 
leaf is killed or the worm grows too large for its quarters, when it moves to a larger 
leaf, folding and fastening it as before. The mature caterpillar is about three- 
fourths of an inch long, of a yellowish-green color, with numerous hairs over its 
body. When abundant several caterpillars may be found folded in one leaf. 

The usual way to destroy them is to crush them in any leaf folded together. They 
are very active and often escape, falling to the ground. 



GRASSES. 161 

The leaves should be burned in the fall, as the insect winters as a chrysalis iu the 
folded ones. Poisoning is difficult to accomplish, owing to the protection given by 
the folded leaf. Hand picking is perhaps the most successful treatment. {Arlc.Ii. 
1888, p. 123, B. 1889, p. 144; S. C. R. 1888, p. 37; Tex. B. 8.) 

Grape, powdery mildew (Uncirmla spiraJia). — This disease usually makes its 
appearance about the middle of sumnuir and continues until frost. It attacks the 
leaves, young shoots, and fruit, covering tliem with a powdery growth. It differs 
from the downy mildew in covering the upjier surface of the leaves with white 
patches of various size and shajie. Sometimes it spreads quite evenly over the 
surface and somewhat resembles a delicate spider's web. It does not send filaments 
into the tissues of the liost plant, but taps the eiiidcrmal cells with numerous and 
minute suckers, or hanstoria as they are called, and through these saps the adjoin- 
ing cells, while all the filaments are spread out on the surface of the leaf. The fruit 
when affected shows upon the surface a whitish dust. This mpidly increases in 
abundance and soon the berries begin to shrivel and their skin cracks, admitting 
other spores of decay which soon complete the destruction of the fruit. Late iu the 
season numerous brown specks may be seen among the filaments. These are the 
forms in which the fungus is carried over the winter. Being confined to the surface 
this fungus yields to the application of almost any of the fungicides, but sulphur is 
probably one of the best. {hid. B. 38; Mich. B. S3 ; N.Y. State B. 1890, p. 322 ; VLB. 
1890, p. 143.) 

Grape sawfly (Selandria vitis). — The larva of this fly is about one-half inch long, 
yellowish green, with black points. There are usually two broods. Its habit of 
feeding makes it easy to combat. If not very abundant, plucking the leaves and 
crushing the larva under the foot will destroy them very well. If more abundant, 
arsenites or white hellebore may be employed {N. J. B. 1889, p. 304; S. C.B. 1888, p. 
38). 

Grape, white rot {Coniolhyrium diplodieUa). — This in general is very much like 
the black rot fungus. It produces minute pimples under the skin of the grape just 
as the berries are beginning to ripen. The pimples first appear as shining rosy points, 
becoming white, and later brown. No remedy is known for white rot, but it is never 
so prevalent where vines have been treated for black rot as upon untreated ones. 
(N.T.B.1890,p.S24.) 

Grasses. — This article contains short accounts of the more important grasses, and 
brief mention of some species of minor importance which have been tried at the 
stations. Tests of numerous species are now in progress at the stations, especially 
those in California, Colorado, Connecticut, Florida, New York, Michigan, Mississippi, 
North Carolina, Tennessee, and Texas. 

Bent grasses {Agrostis spp.). — Kedtop or Herd's grass (A. vuh/aris), fiorin and 
creeping bent grass (A. alba and A. stolonifera), and Ehode Island bent grass (A. 
canina) are all very similar. They are perennials, growing 2 or 3 feet high from 
creeping root stocks. The number and interlacing habit of the roots makes one 
of the most dense sods known. The culms are either upright or bent at the base; 
are smooth, round, rather slender, and bear four or five flat, narrow, roughish leaves 
from 3 to 6 inches long. These grasses do best in moist places, forming fine pasture 
where it is too marshy for anything else. They will also grow upon drier soil and 
endure drought very well. They will bear overflowing, although the water may stand 
for two or three weeks. They seem adapted to any part of the United States and 
are greatly appreciated as pasture grasses. (La. B, 1891, p. 12; Minn. B. 12, B. 1888, 
p. 183 ; Miss. B. 1890, p. SO; Xebr. B. 6, B. 12, B. 17; Nev. B. 1890, p. 9; K. C. B. 73.) 

Cutting for hay must be done before the seed is matured or the quality deterior- 
ates. From 1| to 2 tons per acre is an average crop. In the South bent grasses pro- 
duce a taller growth than in the North, yet they are hardly profitable ashay-produc- 
inggrasses. Their chief value is for pasture, especially for dairy farming {Me. B. 1889, 
2094— iTo. 15 11 



162 GRASSES. 

p. 162; Minn. B. 12, B. 188S, p. 1S3; Miss. B. 1S90, p. 30; Nebr. B. 6, B. 12. B. 17; Nev. .i 
B. 1890, p. 9). They will not do as grasses for raiiid rotation of crops as they are two )| 
or more years in reaching their full valne. They maintain themselves against any • 
and all weeds and other grasses while getting started {Minn. B. 1888, p. 183; Miss. . 
B. 1890, p. SO). They are easily and cheaply seeded and may he sown alone or with : 
some other grass, as timothy {Ky. B. 1888, pp. 18, 71). 

For a lawn Rhode Island hent grass is said to be better than Kentncky blue grass 
{B.I. B. 1890, p. 156). 

Field tests and analyses of these grasses are given in CoJo. B. 12; Iowa B. 11; 
Ey. B. 1888, pp. 18, 71; Me. B. 1S8S, pp. 86, 95, B. 1889, p. 162; Mass. State B. 1883, p. 
223, B. 1890, p. 291; N. C. B. 73; Ore. B. 11; Tenn. B. vol. IT, 4, vol. IF, 1; W. Va. 
B. 19. For analyses see also 0. E. S. B. 11. 

Bermuda Grass (Cynor^on dactylon) . — This is a perennial grass, probably a native 
of India, and introduced into this country in ballast from ships coming from south- 
ern Euroi>e. It is a low, creeping plant, with abundant short leaves at the base and 
sends up a slender, nearly leafless stem bearing at its summit three to Ave slender, 
divergent spikes, on which, on two rows, are borne the flowers and seed. Its creep- 
ing root stocks run everywhere, and it soon forms a dense sod. It seeds very spar- 
ingly in the United States, hence it must be propagated from imported seed or by 
sowing or planting the chopped sections of the root stocks, which retain their vital- 
ity for a considerable time. It is not afl'ected by heat or drought, but is very suscep- 
tible to hard frosts. On this account it is not of much value in the North, but south 
of the Ohio River it is one of the most valuable grasses. Its chief value is as a sum- 
mer pasture, for it flourishes when all other grasses are parched and dead. Its low 
growth in this country is unfavorable for producing hay, yet some is produced of an 
exceedingly valuable composition. It is said under ordinary conditions to pro- 
duce from 1 to 2 tons of hay per acre dependent upon the soil, and it has 
a theoretical feeding value of about $13 per ton. It will grow on almost 
any soil unless too wet, but does not do well in the shade. If cut two or 
three times each season it gives the best results {Ala. College, B. 6; Ga. B. 7; 
Nov. B. 1890, p. 7; Miss. B. 1890, p. SO, B. 15; S. C. B. 1888, p. 123). With fertilizers, 
as much as 10 tons of hay per acre have been cut during the season {S. C. B. 1888, p. 
123). One of the greatest disadvantages of this grass is the difficulty with which 
it is eradicated. Its best use is as a permanent pasture, but if it is desirable to get 
rid of it, fall plowing, so as to expose roots to frost, and clean cultivation will usu- 
ally succeed. If not, sowing some thickly growing crop, as Japan clover, will, by 
shading it, kill it out {N. C. B. 73). Where grass is sown to keep the soil from Avash- 
ing no species is better than Bermuda {S. C. B. 1888, p. 124). 

Analyses are given in Ala. College B. 6, n. ser.; Ga. B. 7 ; N. C. B. 73; 0. E. S. B. 11; 
S. C. B. 1888, p. 123. 

Kentucky BLUE grass {Poa pratensrs) [also known as June grass, Spear grass, 
and Meadow grass]. — This grass is native and does well on almost auy soil, but best 
upon clay soils overlyiug limestone. It is a perennial, a few inches to 2 feet high, 
Avith an abundance of long, narow, soft, root leaves. The panicle or head is pyra- 
midal in outline. It spreads rajiidly by means of numerous runners or suckers, 
forming a thick, compact sod. On this account it will stand pasturing, as the tramp- 
ing of cattle does not kill it out. It is preeminently a pasture grass, forming the 
principal constituent of most permanent pastures of the Middle and Eastern States. 
It does not do so well for hay as some other grasses, since it does not produce enough 
stalks at a time to make it i)rofitable. In seeding it, about 1 to 2^ bushels jier acre are 
required. This is due to tlie low vitality of the seed offered in market. Hardly any 
of it shows a vitality of 20 per cent and most is perhaps below 10 per cent {N. C.B. 
73). Three years are required from seeding to get a good set as it is of slow growth 
when starting. On this account it will not do for a rotation crop. Wlien (mce estab- 
lished no care is needed for some time. Pastures of sixty years are known to be 



GRASSES. 163 

still in good condition (Minn. R. 1SS8, p. 171; Nebr. B. 12). This grass does not suc- 
ceed well iu the fiir South but extends to high latitudes in the North {Ala. Cantbrake 
B. 9; Minn. E. 18SS, p. 171; Miss. E. 1890, p. 32). 

Forcomijositiou see Appendix, Table I. Analyses are also given in 111. B.5; Ey.B. 
5, E. ISSS, p. 72; Mass. Utate E. 1890, p. 161; N. Y. State E. 1888, p. 338. 

Texas Blue guass (Poa arachnifera) . — This is closely related to the Kentucky blue 
grass, from which it diflers mainly in its more vigorous growth. The seeds are dif- 
ferent, those of this species being usually covered with long wool, causing them to 
adhere. It grows to a height of 2 or 3 feet, with a few long leaves on the stalk. 
An abundance of root leaves are produced, some attaining a length of 2 feet. It 
spreads by means of many underground runners, and will form a sod in a single sea- 
son capable of withstanding any amount of pasturing. It is native of the southern 
part of the United States where it promises to become one of the best pasture 
grasses for fall and winter. It makes rapid growth as soon as rains come and with- 
stands drought better than the Kentucky blue grass. It does well as far north as 
Kansas and in California and Oregon. {Ala. Canebrake B. 9; Cal. E. 1890, p. 203; Fla. 
B. 6, B. 16; La. E. 1891, p. IS; Kev. E. 1890, p. 7; Ore. B. 4, B. 11; S. C. B. 1889, p. 146; 
Tenn. B. vol. IV, 1.) 

The habit of its seeds in matting together makes any sowing of this grass very 
difficult. Broadcast sowing nearly always fails {Miss. E. 1890, ]>. 29), but when 
planted in drills 1 foot or 18 inches apart it does well and it will cover the interven- 
ing grounds within a year. Another way is to plant in rows the chojiped sections 
of the rootstocks. In either case it will care for itself, overcoming and crowding 
out all weeds and grasses. September or October is the proper month for such 
planting. It prefers a light, rich soil and not too much water. Its growth after 
fall rains often amounts to an inch per day. {Ala. Canebrake B. 9; Fla. B. 16; Miss. 
B. 1890, p. 29; S. C. E. 1889, p. 146.) 

Analyses of this grass are given in N. C. B. 73; Tenn, B. vol. IV, 1; 0, F.S. B. 
11; S. C. E. 1889, p. 146. 

Blue joint {Calamagrostis canadensis). — This is a stout native perennial grass, grow- 
ing chiefly in low, moist meadows, or wet, boggy ground. It prefers a cool climate and 
is often abundant in mountain meadows. The culms are from 3 to 5 feet high and 
are hollow. The leaves are numerous, a foot long, half an inch wide, and rough, while 
the sheaths and stems are smooth. It spreads from underground shoots and does not 
seed very abundantly. It makes good hay if cut early and is not much inferior to 
timothy. Analyses are given in Iowa B. 11; Me. E. 1888, pp. 86, 94, E. 1889, p. 38. 

Large Blue joint {Andropogonprovincialis,ox more properly A.furcatns). — This is a 
coarse perennial grass found along river bottoms and elsewhere, growing from 1 to 
6 feet high. Its leaves are numerous, rough-margined, and somewhat hairy on the 
sheaths and margins. It usually bears at the sunmiit of the stem three digitate or 
spreading flower spikes. When cut early it furnishes fairly good hay in considerable 
abundance {Colo. B. 12; Iowa B. 11; W. Va. B. 19). Another species {A. scojyarius) 
is known as "little blue joint " or broom sedge. This differs from the other in being 
smaller and having scattered flower spikes. It grows on any soil, even the poorest 
sandy ones, and makes a fair qualitj^ of hay if cut early enough. Analyses are given 
in Colo. B. 12; Iowa B. 11; W. Va. B. 19. 

Brome grasses {Bromns spp.). — Hungarian or awnless bronie grass {Bromus 
inermis) is the principal forage grass of some parts of Hungary and is said to thrive on 
soil too poor to grow any other grass. It is a finer grass and more leafy than rescue 
grass and is said to be perennial ; in other I'espects it resembles rescue grass very 
much. In parts of California it is said to be greatly preferred to any other grass. 
In some localities it has jiroduced 4 tons of hay per acre iu October from seed sown 
iu February. It grows about 2 feet high. It is not altogether hardy in this coun- 
try {Cal. E. 1886, p. 90, E. 1890, p. 207; La. B. 19 2d ser). It is considered one of the 
best grasses in Iowa {B. 11) and good reports are given of it in N. C. B. 73. Analy- 
ses are given in Iowa B. 11 and N. C. B. 73, 



164 GRASSES. 

Short-awned brome grass (Bromus breviaristatus) grows to a height of 2i to 3 feet 
and is a hardy perennial, starting early and making rapid growLh in spite of severe 
dronght. It makes a heavy aftermath. An analysis gives it a high value as a forage 
grass (Iowa B.ll). 

Other brome grasses are known as Bromus ciliatus, B. Icalmii, B. mcxlcana, B. mol- 
lis, B. secalinus, B. pratensis, and B. stcrUis. Of these, some may prove to be of value, 
some are worthless, and some are harmful, as Bromus secalinus and B. raceviosus, the 
well -known cheat of the wheat field (see also Rescue grass). 

Buffalo grass (Buckloe dactuloides). — This is oneof the most valuable grasses of the 
great plains. It is a low, spreading grass, seldom rising more than 5 or 6 inches 
above the ground. It grows in patches and spreads by runners, rooting at every 
joint, from which spring up individual plants. The plants are mostly dioecious, tbat 
is, having male and female flowers upon different individuals. Its low growth pre- 
vents its use save as a pasture or lawn grass. For this purpose it is said to be one 
of the best in the region in which it abounds. It is very nutritious, and is said to 
seed well, or to grow from cuttings of the runners. It is also said to respond to the 
conditions of cultivation, and would probably become a most valuable addition to 
the permanent pastures of the great plains. {Ariz. B. 2; Colo. B. 12.) 

Canary grass {Plialaris arundiuacea) [also called Reed canary grass or Ribbon 
grass]. — There is another species {P.iniermedia)'known as Southern reed canary glass, 
Gilbert's relief grass, or California timothy. The former is a native perennial, ranging 
through all the northern United States and Canada. The latter ranges throughout 
the Gulf States and across to California and Oregon. The Southern grass is said to 
be an annual or biennial, while the Northern is perennial and spreads by strong 
running roots. These grasses are from 1 to 5 or more feet high, and very leafy. The 
leaves are 6 to 10 inches long and i inch wide. The Northern species is eagerly 
eaten by stock, and after a crop of hay is cut a strong aftermath is sent up, making 
a good pasture (Colo. B. 13; Iowa B. 11). It prefers moist soil, but has been found 
high upon the mountains and abundant on the plains of Colorado {B. 12). Analy- 
ses of this grass are given in Colo. B. 12; Iowa B. 11. The garden ribbon grass is a 
variety of this grass in which the leaves are striped with white. 

The Southern species is said to be of rapid growth, to make good hay, and to be a 
good winter and early spring forage grass. This grass is said to resemble meadow 
foxtail in its general appearance (N. C. B. 73; Tex. B. 1888, p SO). 

Cord grass and marsh grass or salt grass {Simrtina cynosuroides and. S.juncea). — 
These grasses are coarse perennials, and, as their names indicate, are fond of wet sit- 
uations. They grow 2 to 5 feet high, are rather leafy, and produce large quantities of 
hay. The hay is of inferior quality, and unless cut early will be refused by stock. 
The cord grass ranges from the Atlantic coast to the Rocky Mountains wherever 
sufficient moisture is to be found, as along rivers and irrigation canals. The other 
species is confined to salt marshes. They furnish the principal source of the so-called 
"prairie hay," used extensively in packing crockery, etc. (Colo. B. 12; Conn. State 
B. 1889, p. 235; Iowa B. 11.) 

For analyses see 0. E. S. B. 11. 

Crab grass (Panicum sar>guinale). — This is an annual grass that springs up in many 
fields after the period of cultivating the crop is passed. It grows to a height of 2 
or 3 feet, the stems are usually bent at the base, and the lower joints are often found 
rooting. At the top of the stalk are from three to twelve slender, spreading, pur- 
plish spikes, bearing the flowers and seed. In many places it is considered a nuisance 
in the fields, but in the South it has considerable value. It may be cut from between 
the rows of corn or cotton and a Don or more of hay of good quality per acre be se- 
cured. If a field of this grass be plowed and harrowed in June it will seed itself, 
and two or more crops of bay may be secured. It must be cured without much rain 
falling upon it while curing or the quality of the hay will be greatly impaired. 
(^Colo. B. 12; Miss. R. 1890, p. SO; Tenn. B. vol. IV, 1.) 



\ 



GRASSES. 1G5 

Analyses are given in Fla. B. 11; Ga. B. 7; Miss. B. 1S8S, p. 33; Tenn. B. vol. 
IF, 1; 0. E. S. B. 11, showing it to be highly nutritive, ami stock are said to eat it 
eagerly. It ranks close to Bermuda grass iu value and the cheapness with which a 
crop may he secured makes it desirable in some places. It spreads by seed with 
great rapidity and is often very troublesome; but by keeping it from seeding it 
may be controlled {N. C. B. 73; Miss. R. 1S90, p. 30). 

Meadow fescue (Fesfuca elatior), [also known as Tall fescue and Kandall grass]. — 
This grass is a native of the cooler parts of the Old World. It is a perennial, grow- 
ing to a height of 2 or more feet, usually tufted or growing in clumps. The blades 
of the leaves are from 6 inches to 2 feet long and rather abundant. Its fibrous roots 
go deep into the soil and as a consequence it withstands drought very well. Stock 
of all kinds seem very fond of it both as grass and hay. They ield on average soil 
will be about 2 tons per acre. It is seeded without much trouble in any ordinarily 
moist soil, but does not attain its full development until the second and following 
years. In the upper districts of the South it grows all winter and is valuable for 
its pasture on this account (lU.B.o; Iowa B. 11; Nev. E. 1890, p. 11; N. C. B. 73). 
In some of the Northern States it has not been well received either on account of not 
yielding heavily, as in Iowa, or not standing the drought, as in Colorado {Colo. B. 
12, R. ISOO, p. ISO; Iowa B. 11). It may be sown either in the spring or fall. Two 
bushels of seed per acre*will be required. . The seed looks somewhat like cheat and 
the panicle bears considerable resemblance to a slender panicle of cheat. A variety 
of meadow fescue is commonly recognized and called I'estuca pratensis. Analyses of 
this grass are given in Conn. Storrs B. 6; III. B. 5; Iowa B. 11; N. Y. State R. 1S8S, 
p. 2i2; X. C. B. 73. (See also Appendix, Talle I.) 

Sheep's fescue (Festuca ovina). — This grass difters from the tall or meadow fescue 
only in its greatly reduced size, being one of the smallest grasses employed in agri- 
culture. Its leaves are short and fine and the stalks seldom over a foot high. On 
this account it will not do for hay. It grows usually in scattered clumps and prob- 
ably has little value excejjt as a pasture grass. It does well upon rocky hillsides 
and upon poor soil where no other grass can secure a hold. It is hardy and persist- 
ent. Cattle are said to dislike it, but it is preferred by sheep. It is a native grass 
in Europe and the United States, where tliere are several forms. {Minn. R, 1888 
p. 176; Neb. B. 6, B. 12, B. 17; N. Y. Slate R. 1889, p. 217; JST. C. B. 73.) An analysis of 
the hay is given in N. C. B. 73. 

There are other fescues, as hard fescue, red fescue, etc., which have more or less 
reputation as forage grasses, but most of them are but varieties of sheep's fescue and 
are similar to it in most of their attributes. About the only advantage they have 
over sheep's fescue is their greater size {Colo. B. 12; III. B. 15; N. C. B. 73; Ore. B. 4). 
For analyses see 0. E. S. B. 11. 

Fowl meadow grass {Poa serotina) [also called False redtop] . — This grass is closely 
related to the Kentucky blue grass. It may be distinguished from that by the ab- 
sence of running rootstocks. The culms are erect, 1 to 3 feet high. The leaves are 
narrow, about one-fourth inch wide and 3 to 6 inches long. The leaf sheaths are 
long, smooth, and striate. This grass is native in the northern and eastern part of 
the United States where it grows in river bottoms and moist situations with redtop, 
which it greatly resembles. It may be distinguished by the absence of running root- 
stocks and by a more dense panicle, which is long and nodding. It gets its name of 
fowl meadow grass from its supposed introduction nearDedham, Massachusetts, by 
water fowl. It is considered best as a pasture grass but is said to be valuable as hay. 
The stalks never become hard and on this account it may be cut at almost any time 
and there will be no waste {Colo. B. 12; Mich. B. 77 ; Nev. R. 1890, p. 8; N. C. B. 73). 
Thebest conditions as to soil and moisture for redtop apply to this grass as well. The 
seed is nearly always mixed with redtop seed and the seeds of weeds of moist meadows. 
Experimental tests and analyses are recorded in Iowa B. 11 ; Mich. B. 77; N. Y. Cor- 
nell B. 15; N. C. B. 73. (See also 0. E. S. B. 11.) 



166 GRASSES. 

Gama grass (Tripsacum dactyl oides). — This native grass was formerly abnudaut in 
the South, where it was used as a forage plant. It flourishes best in wet places, 
where the culms attain a height of 4 to 6 feet. The leaves are broad and resemble 
blades of corn. It may be jjropagated by cuttings, but as it grows to advantage 
only in wet places will hardly pay for the trouble. The fodder it furnishes resem- 
bles that of corn and may be used in about the same way {N. C. B. 73). For analyses 
see N. C. B. 73; 0. E. S. B. 11. 

Gramma grass {Bouieloua spp.) [also called Mesqnite grass]. — The most common 
species of gramma grass are Bouieloua oligostacliya, B. racemosa, and B. himuia. They 
are perennials, growing a foot or so high, with narrow, light-green leaves. B. race- 
mosa has twenty or more small spikelets on one main spike while the other two have 
one to five spikelets about an inch long, purplish in color, and in the case of B. 
hirsuta very hairy. These grasses are of great imjiortance upon the Western ranges, 
as they supply quite a portion of the forage. They grow in clumps and cure into 
good hay while standing. They are rather abundant and seem to respond to cultiva- 
tion. Their growing in bunches may be against them as hay crops, but they are 
excellent as forage. The grass is tender and sweet and stock eat it with great eager- 
ness. It is largely upon gramma grasses that stock is expected to winter upon the 
Western range and it is here that its self-curing habit is of great advantage. (Ariz, 
B. 2; Colo. B. 12; Xeh: B. 6, B. 12, B. 17.) • 

Hungarian grass.— See Millet. 

Johnson grass (Sorghum halepense) [also known as Mean's grass]. — This grass is a 
native of North Africa and was brought to South Carolina about 1830 by Governor 
Means. About ten years later it was introduced into Alabama by Capt. William 
Johnson. By its friends this grass is considered of great value where other grasses 
are affected by drought. By its enemies it is considered an unmitigated nuisance. 
It is a rank, rapidly growing perennial, attaining a height of 4 to 6 feet or more. 
It bears a large number of long leaves and a head slightly resembling the broom 
corn, although less compact. It seeds freely and spreads by underground root 
stocks. On this account it is not easily eradicated. It does not stand frost and as 
a result is confined to warm climates. The seed may be sown at any time when not 
too dry and the richer the land the better will be the crop. One to 2 bushels of seed 
per acre will be needed and for hay the thicker the sowing the better. Two or three 
crops of 2 or 3 tons each per acre may be secured and stock, especially cattle, are 
said to be very fond of it. Johnson grass should be cut just as the heads are begin- 
ning to show. If left later the stalks become woody and hard (Miss. II. 1890, p. 
30; Nehr. B. 12; N. C. B. 73 ; Tex. B. 20). ' If after sowing the plants are not thick 
enough, running through with a disk harrow or tearing up the root stocks in any 
way will increase the stand. If it is desired to get rid of it considerable difficulty 
will be experienced. Plowing several times in midsummer and clean cultivation 
will usually eradicate it (Ga.B.7; N.C.B.73; Tex. B. 188S,p. 17). The straggling 
bunches left from the plowing may be killed by covering with salt or bleaching 
powder, chloride of lime (Md. K. 1888, p. 68; Miss. B. 1890, p. 30; Tex. B. 20). Close 
pasturing if continued for a considerable time will also kill it. It is spread by seed 
to places where it is not wanted. If cut at the time mentioned no seed will be 
matured. For a permanent meadow in the South it is good, but if the meadow is 
not to remain, sojne other grass will give less trouble. In Nebraska it is grown as an 
annual from Southern seed with considerable success. In Oregon, California, and 
Nevada it is thought to be of doubtful value (Col. R. 1890, p. 211; Nev.B.1890,p.7; 
Ore. B. 4). The hay is said to be equal or superior to timothy (Ga. B. 7 ; Md. B.1888, 
p. 68; N. C. B. 73; Tex. B. 20.) For analyses of grass and hay see 0. E. S. B. 11. 

Louisiana grass (Paspalum j)lalycaule), [also called Carpet grass, or Blanket 
grass]. — This is a low, creeping perennial grass, supposed to benative in the Southern 
States. It has flat stems that trail along the ground, rooting at every joint. It is 
of little value except for pasture, since it lies too close to the ground for the mower. 



GRASSES. 167 

It will crowd out all other grasses and weeds. It will grow on almost any soil, 
stands drought well, is not affected by frosts, and is evergreen, making it a good pas- 
ture grass for winter and suunner. It starts slowly from seed, but sjireads rapidly, 
a single plant covering 10 to 20 s(|uare feet in a season. It forms a dense sod and 
will stand more pasturing than any other grass. It is nearly equal to Bermuda 
grass in feeding value and is not difficult to eradicate. Ordinary cultivation will 
dear the ground of it in a single season. All reports from the regions in which this 
grass grows are favorable to it (Fla. B. 11; Miss. li. 1S90, p. 28; N. C. B. 73; Tex. R. 
1888, p. 41). 

Meadow foxtail {Alopecurus praiensis) . — This is a strong perennial creeping grass, 
a native of Europe. It greatly resembles timothy and nourishes wherever th^it grass 
is found. It may be distinguished from timothy by its shorter, thicker, and softer 
s])ike, also by the sheaths of the leaves, especially the upper ones, being consider- 
ably inflated about the stalk. It is said to soon die out on thin soil, but ou rich 
soils will grow to a height of 2 or 3 feet and Yield a ton of hay jier acre for three or 
four cuttings each season. Its chief value is as an early spring grass. It is 
said to give pasture a week or more earlier than any other grass. It forms a 
thick sod and withstands drought fairly well. It is widely reconnnended as a con- 
stituent of permanent meadows on account of its nutritious substance and early 
development. In the South it will not stand the heat {Miss. B. 1890, j>. 33). It is 
difficult to obtain pare seed of this grass, the seed being mixed with others of in- 
ferior value. {Miss. R. 1890, p. 33; Nehr. B. 6; Nev. R. 1890, p. 7; N. Y. State B. 
1888, p. 237, B. 1889, p. 46; N. C. B. 73; Ore. B. 4.) For analyses see 0. E. S. B. 11. 

Meadow grasses {Foa spp.) — Under this name are included many of the native 
and also some introduced species of PoaasP. annua, P. tenuifoUa, P. nemoralis, etc. 
English blue grass, wire grass {Poa compressa) , and rough-stalked meadow grass 
{P. irivialis) are sometimes called simiily meadow grass. They are all related to 
the Kentucky blue grass and greatly resemble it. They make good sod and fair 
pasture, but are mostly of too short growth for hay. They are all rather hardy and 
may add something to the value of pasture, especially where they grow naturally, 
but are not equal to the Kentucky blue grass in amount or value of forage. {Cal. 
R. 1890, p. 251; Colo. B. 12; III. B. 15; Minn. B. 12; Nebr. B. 6; Ner. R. 1890, p. 
8; N. Y. Cornell B. 15; N. C. B. 73; Ore. B 4.) 

Orchard Grass {Dactylis glomeraia). — This is arank-growiug perennial that holds 
a high place wherever Tried. In Europe it is considered one of the best pasture 
grasses, and wherever it has been introduced in this country it has met with favor- 
able mention. The root leaves are numerous. The stem is from 1 to 4 feet high, 
bearing five or six leaves. The leaves and stalks are rough. The flowers are borne 
in short, compact clusters, on rough pedicles. This grass grows in almost any rich 
soil where there is not too much moisture, and will yield from 1 to 3 tons of superior 
hay per acre. It grows rapidly, and will, under favorable conditions, give two to 
four crops per year. For hay it must be cut when in bloom or earlier as it soon be- 
comes too woody (ity. R. 1888, p. 18; JSf. C. B. 73). This grass seems to flourish in all 
parts of the United States and everywhere furuishes the earliest and latest pasture. 
Its tendency to grow in clumps or bunches is somewhat against it, but this may be 
remedied, to a degree, by seeding closely or mixing some other seed. Blue gi^ass and 
redtop crowd it out. As a crop for rotation it will hardly pay, owing to the cost of 
seed and amount required, but for permanent pasture it has few equals. It with- 
stands drought well, does not exhaust the soil as much as timothy, and after cutting 
or pasturing its growth is very rapid. The seed may be sown in fall or spring and 
will give ijasture in a year and bloom in two years {Ala. Canehrake B.9; Minn.R 
1888, p. 168). In some places the old grass is burned off in the spring, but this prac- 
tice is to be condemned {Minn. R. 1888, p. 168). {Ala. Canebrale B. 9; Iowa B. 11; La. 
B. 8, 2d ser. R. 1891, p. 12; Minn. R. 1888, p. 168, B. 12; Miss. R. 1890, p. 27; Xebr. B. 12; 
Nev. R. 1890, p. 9; N.C. B.73; Ore. B. 4, B.ll; Tex.B.8; TV. Va. B. 19.) 



168 GRASSES. 

Tests of seed show in seventeen cases the average vitality of seed to be but 40 
percent. Many samples contain cheaper and inferior seeds, in varying proportion 
(Conn. State B.IOS). 

Analyses of orchard grass as grass and hay and as to its digestibility are given in 
Ky. li. 1888, p. 18, B. 5; Me. B. 1888, pp. 86, 94; N. ¥. State B. 1888, p. 240; N. C. B. 73; 
S. C.B.1889, p. 116; Tenn. B. vol. II, 4, B. vol. IV, 1; Vt. B. 1889, p. 85. (See also 
Appendix, Table I.) 

Perennial kye grass (Lolinm perenne) [also known as Ray grass or Darnel]. — In 
Europe this grass holds about the same position that timothy does in the United 
States. It is a strong, rapid grower, and forms a thick sod. In England, meadows 
of this grass have existed for many years without reseeding, but in this country the 
plant varies from an annual in the North to a perennial in the South, although it 
seems to run out after six or eight years. A strong, rich clay soil, without too much 
moisture, is best adapted to its needs. It grows to a height of 2 feet or more and 
bears an abundance of flat leaves. The spikelets are flat and are placed edgewise, 
alternating on either side of the stem, giving the rhachis a zigzag appearance. It 
must be kept cut or grazed rather close or the mat will keep the ground so moist as 
to cause the roots to rot. It will produce about 2 tons of hay per acre and give an 
abundant aftermath for pasturing. It seems to do well in the warmer parts of the 
United States, but in the North it is almost always winterkilled. (Colo. B. 12, 11. 
1890, p. 171; La. B. 1891, p. IS; JST. C. B. 73.) In Nevada and Oregon it promises well, 
as it stands drought and is well adapted to irrigation (Nev. B. 1890, p. 10; Ore. B. 4 
B. 11). In Massachusetts and New York it is nearly always winterkilled, while it 
seems semi-hardy in Nebraska and Minnesota. (Mass. B. 1890, p. 291; Minn. li. 1888 
p. 174; Nebr. B. 6.) 

In many places, especially in the South, this grass enters into nearly every mix- 
ture for a temporary and permanent meadow. It seeds abundantly and is cheap. 
As a pasture grass for dairy stock it has no superior, giving as it does a peculiarly 
fine flavor to butter and cheese. 

Italian rye grass (LoUum italicum). — This is an annual, or biennial in most parts 
of our country, and gives better satisfaction than the perennial rye grass. It is only 
hardy in the Southern States, where it has been well received. It is claimed as a 
superior grass upon irrigated meadoAvs. If sown in the fall five or six cuttings of 
from 2 to 3 tons per acre may be had the next season. In general appearance and 
value it differs but little from the first species. The most striking difference is 
that the Italian rye grass has barbs or bristles, while tLe other has none. The seed 
of the perennial rye grass is frequently substituted for that of the other species. 
(III. B. 15; La. B. 1891, p. 13; Nev. B. 1890, p. 10; N. C. B. 73.) 

Analyses are given in Colo. B. 1890, p. 171, B. 12; N. C. B. 73; 0. E .S. B. 11. 

IRkscuk GRASS (Bromus unioloides) [also called Schradcr's grass]. — This is an an- 
nual of considerable promise in several parts of the United States. In the South it 
is one of the so-called winter grasses. If sown in the fall, by February a crop 
of hay may be cut from it. It is an erect, smooth-stemmed plant, growing 2 
or 3 feet high. The leaves are flat, linear, slightly roughened on both sides, 
and rather abundant. The spikelets are flat and rather numerous in the panicle. 
It resembles the well-known, "cheat" or "chess" to which it is closely re- 
lated. In warm climates it tends to become perennial. It must not be cut or 
pastured after April, but left to seed itself. In this way it may be propa- 
gated from year to year. (Cat. B. 1890, p. 204; Miss. B. 1890, p. 27; N. C. B. 
73; Tex. B. 1888, p. 42, B. 20). In colder climates it must be sown in the spring and 
it will remain green until late iu the fall, having given several cuttings of hay aver- 
aging 21 tons per acre during the season {Colo. B. 12; Nebr. B. 6). It stands drought 
very well and will grow on almost any kind of soil, although preferring a moist, 
rich soil. The hay is very nutritious (N. C. B. 73). If properly treated it is said to 
be one of the most valuable grasses introduced into cultivation, excelling rye or 



GE ASSES. 169 

c/ats as winter forage. Provisions for self-seeding nrnst be made everj' year or it 
will run out in a season or two {Gal. B. 1S86, p. 85, B. 1S90, p. 204; Miss. B. 1890, p. 
27; Tex. B. 1888, p. 12). This grass has been placed on the market under the name 
of Australian oats and Bromus schraderi. Analyses are given in AT. C. B. 73; Tex. B. 
SO; 0. E. S. B. 11. 

Sweet vernal grass {Anthoxanthnm ofZora <«?«). —This is alow, sweet-smelling per- 
ennial, a native of Europe, seldom exceeding a foot in height. It will grow on any 
kind of soil, even the poorest. On this account it is sometimes called poverty grass. 
It is used principally in mixtures for pastures and lawns. It is too short to be of 
value for hay. Wherever tried in this country it grows, but usually does not make 
a sufficient stand if used alone. It grows well in the shade and might be employed 
where other grasses would not grow. In rich soil it is easily run out by other 
grasses. {III. B.15; La.B. 1891, p. 12; Nev. B. 1890, p. 7; N. C.B.73; 0. E. S. B. 11.) 
Tall MEADOW oat grass (Arrhenatherum arenaceum). — This is a native of the Old 
World, where it is highly prized. It is a perennial, growing from 2 to 4 feet or more 
high and is rather leafy, the leaves being 6 to 10 inches long and a quarter of an 
inch wide. The flowers and seed resemble the cultivated oats. It is a strong, rapid 
grower, and does best on loose, light soils, where the roots penetrate to a consider- 
able depth. On this account it withstands drought and freezing remarkably well 
(Iowa B. 11; Minn. li. 1888, p. 175, B. 13; N. C. B. 73). It seems better for a pasture 
grass than for hay. The hay is of second-rate quality, owing to a decided bitterness, 
but stock will eat it without much difficulty. It wiU provide two or three cuttings 
of 2 to 5 tons per acre, depending on the latitude. It must be cut in bloom or before 
as it gets woody in a short time after blooming. The hay is regarded as inferior to 
timothy and orchard grass. {Ala. College B. 6, n. ser.; Cal. B. 1890, p. 208; Iowa B. 11; 
Ore. B.4, B. 11). Two to 3 bushels per acre of seed are requ ired, and September or 
October is the best time for sowing {Ala. B. 6, n. ser.; N. G. B. 73). In Oregon and 
the. Pacific slope generally later sowing will do. When sown in February it will 
be ready in May to cut for hay {Ore. B. 4). It is said to do best when used with 
other grasses. It spreads over the ground better than orchard grass, but like it 
stools out, not making a thick sod. Analyses may be found in Ala. B. 6, n. ser.; 
Iowa R.ll; N, G. B. 73. {^e& Appendix Tahle 1.) 

Terrell grass {Elymus virgivAcits) [also known as Wild rye grass from the resem- 
blance it bears to ryej. — This is a native perennial which abounds in nearly all 
marshes and along stream banks. It will grow on dry land, but will not stand much 
pasturing during the summer. In the South it is thought to be a very promising 
grass for winter and spring pasture. All stock eat it readily as a grass, but the hay 
js said to be rather poor. It is of rapid growth, and if sown in September will be 
fine pasture in two months. With proper .attention it will no doubt prove of consid- 
able value {Miss. B. 1890, p. 29). 

There are other species of Elymus known as rye grasses, the principal of which is 
E. canadensis. It is of little value except when young. Analyses are given in Colo. 
B. 12; Iowa B. 11; 0. E. S. B. 11. 

Tl-mothy {PJdeumpratense) [also called Herd's grass inNew England and New York] .— 
This is one of the most common grasses grown for forage. It is a perennial, growing 
from 1 to 3 feet in height, and is indigenous to the cooler parts of North America, 
Europe, and Asia, where it flourishes best in moist, heavy soils. Its roots are usually 
fibrous, but often bulbous, and as it spreads by " stooling" it never forms a heavy 
sod. On this account it does not stand pasturing very well, the tramping of stock 
killing it out. It is easily and cheaply seeded and forms a good crop the second 
year after sowing. The yield is from 1 to 3^ tons per acre. Where it is grown ex- 
tensively for hay it should be cut just before the seed becomes mature, as at that 
time the per cent of total digestible constituents and the yield is the greatest. If cut 
earlier while in bloom or before, some of the food elements will be higher and the 
actual value greater, but the total quantity will be much less than from late cutting 
{N. M. B. 1889, p. 69; N. C. B. 73). In Iowa tests showed that seeding between 



170 GKASSES. 



f 



March 23 and April 13 give best results (Iowa B. 15). In Alabama, Arlianaas, Colo- 
rado, and Mississippi it does not do very well, being a total failure in the first and 
in part in the other States {Ala. Canebrake B. 9; Ark. li. 1890, p. 129; Colo. R. 1889, p. 
96, 124; Miss. R. 1890, p. 32). It prefers heavy soil and does not stand drought very 
well. A meadow of timothy alone will last but five or six years. It is said to im- 
poverish the land to a great degree. The amount of stubble and roots available as 
fertilizers on an acre is about 650 pounds, being considerably less than for several 
other grasses {Conn. Storrs B. 1889, p. 69). In many regions the practice of sowing 
timothy Avith some other grass is followed with good results. Various combinations 
are suggested. In the South redtop or some similar grass is recommended (N. C. B. 
73) ; in the West alsike clover {Ore. B. 4, B. 11) ; while red clover is commonly added to 
it in many places. The only objection to mixing seed is the probability of securing 
difterences in maturity that may influence the value of the crop. Analyses may be 
found in Ga. B. 7; Ey. B. 5; Me. R. ISSS, pp. 86, 95, R. 1891, p. 34; N. H. R. 1889, p. 
46; N. J. R. 1889, p. 169; N. Y. State R. 1890, p. 56; N. C. B. 73; S. C. R. 1889, p. 116. 
(See also. Appendix Tables I and II.) 

Velvet grass {Holcus latiatus) [also called Velvet mesquite grass] . — Th is is a peren- 
nial grass introduced from Europe and now well established in various parts of this 
country. It grows from 6 inches to 2 feet high, with short, broad leaves. The 
whole plant has a soft, velvety character, due to its covering of minute hairs, giv- 
ing it a grayish color. It prefers moist, rich soil, and its tendency to grow in 
bunches is rather against it. In Colorado {B. 12) it did not succeed very well. It 
is not very nutritious and opinions differ as to whether or not stock like to eat it. 
It is early and produces considerable forage. {Colo. R. 1890, p. 159; Nev. R. 1890, 
p. 7; Ore. B. 4; Tenn. B. vol. IF, 1; W. Va. B. 19.) 

Wateu grass {Baspalum diUiatitm). — This is a perennial grass native to the Gulf 
States, which promises well. It grows to a height of 5 feet, with numerous leaves a 
half inch in width. It stands drought well and is almost evergreen, being affected 
only by severe cold. Although its name suggests its growing in wet places, it flour- 
ishes in any kind of soil and is valuable either for pasture or hay. It is said to im- 
prove under grazing and tramping. It can be recommended as worthy of trial south 
of Tennessee. It grows from seeds or cuttings of roots, and when once established 
lasts indefinitely. It is not difficult to control if a change of crop is desirable {Miss. 
R. 1890, p. 28). 

Wheat grxss {Agropyrum glaucum) [also known as Blue stem]. — This grass prevails 
Tip n the plains from Texas to Montana, where it is highly prized by stockmen. It has 
rather stiff, erect stems and leaves by which itmay be distinguished from couch grass. 
The leaves are often rolled in from the edges and the whole plant is of a bluish-green 
color. It is closely related to the couch grass of the Eastern States, which is iisually 
considered a great nuisance. In the West the blue stem is considered one of the best 
native grasses for hay. The yield is not very abundant, but the quality is unsur- 
passed. It seldom grows very thickly upon the ground unless it be in moist places. 
In cultivation it spreads by runners with considerable rapidity. The plants attain 
a height of 2 to 4 feet and it promises quite well in some regions. In Iowa it is said to 
rust badly in some seasons. Analyses are given in Iowa B.ll. On the whole this 
grass probably deserves more extended investigation than has been given it {Colo. 
B. 12; Iowa B. 11 ; Nebr. B. 6, B. 17 ; Wyo. B. 1). 

Wild oat grasses {Avena spp.). — The principal species are A.fatua, A. elatior, and 
A. flavescens. These grasses ai'c all closely related to the cultivated oat plant-and 
may be easily recognized by their resemblance to it. They usually have more flowers 
than are fouud in the cultivated oats and in some species have a rather long, sharp 
awn, lacking in others. They are usually considered of little value and when once 
established in wheat fields they are quite pernicious. They make a fair quality of 
hay if cut before they are ripe and have some repute as pasture forage. {Cal. R. 
1890, p. 251; N. Y. State R. 1888, p. S3S, R. 1889, p. 217.) 



GRASSES. 171 

"Wild rice (Zhania nquatica).— This is an aqnatic plant ov at least ono liking plenty 
of moisture. It often grows in the water or along its edge, attaining a height of 5 to 
10 feet. It hears an ahundance of broad, flat leaves, which are said to he eagerly 
sought after hy cattle and to he very nutritious. It hears a great ahundance of very 
rich seeds whieli are said to he gathered hy the Indians in the Northwest and used 
as rice. Birds of all kinds are fond of them. The hahit of the grass will prohahly 
prevent its cultivation (Conn. State B. 1S89, p. 236). 

Grasses of mixor importance. — The following species deserve mention : 

Crested AoginW {Cynosur us crlstatus) \% a rather low-growing grass, which gives 
promiseasa valuable pasture grass {Minn. B. 12; N. C. B. 73). 

A foreign rye grass {LoUum pacyii) has been introduced into New York and 
promises as well as any of the rye grasses (N. Y. State E. 1889, ]). 218). 

Panicled blue joint {Clirysopogon nutans) is a promising grass for prairie hay but not 
for pasture. It runs into a number of forms and varieties, differing in color and 
abundance of seed produced. This grass will not stand cutting or pasturing in 
June or July. Analyses of the grass are given in Iowa B. 11; 0. E. S. B. 11. 

Crab grass, crawfoot, and yard grass (Eleiisine indica) are names given to a very com- 
mon grass in the South. It grows luxuriantly in any rich soil, usually around dwell- 
ings. It grows in rather thick tufts and is somewhat spreading on the ground. 
The culm is about a foot high and is terminated hy five or more slender radiating 
spikes. It is an annual but seeds so rapidly after once started as to require no 
further attention. Most stock seem fond of it green and if care be taken a fair 
quality of hay can be made from it. Analyses are given in Ala. College B. 6, n. ser.; 
O. E. S. B. 11. 

Tennessee or mountain oat grass {Danthonia compressa) is a rather promising native 
grass for pasture in the mountains and other places where the soil is light. A full 
description and analysis of this grass is given in Ten^t. B. vol. II, 4. See also 0. E. 
S. B. 11. 

Chloris ve)-ticillata is a grass which has been introdiiced into Texas and is well 
thought of wherever it has been tried. It is a creeping gi ass, the culms growing 
only 5 or 6 inches high. It greatly resembles Bermuda grass and is preferred to it 
hy some. The spikes are more numerous and longer than in the Bermuda, making it 
easy to distinguish them. It has a peculiar bluish-green color, seeds freely, and once 
started will take care of itself. {Tex. B. S.) 

Muhlenberg grasses {Muhlenhergia glomerata and M. mexicana) are receiving con- 
siderable attention in Colorado. They are native species and promise well under 
cultivation. They grow abundantly along streams in woods and meadows as well 
as in drier situations. The hay and forage furnished is of superior quality and is 
relished hy stock (Colo. B. 6, B. 12). For analyses see 0. E. S. B. 11. 

There are a number of species of the genus Panienm that have more or less repute 
as forage grasses under the common name of panic grass. The principal ones are 
mentioned in Ala. B. 6, n. ser. ; Colo. B. 12; Mass. Hatch. B. 7 ; N. C. B. 73. 

There are several kinds of marsh grass that have more than local reputation. 
Among the u\ore common ones are black grass {Juncus gerardi), creek sedge or creek 
grass (Spariina stricta), spike grass {Distichlis maritima), goose grass or greasy bog 
grass (lYiglochin marithnum), three-square grass (Scirjnts species), snipsnap or two- 
tail grass (/^/eocftaj-is rostellata), and furze or fine-top (Agrostis vulgaris var. minor). 
Descriptions and tabulated analyses of most of these are to be found in Conn. State 
E. 1889, p. 233. 

Analyses of the following grasses are given in Fla. B. 11: Wire grass (Aristida 
purpurea), sandspur grass (Cenchrus trihuloides), and bull grass {Eleusine indica). 
They are of little value as forage plants. 

The following are jiromisiug pasture grasses in Colorado: Orysopsis cuspidata, 
Festuca scabrella, Ely mas sibericus, Agropyrum divergitm, and -J. violaceum. As grasses 
for dry forage the following : Poa tcnidfolia, Sporobolus depauperatus, Calamagroatia 



172 GRASSHOPPERS. 



(Deijeuxia) stricia, C. canadensis, and Hilaria jamesii. Grasses well adapted to the 
liigli plains of Colorado are: Elijmus sibericus, Agroptjrwm divevaens, Hilaria jamesii, 
Festuca scabrella, Orysopsis cuspidata, Koeleria cristata, Spororoholus arioides, Muhlen- 
hergia gracilis, and M. wrightii. (Colo. B. 12.) 

Grasshoppers. — See Locusts. 

Greasewood (Sarooiatus vermiculatus). — A mucli-branched spiny shrub of the 
goosefoot family, abounding in California. A sample of its dry brush was analyzed 
at the California Station (B. 94) to determine whether the plant was available for 
use as a fertilizer. 

The ash was found to contain 18 per cent of potash and 3^ per cent of phos- 
phoric acid, but the other ingredients were such as to amount to 72 jjounds to the 
hundred of alkali, having the usual composition of " black alkali." This would be a 
disadvantage which would hardly be outweighed by the presence of potash, as this 
element is usually abundant in the soils where greasewood grows. The question is 
raised whether in clearing greasewood land it would not be an advantage to remove 
the brush. It is shoAvn that if the greasewood stood thick enough, to make 10 tous 
per acre a quarter of a ton of alkali would be removed in the brush, not an insignifi- 
cant amount in soils liable to injury from excess of salts. 

Greenhouses.— The greenhouses of the stations have to some extent been so built 
and equipped as to test different methods of construction, heating, etc. General 
illustrated descriptions of such buildings may be found in Mich. B. 63; Minn. B. 1888, 
209, B. 7; N. Y. Cornell B. 1890, p. 45, B. 25, B. "^28, B. 31. 

At the Minnesota Station seven different methods of wall construction were tested. 
Isolated sections were built on the following plans : Two 4-inch walls of brick, hav- 
ing between them a 3-inch hollow tile; on each side of this a 1-inch air space; a solid 
brick wall 13 inches thick; two 4-inch brick walls with an air space of 5 inches 
between ; a hollow wooden wall 3 inches thick, with a course of bricks and a 1-inch 
air space on each side; a wall of 4-inch studding, covered on the outside with 
matched boards, buildiug paper, and clapboards, like the last, but boarded up aiso 
inside; same, but filled with sawdust. Boxes were placed against each section, con- 
taining thermometers, of which readings were taken three times daily. Among the 
conclusions were: The walls with more than one air space were warmer than the 
lined board wall filled with sawdust, but the latter is as warm as the brick wall with 
one air space. Of the brick walls, the warmest was that made of brick and hollow 
tile. 

The wooden wall with brick veneer was warmer than the brick with a 5-inch air 
space; the last svas nearly as warm as the 13-inch solid wall. Of the walls made of 
wood the warmest was that lined Inside the studding and filled with sawdust. This 
inside sheathing is deemed a matter of great importance, and is recommended for 
stables as well as greenhouses and dwellings. "Probably the cheapest warm wall 
for general farm purposes is one made of wood with a 4-inch air space which is filled 
with dry sawdust or some other g(jod nonconducting material." 

A similar trial of four methods of structure reported in Mass. Hatch B. 4 led to the 
following conclusions: (1) "That on the iuside of the wall, the lined board walls, 
filled with shavings, give the best results, that with the hollow space being little 
less valuable; (2) that hollow brick and concrete walls are about equally valuable 
in protecting from cold, but not equal to the framed board walls." 

In the description of the Michigan Station greenhouse {B. 63) it is stated that 
" Experiments have shown that a properly built wooden wall is warmer and more 
lasting than one of stone, brick, or cement, as ordinarily built. A wooden wall, 
however, is more or less subject to rot, and any portion below ground will need re- 
pairing in from five to ten years. In planning the new forcing house it was deter- 
mined to have the side and eud walls of cement below ground, where it would not 
be injured by frost, aud of wood above the surface." The manner in Avhich the plan 
was carried out is described and figured. 



I 



GREEN MANURING. 173 

In Mass. Hatch B. 4 a glazing experiment is reported in whioli '"'Glasser's patent 
zinc joints" were tested. These consist of strips of zinc so folded that the upper 
edge rests on the pane below and the other supports the edge of the pane above. 

It is conclnded in favor of these joints that by their use there is a saving in glass, 
the glass is more easily laid, less putty is needed, the frost gets under the glass less 
readily than when it is lapped, the glass does not slip down if the lower light is well 
fixed, no air can penetrate between the joints, there is no increase of drip. The 
same is favorably considered in Mich. B. 63 except for the one drawback that some 
light is shut out, amounting to 3 per cent when the panes are 10 inches long. 

The plan here preferred was to butt the panes together with a thin layer of putty 
between the edges. This gave a perfectly light roof which was not secured where 
the glass was lapped. S»me notes are also made on putty bulbs, puttyless glazing, 
and glazing points. Several kinds of glazier's points are also mentioned iu Minn. 
R. 1888, p. 216. In Mich. B. 63, the subject of ventilators and ventilating machines 
is discussed and illustrated. 

Heating apparatus and methods have been the subject of experiment and discus- 
sion. A hot-water apparatus '' piped on the down-hill plan" was used at tbe Minn- 
esota Station and is described. At the Massachusetts Hatch Station iB. 4, B. 6, B. 
S), careful tests were made during two seasons of the economy of steam as compared 
with hot-water heating. The second season the steam boiler consumed from Decem- 
ber 1 to March 18, 9,784 pounds of coal to 6,598 pounds consumed by the hot-water 
heater, the latter maintaining at the same time a higher degree of heat. The results 
were similar the jirevious season. At the New York Cornell Station (B. 41) in a green- 
house where mauy elbows and fittings in the piping were required and the fall was 
slight, steam heating was found to be " more economical than hot water and more 
satisfactory in every way." 

In Mass. Hatch B, 15 the efl'ects of the overbench and underbench methods of 
piping are compared. Though the temperature of the water was 4.81° higher 
where the pipes were over the benches, yet the house temperature was only ^^ higher, 
while considerably more coal was consumed. The effect upon the growth of plants 
was decidedly in favor of the underbencti piping. The distribution of heat also 
was more uniform. The circulation of the water was not so regular under as over 
the bench, but it was judged that this might be remedied in a measure by setting 
the boiler lower. 

As stated in N. Y. Cornell B. 25, in one case where the benches in the forcing 
houses were built over the pipes the lack of the bottom heat delayed a crop of beans 
four weeks. 

Green manuring. — The practice of plowing down green crops to enrich the soil is 
a very old one, and the universal experience has been that it is a safe, sure, and 
economical method of increasing the fertility of soils in temperate regions {Ala. Cane- 
brake B. 10; Ala. College B. 16). 

This fact has been strongly brought out in experiments on the jack-pine plains of 
Michigan {Mich. B. 68). In 1888 experiments were undertaken looking to the reno- 
vation of the light, sandy, almost barren soils of these plains. The main reliance 
was on green manures, supplemented with cheap fertilizers. In three years marked 
improvement was evident, not only in the physical character of the soil, but in 
increased yields of various crops. 

Two classes of plants are used for green manuring, those which are capable of 
thriving on a limited supply of plant food in the surface soil, which is thus saved 
from loss by washing or drainage, and those which gather plant food both from the 
air and subsoil and store it up in the surface soil. To the first class belong rye, 
buckwheat, rape, etc. ; to the second the legumes — clovers, peas, vetches, etc. 

The advantages of green manuring are an increase of the available plant food of 
the soil, not only from the stores gathered from the air and soil, but from that set 
free by the decomposition of the green matter in the soil; and an improvement of 



174 



GREEN MANURING. 



the mcclianical condition of the soil by the huinus formed. The hitter renders loose 
soils more retentive and tends to open np heavy soils. 

The plants peculiarly adapted to green manuring are the legumes. This fact has 
been demonstrated by investigations commenced at the station at Middletowu, Con- 
necticut {li. Conn. State Bd. of Agr., 1878, p. 335) and continued for a number of years 
at the Connecticut Storrs Station {B. 3, B. 5, B. 6, B. ISSS, p. SS B. 1SS9, p. 6; B. 1890, 
p. 12 B. 1891, p. 17). In these investigations the manurial value of the crop, and root 
and stubble of various grasses, cereals, and legumes was determined, showing the vast 
superiority of the legumes over other farm plants as nitrogen gatherers, the grasses 
standing second, and the cereals third. It appears further from these experiments 
that the legumes are capable of assimilating the free nitrogen of the air by means of 
their root tubercles, and thus draw on a store of nitrogen not available to other plants. 

In addition to this the leguminous jjlants as a rule have root systems extending 
over a wide area and to a great dejitli into the subsoil {Minn. B. 1888, p. 188; N. C. B. 
60), and are thus able to draw upon soil supplies beyond the reach of other crops. 
So much of this fertilizing material is accumulated in these roots that even though the 
entire crop above ground be removed the surface soil will be permanently enriched 
by the stubble and roots {Ala. Canehrahe B. 10; Ala. College B. 16; Conn. Storrs B. 1888, 
p. 41). 

The cowpea (DoUchos sinensis) is widely used as a green manure in the Southern 
States. Experiments at the Louisiana Stations (B. 20, B. 28) show that 1 acre of 
cowpeas, yielding 3,970.38 pounds of organic matter, turned under, gave to the soil 
64.95 pounds of nitrogen, 20.39 pounds of phosphoric acid, and 110.56 pounds of 
potash, of Avhich at least 8.34 pounds of nitrogen, 4.43 pounds of phosphoric acid, 
and 18.1 pounds of potash were furnished by the roots. Analyses made at the South 
Carolina Station {B. 1888, p. 127) show that cowpea hay contains 1.42 per cent of 
potash, 0.39 per cent of phosphoric acid, and 2.71 per cent of nitrogen ; cowpea roots 
contain 1.19 per cent of potash, 0.28 per cent of phosphoric acid, and 0.94 per cent of 
nitrogen; roots and stubble two months after crop was harvested contained 0.83 per 
cent of potash, 0.26 per cent of phosphoric acid, and 1.35 per cent of nitrogen. Ex- 
periments at the Alabama College Station {B. 14. ) showed that the vines from a 
given .area weighed six times as much as the roots and were 8^ times as valuable as 
manure. 

The following table summarizes the results of four experiments in this line: 

Fertilizing constituents per acre in cowpea vines, roots, and stulble. 



Estimated weights, per acre, 

pounds 

Valuable fertilizing ingredients 
in 1 acre, estimated : 

Phosphoric acid pounds. . 

Potash do 

Nitrogen do 



Vines. 



2,236 



2;i. 03 
27.72 
58.58 



Eoots 

and 

stubble. 



713 



7.77 
8.34 
7.77 



Vines. 



13, 128 



73.51 

164. 10 

227. 11 



Hoots 

and 

stubble. 



1,910 



10.72 
21.26 
14.37 



Vines. 



5,558 



30.56 
74.10 
80.59 



Hoots 

and 

stubble, 



1,054 



6.53 
13.06 
5.69 



Vines. 



29. 09 
89.26 
95.87 



Eoots 

and 

stubble. 



862 



2.58 
9.82 
3.10 



Similar resnlts were obtained at the North Carolina Station (B. 1886, p. 77). 

Cowpeas and melilotus have given good results as green manures on the canebrake 
lands of Alal)ama. " Before the land was sowed in melilotus and peas it was not 
considered worth cultivating. This season (1890) it produced as fine a crop as the 
best lands of the station highly fertilized." As regards the relative merits of these 
two plants for green manuring, it is stated that ''pea vines will produce better results 
in one year, for they make more forage and cover the ground better. Melilotus 
makes a better crop the second year, and after it dies the land is more easily jn-e- 
pared." {Ala. Canebrake B. 10.) 



GREVILLEA. 



175 



As regards the best disposition to be made of the crop of pea vines results are con- 
flicting. The Louisiana Station (B.2S) concludes from three years' experiments that 
it is more economical to turn the vines under as green manure than to harvest for hay ; 
on the other hand, extensive experiments at Alabama Canebrake Station {B. 10) indi- 
cate that " the increased yield by leaving the stalks and vines on the land will not 
pay for the loss of hay." Six years' experiments at the Alabama College Station {B. 
16) indicate that ''pea vines cut for hay, leaving the stubble and roots on the laud, 
benefit the soil more than turning them in green during the summer. They pay 
best when left upon the surface till the land is needed for another crop." 

Analyses made at the same station show that "pea vines lose a large percentage 
of their nitrogen when left on the ground during the fall and winter months {B. 14), 
but whether this nitrogen is largely washed into the soil or escapes into the air is 
not made clear. 

The value of alfalfa as a green manure has been quite thoroughly studied by the 
New Jersey Station {R. 1SS9,]}. 159). It appears from these investigations that this 
plant derives nitrogen from some other source than the soil and drawspotash through 
its long roots from the deeper layers of the subsoil. The value of this plant as a 
manure, as determined in diflerent seasons, is given in the following table: 

Fertilizing ingredients in alfalfa during different seasons. 



Year. 


Pounds per acre. | 


Nitrogen. 


Phosphoric 
acid. 


Potash. 

203.5 
286.9 
292.2 
255.5 


1886.. 


261. 6 
253.6 
299.2 
360.0 


39.6 
45.7 
52,4 
63.0 


1887 


1888 


1889 





The value of scarlet clover (Tvv/o/fHm I'wcanmfMm) for green manuring has been 
studied at the Delaware Station (Del. B. 11, B. 16, R. 1S90, p. 37). The advantages 
which it appears to possess are that it is a winter-growing plant, and may therefore 
conveniently follow summer crops, such as cowpeas. It covers the soil at a season 
when it most needs it and decays very readily in the soil. Besides it yields well 
and is rich in fertilizing ingredients. On the station grounds it yielded as high as 
13 tons 566 pounds per acre (exclusive of roots and stubble), containing 131 pounds 
of potash, 35 pounds of phosphoric acid, 115 pounds of nitrogen, which on a fair 
estimate are worth about $24. As a source of nitrogen in fertilizers for fruits, field 
crops, and vegetables, it has given highly satisfactory results, in some cases sur- 
passing nitrate of soda. 

Japan clover has been very successfully grown at the North Carolina Station {B. 
70) and is strongly recommended as a renovator of worn soils. 

{Ala. Canebrake B. S, B. 4, B. 7, B. 10, B. 11, B. 13, B. 14; Ala. College B. 14, n.ser.; B. 16, 
n. ser.; Conn. Storrs B. 3, B. 5, B. 6, R. ISSS, p. 2S, R. 1S89, p. 67, R. 1S90, p. 12, R. 1891, p. 
19; Conn. State Bd.of Agr.R.lS78, p.335; Del. R. 1890, p. 37, B.16; Ga. B. 3, B. IS; 
Ind. B. S3; La. B. 20, B. 28; Md. R. 1891, p. 364; Mich. B. 68, Bd. of Agr. R. 1890, p. 130; 
Minn. R. 1888, p. 188; N. J. R. 1886, p. 171, R. 1889, p. 159; N. Y. State B. 16; N. C. B. 
1879, p. 108, R. 1886, p. 77, B. 70, B. 72, B. 77; S. C. R. 1888, p. 127.) 

Grevillea. — The silk oak or "Australian fern tree," GreviUea roiusta, is noted and 
illustrated as an oruamental plant in Pa. B. 13. A brief account is given of tlie 
genus, the species of which are generally shrubs, though this becomes a tree 60 feet 
high. In California G. robusta thrives as an ornamental shade tree, retaining the 
beauty of its graceful fern-like leaves through the winter as well as the summer 
months. The climate of Pennsylvania necessitates pot culture. This sijecies and 
G. annulata are all^ided to in Cal. R. 1880, pp. 66, 67. 



176 GUAVA. 

Guava (Psidium guayara). — The giiava has been planted at some of the subtropi- 
cal stations. Two varieties, Catley's red and Catley's yellow, are reported {La. B. 3, 
2d set'.; Tex. B. 8). A note on the pear-shaped guava in Cal. R. lS80,p. 66, indicates 
that it needs protection the first year in the region of the station at Berlseley. In Cal. 
E. 1885-86, p. 115, there are notes upon the same, indicating that the Berkeley cli- 
mate has proved too severe, but it seems to succeed further south in the State. Of 
the strawberry guava (Catley's) it is said, however, that "this delicious little fruit 
has proved hardy in the climate of Berkeley, and, although late, has produced ripe 
fruit for the last two seasons." 

Guernsey cows. — See Cows, tests of dairij breeds. 

Gum trees. — The black or sour gum and the tupelo gum (Nyssa spp.) are noted 
in Ala.B. '2,n.8cr.). Thesweet gnm{Liquidam1)ar styraciflua) is named in several lists. 
For Australian gum trees see Eucalyptus. 

Gypsum. — Source and composition. — Pure gypsum is a hydrated sulphate of cal- 
cium, containing 32.6 per cent of calcium oxide, 46.5 percent of sulphuric acid, and 
20.9 per cent of water. It is variously known as calcium sulphate, sulphate of lime, 
and land plaster. When deprived of its water by heat it constitutes the well-known 
plaster of Paris. As found in the market it contains various impurities, principally 
insoluble matter and carbonate of lime or limestone. Deposits of gypsum are widely 
distributed in the United States, being found in quite largo amounts in New York, 
Ohio Illinois, Virginia, Tennessee, Texas, Kentucky, California, Michigan, and 
Iowa. The best gypsum is brought from Nova Scotia. This contains 94 per cent of 
hydrated sulphate of calcium, 2 per cent of insoluble matter, and 4 per cent of car- 
bonates. A large supply of a lower-grade gypsum comes from Cayuga and Onon- 
daga counties, New York. This contains on an average 65-75 per cent of pure 
gypsum, 6-8 per cent of insoluble matter, and 18-28 j^er cent of carbonate of lime 
{Conn. State 11. 1883, p. 50). For composition of commercial gypsum see Appendix, 
Table IV. 

Uses. — The action of gypsum as a fertilizer is not well understood. It appears to 
act indirectly in the soil, setting free plant food, especially potash, already present, 
but contributing little directly to the support of plants. Its beneficial action on 
clay soils is probably due to its power of flocculating such soils, thus improving 
the drainage and mechanical condition, and of setting fi-eo the potash which such soils 
contain, largely in insoluble form. It is extensively used as atop dressing for clover 
and other legnmes. The beneficial effect on these crops may probably be explained 
by the fact that legumes are preeminently potash feeders and thrive best on a per- 
vious soil. It also promotes nitrification. 

Gypsum is used as an absorbent in. manure heaps to prevent loss of ammonia. 
It has been claimed that this substance hastens germination and promotes the 
<>-rowth of young corn and potatoes {N, J. B. 3), but experiments have shown 
that there are conditions under which it is without effect not only on corn and 
potatoes, but also on grasses, millet, and even clover (Eans.B.SO, B.S2; Ky.B. 
22). On the other hand gypsum has given good results on the light, dry, sandy jack- 
pine plains of Michigan {Mich. B. 68), on a variety of crops. The value of this sub- 
stance as an antidote for alkali is discussed under alkali soils. 

{Cal. B. 1890, App.p. 38; Conn. State B. 1878, p. S3, B. 1882, p. 50; Via. B. 6; Kans. B. 
20, B. 30, B. 32; Ky. B. 22; La. B. 12; Mass. State B. 1801, p. 307 ; Mich. B. 68 ; JST. J. 
B. 3, B. 1880, p. 39, B. 1881, p. 29, B. 13 ; N. Y. State B. 1888, p. 340; Ore. B. 13; Tenn. B. 
vol. TI, 1 ; Ft. B. 1890, p. 31 ; Wis. B. 14. ) 

Gypsy moth {Ocneria dispar). — This is a native of Europe, which has been intro- 
duced into this country within the past twenty-five years, and has already proved 
very destructive in portions of Massachusetts. The great range of plants on which 
it feeds makes it especially difficult to treat. Hardly a fruit tree, shade tree, or 
ornamental shrub escapes its attacks, while many garden and field crops are known 
to sufl'er from its ravages. 



HEMP. 177 

The female flies but little. She is of a yellowish-white color, with two or more 
wavy rows of browix on the wings. Each fore wing has near the center a kidney- 
ehapeil spot, above which is a small round spot of the same color. The male is 
smaller and darker-colored, but similarly marked. The moths measure from 1| to 
2i inches across their expanded wings. The eggs are laid in oval clusters, mingled 
with the hair from the und<'r side of the abdomen of the female. Each cluster con- 
tains 400 to 500 eggs, and is deposited on the bark of trees, under boards, on fences 
and walls, or in any place affording the small protection needed. They are laid 
between July and September, and hatch from April to June. When first hatched 
the larva is brownish yellow, with a small black head. When full grown the cater- 
pillars are about 2 inches long, dark brown or black, very hairy, with a yellow Hue 
down the back and along the sides. On each seguieut of the body are several tuber- 
cles, the first six sets of which are l)lue, the other red. They usually remain together, 
and when not feeding collect side by side on the trunk or brauches of trees. They 
are so nuuierous and voracious as to soon strip a tree of its foliage. 

Destroying the straw-colored clusters of eggs and the moths, logether with the 
use of sprays of arseuites while the caterpillars are feeding, will tend to repress 
them (^fass. Hatch B. 7, Special B. 1SS9, R. 1891, p. 5). 

Hackberry (Celiis occidentalis). — The merits of this tree for shade and ornamental 
plantiug are affirmed by the Iowa, Minnesota, and South Dakota Stations. It is na- 
tive in those States as well as eastward, but has hitherto been little planted. In loica 
B. 16 it is i>ronounced as attractive as any variety of the similar tree which is native 
and often planted in Europe. In Minn. B. 24 it is considered to rival the white elm, 
though less hardy in dry ground. In 5. Dak. B. 23 it is recommended for its beauty, 
also as one of the best native fuel woods; while delighting in damp soil, it has, as 
there stated, grown successfully on upland. 

Harlequin bug. — See Cahbaf/e hug, harlequin. 

Harrow. — See Dynamomvtev teats of farm iinplements. 

Hawlfweed. — See Weeds. 

Hay. — For composition of mixed hay and of hay from various grasses, see Appendix, 
Tables I and II. For f'eeiliug trials with hay see Cattle, feeding for beef and for growth, 
Silage and Sheep. See also Clover and Grasses. 

Heifers, feeding experiments with. — See Cattle. 

Hellebore. — See Insecticides. 

Hemlock (Tsuga canadensis). — The hemlock or hemlock spruce has been found at 
the Minnesota Station (B. 24) very hardy when planted among other trees, though 
generally reputed tender in the State. It is regarded as "well worthy of luore ex- 
tended use in somewhat sheltered locations." A plantation at the South Dakota 
Station (A". ISSS, p. 19, B. 12) met with little success. 

Hens. — See Poultry. ' 

Hemp (Cannabis indiea). — A test of 2 varieties of hemp from Japan was made at 
the Massachusetts Hatch Station (B^ IS), and the practicability of growiug hemp in 
that locality seemed to be shown, but its profitableness was gravely doubted. An 
analysis of hemp waste cousidered as a fertilizer is given in Mass. R. 1SS9, p. 274, 
see Appendix, Table IV; and in Cal. B. 94 the amounts of the different ingredients 
withdrawn per acre by a crop are shown for the plant and its parts. 

In Ky. B. 18 and B. 27 are recorded experiments to ascertain wliether hemp can be 
grown successfully on old ground by means of commercial fertilizers and what fer- 
tilizing iugredients are demanded. 

The latter experiment gave the conclusions "that hemp can be successfully grown 
on our worn blue-grass soils with the aid of commercial fertilizers; that both pot- 
ash and nitrogen are required to produce best results; that the effect was the same 
whether muriate or suljihate was used to furnish potash; that the effect was about 
2094— No. 15 12 



178 HERBS. 

the same whether nitrate of soda or sulphate of amnioiiia was used to furnish nitro- 
gen; that a commercial fertilizer containing about 6 per cent of available phos- 
phoric acid, 12 i)er cent of actual potash, and 4 per ceut of nitrogen (mostly in the form 
of nitrate of soda or sulphate of ammonia) would be a good fertilizer for trial." ^y. 
B. 24 is devoted to an investigation of the broom rape of hemp and tobacco ( Orobanche 
[Fheli2>aa'] ramosa), a parasite which had become seriously injurious within a few 
years. Rotation of crops, burning over infested fields, care in collecting seed for 
planting, and the use of fertilizers to stimulate the growth of crops are suggested as 
lueans of resisting the broom rajie. 

Herbs. — Tests have been made at the New York State Station (B. 1S84, p. 286, B. 
1885, p. 193, B. 1886, p. 252) of a large number of species and varieties of plants 
" known to seedsmen as herbs," or more fully as pot and sweet herbs. Many of 
these belong to the mint family, viz, balm, basil, catnip, horehound, hyssop, marjo- 
ram, peppermint, sage, summer savory, and thyme; and to the Umbelliferw, viz, 
anise, caraway, chervil, cumin, dill, aud fennel. Others variously related are benne- 
borage, bnrnet, dyer's madder, false saffron, fenugreek, gobo, horseradish, nigella, 
aromatique, rue, and sorrel. In the case of some, as basil and sage, several varie- 
ties were planted. A special note is made on the Florence fennel or finocchio, in 
which the base of the leaf stalk is broad and thick, and is cooked as a vegetable or 
eaten raw as a salad. 

Many of these plants are grown at the California Centrtil Station at Berkeley, 
(B. 18SS-'89p. 201). 

Seeds of this class of plants have been the subject of germination tests, as reported 
in N. Y. State B. 1S83, pp. 67, 263; Ore. B. 2; Vt. B. 1889, p. 111. 

Herd's grass. — See Grasses. 

Hessian fly (Cecidomyia destructor).— This is a small two-winged fly, about one- 
eighth of an inch long, of a dusky color, which appears in May and June and again in 
September and October. The female lays her eggs upon the top of the leaves, and 
upon hatching the grub follows down to the stalk, in which it becomes embedded. 
The larva is at first white aud quite small. While lying between the sheath and the 
stalk it changes into the "flaxseed" stage, in which it resembles in shape and color 
a small flaxseed. In this way it passes the winter, to emerge in spring as a new fly. 
Its burrowing in the stalk so weakens the stem that it breaks down. 

There are quite a number of natural enemies and they keep this pest nearly under 
control. Late seeding, burning stubble after harvest, sowing a small portion of the 
field early and plowing under after the wheat has become 2 or 3 inches high and 
the flies have laid their eggs, and using resistant varieties of wheat are all meaus by 
which its attacks may in whole or part be prevented. (Cal. B. 1890, p. 312; III. B. 12; 
Ind.B.l; Ky.B.40; N. C.B.78; OhioB.vol. 111,11, B.vol. IV, 7; Tenn. SpecialB. IS.) 

Hickory trees {Hicoria ICarya'] spp.).— While the trees of this genus are of recog- 
nized value for their hard, heavy, and tough wood, they have not been the subject 
of much investigation at the stations. Plantations of hickory at the South Dakota 
Station, as yet little advanced, are noted in B. 15 and B. 20. In California, where 
timber of the hickory quality is much needed, several species have been tried, but 
have proved to be of very slow growth, at least in tiieir first stages ( Cal. B. 1380, p. 68, B. 
1890, p. 237). In Minnesota {B.24) the bitternut hickory (Htcona^Hiiima IC.amara']) 
is estimated as probably the hardiest and best form of hickory for general planting 
in that State, It is valuable for hoop poles and makes a pretty lawn or park tree. 
It groAvs very fast until it commences to fruit, but does not reach the size of other 
species. The same is specially recommended for hoop poles in Mich. B. 32. 

In Ga. B.2 is recorded an iuvestig;ition of the fuel value of "black" hickory (.8". 
alha [C. tomentosa']), in which full ash analyses of the wood and the bark are given. 
For partial analysis see Appendix, Table V. 

For the jjccau, which belongs to this genus, see Becan. 



HOLLYHOCK LEAF SPOT. 179 

Hog cholera.— A disease of hogs clue to the presence of minute organisms or bac- 
teria in the alimentary tract. These increase with enormous rapidity when the con- 
ditions are favorable, and their minuteness and power of surviving against seem- 
ingly adverse conditions make the spread of the disease possible. The symptoms of 
the disease vary so much that a correct diagnosis is often impossible. The more 
common ones are loss of appetite; elevated temperature; cough; a watery discharge 
from the eyes, becoming thicker, often gumming tlie eyelids together; a chano-e in 
the appearance of the skin on the under side of the neck, breast, and abdomen, 
which becomes drawn and of a reddish hue; and constipation, followed by a 
marked diarrhea, which may continue until tiie death of the animal. As the dis- 
ease progresses the animals have a gaunt appearance, arclied back, rough coat, and a 
weak, staggering gait. In acute cases or in chronic cases of considerable duration 
these symptoms may be so modified as to become undistinguishable. In acute at- 
tacks animals sometimes die within an hour after a hearty meal. In chronic cases 
the disease may drag its course for a month or more. In any case a post-mortem 
examination of the digestive organs, especially of the larger intestines, will give 
evidence of thepresence or absence of the disease. If hog cholera be present the 
intestines will show more or less prominent ulcers and thickenings. The stomach 
spleen, aud liver may also give evidence of the disease. The rate of mortality 
among the affected animals is very high, only about 10 or 15 per cent recovering 
from an attack. 

There is no known remedy for hog cholera, but whatever contributes toward keep- 
ing the swine In a good, healthy condition will perhaps render them less liable to 
its attack. 

When the disease ajjpears all healthy animals should be at once removed to some 
distance from the sick and suspected. Do not let well animals have access to the 
same water as the sick, as is sometimes done along streams or ponds. Burn or bury 
deep the carcasses of all dead animals, not leaving them where buzzards have access 
to them. Clean and disinfect all pens used by diseased animals, and do not use 
them for some months for well animals, as the germs of the disease are held in the soil 
and retain their vitality for a considerable time. Quarantine all animals from sus- 
pected localities for several days before introducing into the herd. In this way the 
epidemic may often be avoided. 

It has been claimed that inoculation will secure immunity from attacks of cholera, 
but upon what seems good evidence others deny such immunity, and affirm that 
inoculation may introduce an epidemic of the disease where it otherwise might not 
have occurred. (La. B. 10, n. ser. ; Me. E. 18S9,j). 257; Nehr. B. 4; Ohio E. lS90,p. 38; 
S. C.E. 1889,1). 1S1,B. 6.) 

Hogs. — See Pigs. 

Holderuess cows. — See Coivs, tests of dairy hreeds. 

Holly (Ilex spp.). — There are several species of holly in the South, as noted in Ala. 
College B. 2, n. ser., of which the only one of much size is I. opaca. As there represented, 
the wood of this tree is of an ivory whiteness except near the center, hard, and 
compact, fine-grained and susceptible of polish, and valuable for engraving and for 
cabinetwork, taking a durable stain of almost any shade. The tree is easily grown 
and makes excellent hedges. 

Hollyhock blight (Colletoiichum malvaritm). — This is especially serious in the 
greenhouse, it having been impossible in several instances to grow seedlings on 
account of its ravages. It may attack any par t of the plant. The color of spots may 
vary from light yellow to brown or bLick. It causes a shriveling of the part attacked 
and sooner or later spreads over the whole plant, ending in its destruction. Bor- 
deaux mixture has so far proved the best fungicide for this disease. (iV. J. E. 1890, 
p. 361, B. 1891, p. 207.) 

Hollyhock leaf spot (Cercospora aWuvlna). — This fungus flourishes on the holly- 
hock as well as on some of its near relatives, notably upon the '^ velvet leaf" or 



180 HOLLYHOCK RUST. 

Indian mallow. The lower leaves begin to show brown spots, circular in outline; 
these increase in size until they occupy all the space between the veins; the leaf 
wilts and drops before any flowers appear, often leaving the whole stalk bare. This 
disease has been known to invade the greenhouse in winter and attack the young 
seedlings in the propagating boxes to such an extent that raising of healthy plants 
seenaed impossible. Frequent and thorough spraying with ammoniacal carbon- 
ate of copper has proved an effective remedy for this disease. (N. J. U. 1800, p. 361, 
B.1S91, p.297.) 

Hollyhock rust {Puccinia malvacearum) . — This disease is a native of South Amer- 
ica, and has come to us by way of Europe, where it has been known since 1869. It was 
introduced into this country about 1885, sjid its ravages are causing considerable 
anxiety among florists growing hollyhocks on any considerable scale. Wherever it 
has become established it appears in May or June on tlie leaves, leaf stalks, and 
stems, having apparently wintered upon the root leaves. At first the spots are yel- 
low, but on the under side of the leaf they become wartlike, and brown or gray in 
color. These spots may increase in size and number until a considerable portion of 
the leaf is involved, resulting in the fall of the leaf, or if they do not cause the leaf 
to die it is greatly stunted in its growth. Where the leaf is killed it has a dried and 
parched appearance long before time for the flowers, if indeed any ever appear. 
Several remedies have been tried in Europe, and one of the best is as follows: Sat- 
urated solution permanganate of potash 2 tablespoon fuls, water 1 quart. Apply 
directly to the spots and diseased leaves with a sponge and not a sprayer or sprink- 
ler. This is a cheap remedy, and is said to be very efl'ective. All badly diseased 
plants should be destroyed by fire. 

(Mass. State B. 1890, p. 224; JSf.J. R. 1890, p. 361, B. 1891, p. 297; N. Y. Cornell B. 
25; Vt. B. 1890, p. 144. ) 

Holstein covt-s. — See Cows, tests of dairij breeds. 

Horn fly {HcematoMa serrata). — This is a recent introduction from Europe, which 
proved very troublesome to cattle a few years ago. It has been carefully studied 
and many new facts learned by the entomologist of the New Jersey Station concern- 
ing its habits and life history. 

It is smaller than the common house fly, but greatly resembles it. They usu- 
ally appear in droves and being very jlood-thirsty annoy the cattle greatly. Their 
habit of collecting in great numbers about the base of the horns has given them their 
name. They attack cattle in places where they are not easily warded oft' and quickly 
cut through the skin to suck the blood, and will only stop when killed or driven 
away. During the sucking process the insect injects a fluid into the wound that is 
very irritating, causing the blood to flow more_ freely and making the animal very 
uneasy. 

Dusting insect powder or finely powdered tobacco over cattle will kill the flies, 
but it must be repeated twice a day. Train or fish oil rubbed on the parts most fre- 
quented, as the back and legs and around tlie horns, will keep them away. 

The eggs are deposited in the fresh droi)pings and covering them with lime or 
spreading so as to cause them to dry quickly will prevent hatching. {Iowa B. 13; 
Ky. B. 40; Miss. B. 1891, p. S3; N. J. B. F, B. 62, B. 1889, p. 245; N. Y. Cornell B. 37; 
W. Va. B. 1890, p. 159.) 

Horse nettle. — See Weeds. 

Horse-radish (Cochlearia iirmoracia). — A plantation of this condimental rootiu the 
class of " herl)S " is noted iniS''. Y. State R. 1885, p. 193. An analysis is given in Mass. 
State B. 16, for which see Appendix, Tahle III. 

Horse-radish, leaf spot {Septoria armoraccw). — This disease is probably the worst 
attacking horse-radish. The leaves turn yellow and become full of holes until the 
leaf is completely riddled. It soon becomes lifeless, brittle, and dies whenever the 
fungus is present in any considerable quantity. (N. J. B, 1890, p. 360.) 



ILLINOIS STATION. 181 

Horse-radish, •white mold (Ramiilaria armoracca'). — Tliis develops in coiisiflerable 
<iuiiutity upon the leaves, giving them a whiti.sh appearance. It causes considerable 
injury, hut is not as destructive as the leaf spot disease. No remedy is suggested. 
{N.J. II. lS[)0,p. 360.) 

Horses and colts. — Experiments with these animals have been very limited. A 
comparison at Maine Station (7?. 1890, p. 6S) of oats with a mixture of one-third pea 
meal and two-thirds middlings for Percheron colts showed no advantage of the oats 
over the gram mixture. 

The Utah Station has reported trials of watering horses before and after feeding 
grain, and of feeding whole vs. ground grain {B.9), grain and hay mixed, and cut 
hixjiB.lS). 

" Horses wearing blankets beneath their harness in the day and blanketed in the 
stables at night did not hold their weight as well as those without blankets" {Utah 
B.ll). • 

Hovenia. — Trial has been made at the California Central and Southern Stations 
{B. ISSO, p. 69, B. 1S85-86, p. 116), of the Hovenia dulcis, a Japanese deciduous tree 
of the buckthorn family. It had been recommended as a hedge plant and it bears 
a fruit considerably esteemed in JaiJan. It had not fruited in California, but both 
at Berkeley and in Southern California it had proved a handsome, rapidly growing 
tree. Specimens five years old had straight, smooth trunks 6 feet high and well- 
developed crowns. The leaf is shaped like that of a linden. "Even if the fruit 
should prove of little value the tree will stand well for shade and ornament." 

Huckleberry. — ( Vaccinium spp.). — Some eft'ort has been instituted at the New York 
State Station to introduce the huckleberry into cultivation. Notes upon this sub- 
ject occur in N. Y. State B. 1883, p. 145, R. 1883, p. 227, B. 1885, p. 231. The huckle- 
berry, by which is meant chiefly the high bush or swamp huckleberry or blueberry 
( V. conjmiosuin), is considered to possess better natural qualities than either the 
currant or the gooseberry. The testimony is adduced of some who had successfully 
grown the huckleberry upon ordinary farm soil. From the variability of the wild 
plant it is inferred that the cultivated plant will be still more variable. Propaga- 
tion by seed was found a slow and difficult process both at the Arnold arboretum 
and in experiments at this station. Some directions are given for the treatment of 
transplanted plants and for planting seed. 

Hungarian grass [also called German millet]. — See Millet, 

Husk tomato. — See Phijsalis. 

Ichneumon flies. — A class of insects which deposit their eggs in the bodies of 
the larvfe of other insects, especially those commonly known as caterpillars. As 
the eggs develop the caterpillar is killed. By the aid of these friendly flies many 
pests are held in check. {Nebr. B. 14; N. C. B. 78.) 

Idaho Station, Moscotw. — Organized February 26, 1892, as a department of the 
State University under the act of Congress of March 2, 1887. Substations have been 
established at Grangeville, Idaho Falls, and Nampa. The station staff consists of a 
director, irrigation engineer, chemist, botanist, entomologist, meteorologist, and 
three agriculturists. The principle lines of work are experiments with field crops, 
fruits, and vegetables, and irrigation. Up to January 1, 1893, the station had pub- 
lished two bulletins. Kevenue in 1892, $1.5,000. 

Illinois Station, Champaign. — Organized April 1, 1888, as a department of the Uni- 
versity of Illinois, under the act of Congress of March 2, 1887. The staff consists of 
the regent of the university, president of the board of direction and agriculturist, 
horticulturist and botanist, chemist, consulting entomologist, consulting veterina- 
rian, assistant horticulturist, assistant botanist, assistant chemist, assistant agri- 
culturist, and secretary. The j)rincipal lines of work are chemistry, field experi- 
ments with crops, horticulture, diseases of plants, feeding experiments, and dairy- 
ing. Up to January 1, 1893, the station had published 4 annual reports and 23 
bulletins. Revenue in 1892, $15,000. 



182 IMPORTED CABBAGE BUTTERFLY. 

Imported cabbage butterfly. — See Cabiage butterflies. 

Imported currant worm. — See Cm-rant loorm, imported. 

Indiana Station, Lafayette, organized July 1, 1887, as a department of Purdue Uni- 
versity, under act of Congress of March 2, 1887. Tlie staff consists of the president of 
the university, director, agriculturist, horticulturist, chemist, botanist, veterinarian, 
assistant botanist, assistant chemist, secretary, and treasurer. The principal lines 
of work are field experiments with fertilizers and crops, horticulture, feeding exper- 
iments, and diseases of plants and animals. The station has published 5 annual 
reports and 32 bulletins. Revenue in 1892, $16,553. 

Indian mallow. — See Weeds. 

Insecticides. — For apparatus for application see Fungicides. Brief statements 
regarding the leading insecticides are given below. 

Arsenic. — White arsenic or arsenious acid. This is sometimes used as an insecti- 
cide but is unsafe, its color allowing it to be mistaken for other substances. Its 
compounds are both safer and surer. 

Arsenites. — There are two leading compounds of arsenic, Paris green and London 
purple, either of which is a valuable insecticide. 

London purple is a fine powder and is cheaper than Paris green. It is a by- 
product and is not constant in its analyis. It may be effectively used diluted either 
as a powder or solution. It should never be used on peach trees as it is liable to 
injure the foliage. If used dry a convenient formula is, London purple, 1 pound; 
flour, 10 pounds ; road dust, lime, or coal ashes, 20 pounds. 

If used as a liquid a good formula is, London purple 1 pound; water, 200 gallons. 

A little glue or flour paste may be added to cause it to adhere better. 

Paris green is more constant than London purple in the proportions of arsenic it 
contains. If used dry the formula for London purple may be followed, but if in 
solution the following formula will be found better: Paris green, 1 pound; water, 
100 gallons. If it is to be used on peach trees dilute one-half. 

These two compounds are very effective when used against any insect that eats 
the foliage or fruit of any plant. They will have little or no effect on those living 
by sucking the sap or juices from the plant or fruit. 

Bisulphide of carbon. — This is a very thin volatile fluid, the fumes of which 
are destructive to all animal life. It is highly inflammable and should never be used 
near flre. It may be used to kill insects in the ground by making a hole into 
which a little is poured, the hole being closed immediately. It may also be used on 
stored grain, peas, beans, etc., placed in tight receptacles with a little of the liquid. 

Bordeaux mixture. — See Fungicides. This is also recommended as an insecti- 
cide. A combination of Paris green or London purple (2 ounces) and Bordeaux 
mixture (22 gallons) is often used against fungi and insects at one spraying. 

BuHACH. — See Pyrethrum. 

Carbolic acid. — This may be used for root insects in proportion of one to fifty or 
100 parts of water, or as emulsion for a wash. The emulsion may be made as fol- 
lows: Carbolic acid (crude), Ipint; soft soap, 1 quart; hot water, 2 gallons. Mix 
thoroughly and apply with a cloth or stiff brush for plant lice and stem borers. It 
must not be applied to foliage. 

Fertilizers as insecticides. — See fertilizers. 

Heat. — This is recommended for the pea and bean weevils. A temperature of 135° 
to 145° F. will kill the insects and not injure the seed. 

Hellebore, white. — This is used dry and dusted over currant and gooseberry 
bushes for the currant worm. It maybe used in solution (1 oz. to 3 gallons of water) 
and sprayed over bushes. It is very effective when fresh but loses its strength by 
standing. 

Hot water. — Plants may be sprayed with hot water or dipped in it for an instant 
to kill plant lice. The temperature of the water should be about 125° F, 



INSECTICIDES. 183 

Kkuosexe. — This is not only <a good repellent, but acts also as a destroyer of insects. 
Ji' used alone it will injure some plants and on tbese it is best to use a kerosene emul- 
sion, for which two leading formulas are given, as follows: Soft soap 1 quart, water 
2 quarts, kerosene 1 pint; or, hard soap | pound, water 1 gallon, kerosene 2 gallons. 

Dissolve the soap in the boiling water, remove from the fire and add the kerosene. 
Stir or churn violently until the emulsion becomes the consistency of thick cream, and 
no oil rises to the top. This can be best done by pumping through a force pump, re- 
turning through the nozzle into the same vessel. For use dilute with water (2 gallons 
for the first formula). To the second formula from ten to fifteen parts of water should 
be added, depending upon the plants to be sprayed, some enduring a stronger solu- 
tion than others. The emulsion may be used against all sap-sucking and soft-bodied 
insects and is one of our most valuable insecticides. 

An ointment is made of kerosene, i pint; sulphur, 2 ounces; and lard, 1 pound. 
Mix lard and sulphur and add oil. Apply by rubbing. This is valuable to destroy 
vermin on fowls and animals. 

Lime. — This is either dusted over plants in a dry state or applied as a whitewash 
to trunks of trees, etc. 

Pyrkthrum. — This is sold as a fine light-brown powder, made by pulverizing the 
flower heads of several species of Pijrethrum. There are three kinds in the market, 
known as buhach, a California product, and Dalmatian and Persian insect powder. 
They are equally eftective when fresh, but lose strength when exposed to the air. 
They may be dusted over plants or applied with a bellows. A good way to apply is 
by spraying with the following mixture: Pyrethrum, 1 tablespoonful; boiling water, 
2 gallons. 

Stir well and apply at once. If the powder is to be dusted or sifted over plants 
dilute with two to ten times its quantity of flour or ashes. Instead of pure kerosene 
in the emulsion mentioned above, a decoction may be used of 1 gallon of kerosene 
filtered through 2^ pounds of fresh pyrethrum. This is a most valuable form in 
which to use these combined insecticides. Pyrethrum kills by contact and on this 
account must be applied frequently so loug as the insects are troublesome. For veg- 
etables like cabbage, lettuce, and celery, when one does not care to use Paris green, 
this will be found equally good and perfectlv safe. 

Resin COMPOuxds. — These are known to be very effective against scale insects, 
especially those of the citrus fruits. One of the best formulas is, caustic soda, 1 
pound; resin, 8 pounds. 

Dissolve soda in 1 gallon of boiling water. Remove half and add resin, boiling 
until dissolved. Slowly add remainder and dilute until it can be strained through 
a thin cloth. . Dilute to 32 gallons before using. Two ounces of Paris green or London 
purple may be added to this when used. 

Soapsuds. — Strong soapsuds made from any ordinary lye soap or from whale-oil soap 
or strong potash soaps are recommended as washes for plants infested by plant lice. 

Tar. —This is an excellent thing to drive away insects or to entraji them. Applied 
to the exposed parts of animals it will keep away not only the dangerous insects, 
but those which harass the brutes. 

Tobacco. — This is a valuable insecticide and may be applied in several ways, either 
as fine dry powder, with whale-oil soap, the fumes from its burning, or a decoction 
of 2 gallons of water to 1 pound of tobacco. The stems, refuse, and dust are used 
for this purpose. It is effective against flea beetles, plant lice, and ticks. 

Miscellaneous. — The following substances have been tested as insecticides and 
reported upon: Acetic acid, alum, corrosive sublimate, digitalis, kainit, naphthaline, 
nicotinia, quassia, and sludge-oil soap {N. J. B. 75) ; benzoic acid, lead acetate, corro- 
sive sublimate, oxalic acid, potassium bichromate, salicylic acid, santonin, sludge, 
tartar emetic, and veratrin {Arl\ B. 15); carbolized plaster and potassium cyanide 
(Mich. B. 5S) ; fir tree oil (.V. Y. Coniell B. C'S) ; gas lime and salt (X. Y. Cornell B. S3) ; 
camphor {Ore. B. 5) ; and copperas {Iowa B. 12). 



184 



INSECT-POWDER PLANTS. 



(K J. B. K., B. 75; Arlc. B. U; Fla. B. 9, B. 14; Iowa B. 10; Ohio B. vol. Ill, 4, B. S; Ky. 
Circular 3; Mich. B. 58, B. S3; N. Y. State, B. 1S90, p. 307; N. C. B. 78; Del. B. 12, 
E. 1890, p. 119; Iowa B. 12, B. 14; Mass. Hatch B. IS.) 

Insect-powder plants. — See Pyrethrum. 

Io"wra Station, Ames. — Organized February 17, 1888, as a department of the Iowa 
State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, under the act of Congress of 
March 2, 1887. The staff consists of the president of the college, director, assistant 
director, chemist, botanist, entomologist, horticulturist, veterinarian, assistant 
agriculturist, assistant veterinarian, assistant botanist, assistant entomologist, as- 
sistant horticulturist, secretary, and treasurer. The principal lines of work are 
chemistry, field experiments with crops, horticulture, diseases of plants, entomology, 
and dairying. Up to January 1, 1893, the station had published 3 annual reports and 
19 bulletins. Eevenue in 1892, $15,350. 

Iowa Station milk test. — See Milk tests. 

Ironwood (Ostrya virginica) [also called Hop hornbeam]. — "A pretty native tree, 
of medium size, that does well under cultivation," is generally hardy, but prefers 
some protection, and does best in moist, rich land {Minn. B. 24). 

Irrigation — Use and valuk. — In the Eastern States irrigation is practiced only 
to a limited extent (principally on meadows), but west of the Mississippi River, in 
the Utah valleys, and even in California, the scanty rainfall renders irrigation 
necessary and its immense value over these areas is being more fully appreciated 
each year. In the Southern States rice of course is grown by irrigation, and experi- 
ments with other crops, notably sugar cane, have given such favorable results that 
irrigated areas are being increased. The extent to which irrigation is practiced in 
the western half of the United States is indicated by the estimates given in the fol- 
lowing table taken from a report on Irrigation and the Cultivation of the Soil 
Thereby, published by the U. S. Department of Agriculture : 

Irrigation areas and artesian wells west of the ninety-seventh meridian. 



Average. 



State antl Territory. 



Arizona 

California 

Colorado 

Idaho f. 

Kansas west of 97° of longi- 
tude 

Montana 

Kebniska west of 97° of lon- 
gitude 

Nevada 

New Mexico 

North Dakota 

Oregon, east of Cascades . . . 

South Dakota 

Texas west of 97° of longi- 
tude 

Utah 

Washington, east of Cas- 
cades 

"Wyoming 

Total 



Under ditch. 



1889. 



Acres. 

529, 200 
3, 294, 000 
2, 813, 273 

715, 500 

500, 000 
986, 000 

50, 000 
142, 000 
638, 455 



75, 000 
100, 000 



200, 000 
700, 000 



75, 000 
1,946,876 



1890. 



Acres. 

643, 450 

4, 044, 000 

4,082,738 

1,181,500 

860, 101 
1, 100, 000 

65, 000 
150, 000 
677, 315 
1,000 
100,000 
100, 000 

340, 000 
700, 000 

150, 000 
2, 172, 781 



16, 367, 794 



1891. 



Acres. 

660, 000 

4, 500, 000 

4, 200, 900 

1, 200, 000 

900, 000 
1, 250, 000 

200, 000 
150, 000 
700, 000 
2,500 
125, 000 
100, 000 

350, 000 
735, 226 

175, 000 
3,038,481 



18, 286, 207 



Cultivation. 



1890. 



Acres. 

310, 100 
3, 444, 000 
1, 585, 000 

327, 000 

100, 000 
400, 000 

10, 000 
75, 000 
450, 000 
1,500 
45, 000 
22, 000 

160, 000 
413, 000 

60, 000 
175, 000 



7, 577, 600 



1891. 



Acres. 

316, 000 
3, 550, OUO 
1, 757, 162 

330, 000 

120, 000 
410, 000 

40,000 
100, 000 
465, 000 
2,000 
45, 000 
54, 000 

160, 000 
423, 364 

75, 000 
180, 000 



Number 
of artesian 

wells. 



8, 026, 526 



45 
3,500 
4,500 

12 

250 
36 

100 
76 
10 

670 
6 

950 

1,000 
2,524 



13, 695 



IRRIGATION. 185 

The increase from irrigation is sometimes fourfold and seldom less than double 
(Allen). It is estimated that " if only 1 acre in 4 could bo reclaimed it would still 
bring the product of the arid region [of the United States] up to the product of the 
balance of the country." 

In experiments at the Louisiana Station (7?. 14) irrigated soils yielded 34 tons of 
sugar cane per acre and unirrigated soils about 8 tons. The value of the cane for 
sugar-m.aking was about the same in each case. Corn on irrigated soil yielded 100 
bushels per acre and sorglium, cotton, and cowpeas responded readil;y to irrigation. 

The chief advantage of irrigation is thus concisely stated by Dr. Stnbbs of the 
Louisiana Station. "Irrigation eliminates the great element of chance from our 
farming operations and [with] good drainage makes the planter nearly independent 
of the freaks and idiosjaicrasies of the Aveather." 

Irrigation in connection with underdraining haslongbeen urged as " the general and 
absolute correction for alkali" ( CaJ. B. 1890, App. p. 34) and this method has been of 
very great value in reclaiming these otherwise fertile soils. (See Alkali soils.) 

The marked effect of irrigation in increasing rainfall has been noticed (Nebr. B. 1) 
but no exact observations on this point have been reported by the experiment 
stations. 

See also Colo. R. 1890, p. 72; Ariz. B. 3. 

Systems of irrigation. — Systems of irrigation may be divided into two classes, 
surface irrigation and subirrigation. The first class includes the old methods of 
flooding and row or furrow irrigation in which the water is spread over the surface 
of the land by suitably arranged shallow trenches and confined on it by means of 
raised borders. Subirrigation is accomj)lished either by digging the ditches wliich 
spread the water, deep and close together, so that the water spreads by lateral ab- 
sorption, or by an underground system of perforated i^ipes. Full discussions of 
different methods of irrigation will be found in Ariz. B. 3; Nehr. B. 1: S. Dak. B. 28; 
Wyo.B.8. The laying of underground irrigation pipes is described in La. B. 14; 
Nehr. B. 6. 

Subirrigation is the most expensive system, but is generally considered the most 
eftective. In experiments at Louisiana Station (B. 14) little difference between the 
two methods was observed. Subirrigation by means of pipes is peculiarly applica- 
ble to alkali soils {Cal. B. 1890, App. p. 32), since it economizes water and is espe- 
cially effective in removing the alkali. On account of its expense it can only be 
adopted as a last resort on very fertile soils. 

The results of experiments in irrigation at the Wyoming Station are thus summed 
viT^ \n B.8, p.Sl: " Over-irrigatiou is pernicious and must be avoided. Of the methods 
of irrigation, flooding is the most injurious to cultivated crops, but the most econom- 
ical method for grass lands cereals. Row irrigation is recommended for all crops 
where it is convenient to apply it. Subirrigation is the most expensive but most fa- 
vorable to the majority of crops. It works best on rather heavy soils with imper- 
vious subsoils." 

Watkr supply and storage. — In humid regions there is little trouble in securing 
all the water needed for purposes of irrigation. In the arid regions of the West, 
however, expensive reservoirs and canals are built, and in many cases artesian wells 
are sunk in order to secure the necessary supply of water. The proposition has been 
advanced, however, that on the Great Plains at least, " the security of the agricul- 
turist is to be chiefly accomplished [not by any great system of storage, but] by 
small-farm storage, by the impounding of the little streams, by the utilization of 
springs, and by the restoration to the surface through artesian drills or by the me- 
chanical lifting from other bored wells of tlie waters that are stored below the sur- 
face soil in the earth itself" (Hinton). The locating of extensive artesian basins 
throughout the arid and semi-arid regions of the West has given a great imi^etus to 
irrigation in those regions. 

The value of the water from diflfereut sources for irrigation purposes has been 
studied by the Colorado {B. 9) and California Stations {B. 1890, App. p. 41). These 



186 ITALIAN RYE GRASS. 

investigations have emphasized the necessity of a careful examination of the water 
supply for irrigation and of thorough drainage of the soil irrigated to prevent the 
soils from becoming surcharged with deleterious salts (alkali). Results of experi- 
ments with artesian water in these and other States are generally favorable to this 
water supply. 

The question of evaporation from reservoirs has been studied at the Colorado Sta- 
tion (B. 1889, p. 51, R. 1S91,]). 50). From observations on floating and stationary 
tanks the following formula for evaporation for one day has been obtained : E =^ 0.39 
(T — t) (1-f 0.02 W), in which T is the vapor tension of the temperature of the sur- 
face of the water; t the vapor tension of the air; W the movement of the wind. The 
total observed evaporation from a tank during one hundred and lifty-six days in 

1890, was 23.30 inches; computed by the above formula, 23.74 inches. 
Measurement, DIVISION, and duty of water — Oneof themost important as well 

as one of the most difficult problems of irrigation is that of making a just distri- 
bution of water. The various devices used for this purpose have been studied by 
the Colorado {B. IS) and Wyoming Stations {B. 8). Extensive investigations at 
the Colorado Station have led to the recommendation of the overfall or sharp-crested 
weir. The Cippoletti trapezoidal weir appears to be especially commendable. Vari- 
ous instruments for giving a continuous record of the time and depth of water 
flowing over weirs are described and illustrated ( Wyo. B. 8) 

The duty of water taken as the basis of water rights in Colorado is 55 acres per 
second-foot. Observations on the Cache a la Poudre Canal No. 2 during 1890 indi- 
cated that the duty of water from April to September was 196 acres per second-foot 
{R. 1890, p. 65). Similar observations in Wyoming show that the duty of water 
varied from 93.5 to 735.3 acres per second-foot. In California aud Utah 100 acres 
per second-foot is adopted as the standard. 

The amount of irrigation best suited to different crops is discussed in Colo. B. 

1891, p. 54; S. Dak. B. 28: Wyo. B. 8. 

Seepage. — ''After a country has been irrigated for some time there are some 
changes in the regime of streams, so that these are more regular in their flow, espe- 
cially in the dry season; often they may be repeatedly drained to the last drop and 
soon after have enough to make a respectable stream. Most of this return is from 
invisible sources, or in quantities too small to measure. While an increase in the 
volume of streams is noticed in a non-irrigated country, in many of the irrigated val- 
leys the return is attributed to irrigation. * * * 

"We have not observations which will absolutely prove that this increase is due 
solely to irrigation, but the fact familiar to all irrigating countries, that land pre- 
viously dry becomes saturated and requires draining because of the seepage from 
ditches or irrigated lands of higher location, and other analogous facts, render it 
very probable that most if not all of the return observed is due to the return from 
the waters which have been applied in irrigation. * * * It is possible that irri- 
gation in the upjier valley of a river is beneficial to the lower valley by the return 
water in the season during the period of low water." 

Measurements of this seepage during a number of years indicate that in the Pou- 
dre Valley, Colorado, it is one-third of the flow of the stream. Contrary to the pre- 
vailing idea seepage does not appear to be increasing {Colo. E. 1891, p. 45). 

{Ariz. B. 3, B. 4; Cal. B. 1890, App.; Colo. B. 1, B. 9, B. 1888, p. 164, R. 1889, pp. 
56, 68, B. 16, R. 1890, pp. 58, 100, B. 13, R. 1891, p. 45; La. B. 14; Mbr. B. 1, B. 6; N. 
Mex. B. 4; S. Dak. B. 28; Wyo. B. 8.) 

Italian rye grass. — See Grasses. 

Jamestown -weed. — See Weeds. 

Japan clover. — See Lespedeza. 

Jersey cows. — See Cows, tests of dairy hrccJs. 

Jersey-red swine. — See j^/i/s. 

Jerusalem artichoke. — See Artichoke. 



EAKt. 



187 



Jerusalem corn {Sorghum vitlgarcYav.).—A non-saccharine variety of sorghuui, 
which grows 4 to 8 feet high, and is chiefly valnahle for the largo amount of grain 
which it produces. The seeds are nearly free from husk and shatter easily. At the 
Nebraska Station {B. 19) the yield of threshed seed was 49 bushels per acre. Jeru- 
salem corn is an annual and is cultivated like other sorghums. In weight of forage 
it is surpassed by many kindred plants. 
Johnson grass. — See Grasses. 
June berry. — See Service herry. 

Jute (Corchorus capsularis and C. olitorius).— An annual fiber plants a native of 
India. It requires a warm climate and moist, strong soil. It has been successfully 
grown in the Gulf States, but the want of a suitable machine for separating the 
fiber is the great obstacle which prevents the growth of the jute-fiber industry in 
this country. {Cal. B. 84, B. 89, 1890,p. 291.) 

Kaffir corn (Sorghum vulgare or AndroiJogon sorghum xar.) .—This is a kind of non- 
Baccharine sorghum similar to durra (seei?. 121). The common white variety has a 
short and stocky stalk, with short joints and very little juice. The leaves are large 
and numerous. The heads grow erect in large panicles and bear large white seeds 
which are excellent for feed, especially for poultry. 

As grown at the Kansas Station {B. 18) in an ordinary season it ripens before frost 
and gives a good yield. It suft'ers relatively little injury from winds. If retarded 
by drought the seeds are poorly developed and liable to mold. The red variety is 
somewhat taller, with slender and more juicy stalks. The seeds are red, smaller, 
and very hard and brittle. It does well on poor land and ripens a little earlier than 
the white variety {Kans. B. IS). 

In California Kaflir corn has been found to be a valuable crop, yielding several 
large cuttings of forage each season if the ground is sufiiciently moist. It is one of 
the main sources of feed for poultry in that State {Cal. R. 1890, p. 210). 

In Louisiana Kaffir corn may be planted in March or early in April and furnishes 
a large amount of excellent green fodder. On good land from 50 to 60 bushels of 
seed per acre are produced {La. B. 8, n. ser.). 

At the Nebraska Station {B. 12, B. 19) Kaffir corn is recommended as producing 
early seed and fodder. In the favorable season of 1891 this crop, planted April 29 
and harvested October 30, yielded 112^ bushels of seed per acre. 

At the Georgia Station {B. 12, B. 17) the yield per acre at three cuttings was from 
8 to 16 tons of green fodder and 2\ to 3i tons of dry fodder. These yields, however, 
•were smaller than those produced by other forage plants in the same seasons. This 
station also reports the composition of the crop at the difl'erent cuttings. 

Kaffir corn is recommended by the North Carolina Station {B. 73) as the best of the 
non-saccharine sorghums grown for forage. 

At the Alabama Canebrake Station {B. 9) on black bottom soil Kaffir corn made a 
Bhort and stocky growth and was not eaten readily by cattle. 

At the Pennsylvania Station {II. 1888, p. 43) the total crop was 5^ tons per acre, 
containing 119 pounds of digestible proteiu, 34 of fat, and 941 of carbohydrates. 
In Michigan {B. 47) Kaffir corn was inferior to silage corn for forage. 
At the New York Cornell Station {B.16) an analysis of this crop cut September 18 
when quite immature gave the following results : Water 76.05 per cent, dry matter 
23.95, protein 2.34, fat 0.41, nitrogen-free extract 11.40, fiber 8.36, ash 1.44. This 
shows a relatively large amount of protein. The growth of green fodder was, how- 
ever, relatively small. (See also 0. E. S. B. 11, p. 30). 

Kai apple (-4 6ena ca^m).— A thorny shrub from South Africa, which has been 
planted at the several California Stations, and seems to do well, though sensitive to 
the lightest frosts. It is suitable for hedges {CaJ. B, 18SS-'89, pp. 87, 110, 138. E. 1890, 
p. 237). ^ 

Kainit. — See Potash. 
Kaki. — See Persimmon. 



188 KALE. 

Kale. — A member of the cabljage group of vegetables, also called borecole, "ex(en- 
sively growu iu Europe for the table and as a food for cattle. It produces a crown 1 
of leaves, but does uot form a head." A dwarf variety is often sown in the fall, win- 
tered over like spinach, and used for greens under the name of " sprouts " or " German 
greens." This and other information is given in Mich. B. 4S, where also 9 varieties 
are described, which were planted at the station with seed obtained from Paris. 
Kale has also been planted at the New York State Station {B. 1SS2, p. 134, B. 1883, 
2). 188, B. 1884, p. 287). The leaves In different varieties are curled, cut, and varie- 
gated. 

Germination tests of kale seed are reported in N. Y. State B. 1883, pp. 69, 263 ; Ohio 
B. 1884, p. 197 ; rt. B. 1889, p. 105. 

Jersey kale is noted in Cal.B.Sl as a tall-growing collard, and is recommended 
for trial to dairymen who have moist land available. This is doubtless the same as 
the plant described in Minn. B. 1888, p. 267, under the name of cow cabbage. As 
there stated, we have in this "a variety which under special cultivation in the 
Jersey Islands has developed an immense amount of leaf-producing surface. They 
are commonly grown on rich lands to the height of 10 or 12 feet and with branches. 
One instance is recorded of the height of 16 feet being reached." 

Kansas Station, Manhattan. — Organized February 8, 1888, as a department of 
Kansas State Agricultural College, under act of Congress of March 2, 1887. The 
staff consists of the president of the college and chairman of station council, chem- 
ist, horticulturist and entomologist, agriculturist, physiologist and veterinarian, 
botanist, assistant chemist, assistant horticulturist, assistant entomologist, assist- 
ant agricultui'ist, assistant botanist, foreman of farm, and secretary. The principal 
lines of work are field experiments with crops, horticulture, diseases of plants and 
animals, feeding experiments, and entomology. Up to January 1, 1893, the station 
had published 4 annual reports and 36 bulletins. Eevenuein 1892, $1.^,000. 

Kellogg system of creaming milk. — See Creaming of milk. 

Kentucky Station, Lexington. — Organized in September, 1885, by the trustees 
of the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Kentucky; reorganized understate 
authority April, 1886; and reorganized for the second time in 1888 under act of Con- 
gress of March 2, 1887. The staff consists of the president of the college, director, 
two chemists, entomologist and botanist, assistant entomologist and botanist, vet- 
erinarian, and horticulturist. The principal lines of work are chemistry, analysis 
and insjiection of fertilizers, field exi^eriments with fertilizers and crops, horticul- 
ture, diseases of plants, entomology, and dairying. Up to January 1, 1893, the sta- 
tion had published 2 annual reports and 43 bulletins. Revenue in 1892, $18,509. 

Kerosene emulsion. — See Insecticides. 

Kidney vetch (Jnthyllis vulneraria). — This is a European leguminous plant, also 
called horned-pod clover. It has been planted on trial as a forage plant at a few 
Western stations, but no important result has been obtained. It is noted in Colo. 
B. 1890, p. 161, and contained in lists in Cal. App. to B. 1885-86, p. 98; Wyo. B. 1). 

Knot-grass. — See Weeds. 

Kohl-rabi. — '-This plant is a bulb-stalked cabbage, a native of Germany, where 
it is much cultivated both for forage and as an article of human diet. The stem of 
the kohl-rabi above ground is swollen into the form and proportions of a handsome 
symmetrical tuber" (Bans. B. 1889, p. 47). This and further descriptive matter 
accompanies an account of experimental plantations, resulting in strong recommen- 
dations of this crop for that State. The first year the kohl-rabi maintained itself 
through a drought which quite burned up the corn and when rains came developed a 
large crop. The tops were eagerly eaten by cattle at harvesting; the bulbs were 
preserved under straw and earth till spring, when they were relished by cows and 
calves. The second year the crop was 22.79 tons per acre. Directions are given for 
growing and the expense involved calculated (3.69 cents per bushel). Analyses of 



LEAF HOPPERS. 



189 



ihe 2 varieties raised ( Kaus. B. 1889, pp. 113, 116) presented the interesting result that 
» larce part of tl.e nitrogen present is non-albuunn..id. In the dry substance of the 
jurpTe variety the total nitrogen was 4.0(5 per eent, the albummoul 1.02; m the 
jreen variety 'total 3.12 per cent, albuminoid 0.85. For general analyses see Appen- 

iix. Table III' , ■■, ■, i 4.1,^ 

In Minn. B. 1888, p. 257, 4 varieties grown at that station are described and the 
vec^etable represented as not duly appreciated for the table. The growth of a p an- 
Utlon at the New York State Station is noted (i?. 188.3, p. 134). At the same sta urn 
the root system was studied {B. 1884, p. 313). The taproot was traced to a depth ot 
over 2 feet, for 14 inches through a very compact clay ; but in this and other cabbage 
plants the fibrous roots were found most numerous in the upper 8 inches, rhe pi^d- 
uct of a plantation at the Massachusetts State Station is recorded in L. 1801, p. 19b 
Germination tests of the seed are on record in N. Y. State B. 1883, p. 69; Ohro B, 
1884, p. 198; Ore. B. 2; Vt. B. 1889, p. 105. 

Lacewingfly (C/«ri/.soi>« sp.). -A small four-winged fly, the larva" of which are 
niUt"u""a inVestroying plant lice and the larva- of the plum curcuho and pear 
slug. The larva resembles that of the ladybird beetle in shape but it is difierently 
colored. The fly obtains its name from its delicate wings. {Mich. B. 1889, p.^bl, 
N.C.B.78.) 

Lactic acid, effect on churnability of cream.-Sce Churning sweet and sour cream. 
Lactocrite for testing milk.— See Milk tests. 
Lactometer.— See Milk tests. 

Ladybird beetles. -There are several genera and species of these useful little 
insects. They may be recognized by their nearly round outline, oval backs, and 
brilliant colol-s, usually being red, orange, or yellow, sometimes variously spotted 
or striped with black. They are seldom over one-quarter of an inch long, and 
usually less. There are some species of duller color, but of equally great import 
■mce Their larv* feed exclusively upon plant lice, and aid greatly m destroy- 
ino- them The larva is longer than the adult, but sometimes resembles it in its 
dirking. (Mich. B. 51; Miss. B.1891,p.34; Nehr.B.14; N. J. B. 1890, p. 504 ; A. 
C. B. 78 ; Ohio Tech. B. vol. I, 1.) 
Lambs.— See Sheep. 
Lamb's quarters.— See Weeds. 

Leaf hoppers —This name is ap]died to a numerous class of insects, the more im- 
portant of which are apple leaf hopper (Typhlocyia albopicta), barley leaf hopper 
\cicadula cAtiosa), clover leaf hopper {AgMia sanguinolenta), corn leaf hopper (let- 
tiqonia vwUipes), cranberry leaf hoppers (Athysamus striatalus, Agallia 4-punctata 
and Thamnoiettix fitchi), grape leaf or vine hopper {Tuphlocgha ritis), and rose leaf 
hopper (T. rosw). These insects are so much alike that a single description will sut- 
fice for all. Thev are about one-tenth of an inch in length and mostly of a yellowish 
or greenish color. The progeny is abundant and the young resemble the adult, ex- 
cept in size and the lack of wings. They all feed by puncturing the leaf and sucking 
the sap. When abundant they will cause the leaf to change color and appear as 
thouo-h scalded. The above-mentioned species infest not only the plants from which 
they^obtain their names, but often quite a number of other kinds of plants. When 
troublesome they may be destroyed by spraying kerosene emulsion over infested 
plants Pyrethrum and tobacco infusion are also suggested. If the plants can be 
covered with a tent or are in a house the fumes of pyrethrum or tobacco will destroy 
them Many may be killed by displaying torches at night, by which they may be 
attracted to vessels containing kerosene. Another method is to hold a large cloth, 
saturated with tar or kerosene, on one side of the infested plant while the leaf hop- 
pers are driven from the other side. They are easily disturbed and in this way many 
mav be killed. 



190 



LEEK. 



(Ark. B. 18S9,p. 144; Colo. B. 15; Ga. B. 7; Iowa B. 13, B.15; Ky.B. 1889, p. 12; 
Mass. Hatch B. 18SS, p. 21; N. J. B. E; N. Mex. B.2, B. 3, B. 5; Ohio B. vol U, 6, B. 

ISSS, p. 152, 

Leek {Allium porrum).—A plantation of 2 varieties of the leek is reported in K Y. 
State B. 1883, p. 184, and one of 7 varieties in B. 1884, p. 202. Most of the latter 
closely resembled each other. Germination tests of leek seed are reported in Ohio 
B. 1885, p. 168; Ore. B. 2; Vt. B. 1889, p. 105. 

Leguminous plants (Leguminosa').—A large class of plants distinguished by the 
fruit, which is a pod with two valves, the seeds being borne at the inner suture only. 
Under this name are embraced some 7,000 species of trees, shrubs, and herbs, in- 
cluding many cultivated plants, such as peas, cowpeas, beans, alfalfa, clover, 
vetches, and lupines. As far as they have been under investigation at the stations 
these plants are treated in this work under their respective names, but attention will 
be called here to one characteristic of many leguminous plants which makes them 
of the highest value to agriculture. Examination of the roots of many species 
has revealed the presence of gall-like swellings, known as root tubercles. These 
must be distinguished from the root galls produced by nematodes (Ala. College B. 9, 
n. ser.). Much study of the root tubercles has been made, especially in Europe. As 
they grow under ground and are opaque it is very difficult to determine just how 
they are formed. It is now generally agreed that they are not normal products of 
the plant, but are formed under the influence of microorganisms living in the soil. 
It is probable but not altogether certain that the microorganisms causing the root 
tubercles are bacteria. These microorganisms are most abandant in soils in which 
legumes have pre viously been grown, and it seems probable that there are different 
species of bacteria which cause the tubercles on the roots of the different species 
of leguminous plants. 

Al)out ten years ago Prof. Atwater made some experiments at Wesleyan University, 
Middletowu, Connecticut, which showed that peas acquired large quantities of 
nitrogen from the air. Other experimenters, especially HeUritgel in Germany, 
pointed out that the acquisition of nitrogen by leguminous plants was connected 
with the bacteria and root tubercles. Much work on this subject has since been done, 
and there seems to be no doubt that through the agency of the microorganisms 
connected with the root tubercles the nitrogen of the atmosphere is made available to 
many speci es of leguminous plants. These discoveries are of the highest importance 
to agricult ure. They show that by the growth of leguminous plants the farmer may 
obtain from the boundless stores of nitrogen in the air a supply which will enable 
him to raise more abundant and nutritious crops and produce meat which will con- 
tain a larger proportion of the elements (protein) that make muscle and give vigor 
for work. Observations at the Connecticut Storrs Station (B. 1889, p. 67) showed 
that a large proportion of the nitrogen in clover, cowpeas, vetches, and other legumes 
IS contained in the roots and stubble. Such plants maytherefore be grown for forage 
and afterward plowed under to manure the soil for wheat and other crops. The 
liberal useof leguminous plants for forage and green manuring can not be too strongly 
urged. 

For accounts of inquiries on root tubercles and the acquisition of atmospheric 
nitrogen m this country see Conn. Storrs B. 5, B. 1SS9, p. 67, B. 1890, p. 12 B 1891 
p. 17; Pa. B. ISSS, p. 134, B. 1889, p. 177. Summaries of European investigations on 
this subject are given in E. S. B., vol. II, p 686, vol. Ill, pp. 56, 64, 116, 331 334 336 
418, 551, 732, 826, 914, vol. IV, pp. 206, 376, 377, 502, 504, 506. ' ' 

Lemon grass (Andropogon sp.).— An East Indian grass, the source of a lemon- 
scented ethereal oil, exported under the name of grass oil. It was found to be hardy i 
at the Berkeley Station, California (B. 1SS5->S6, p. 129), though somewhat stunted - 
out of doors, and it grew luxuriantly in gardens at Santa Barbara. It was thought ' 
that It would be successful all along the coast of Southern California. • 



LESPEDEZA. 



191 



Lemon (Citrus medica var. limonum).— Teat plantations are noted in Cal. R. 1890, 
pp. 294, 300; N. Mex. B. 2. In Cal. Sup. B. lS78-'79, p. 60, the results of acid determina- 
tions upon 12 samples of several varieties, made with "standardized" solution of 
caustic potash, are recorded. Physical analyses and acid and sugar determinations 
of lemons are given in Cal. li. 1S80, p. 42 (1 sample), B. 1882, p. 63 (1 sample), B. 39 (3 
samples), B, 1890, p. 106, B. 93 (3 samples). See Api>endix, TaUe III. 

In Cal. B. 1890, p. 106 is reported part of a thorough investigation of the food and 
fertilizing constituents of citrus fruits. Ash analyses of 2 samples are there given, 
and a calculation of the fertilizing ingredients consumed by crops of 1,000 and 20,000 
pounds. The data available were not regarded sufficiently complete for general 
conclusions, but the acid percentage, for the Eureka lemon at least, seemed to be 
unusually high and the sugar percentage relatively large, points favorable to Cali- 
fornia lemons. But very great difterences were found to exist in the proportion 
of rind to flesh and extractable juice. For an argument in favor of utilizing unsala- 
ble limes and lemons in the manufacture of citric acid see Limes. 

Lentil {Lens esculenta) .-The lentil is noted in N. Mex. B. 6 as furnishing seeds 
"which are of a greenisli yellow color, a sorry substitute for beans, but good for sonps,^^ 
and a "fodder or hay made from the vines, when cut and cured in their early growth" 
which is "highly relished by stock, and for milch cows one of the best." In the soils 
and climate of that locality it is said to make a large crop of vines and fine seed. It 
appears also to have yielded well at the Colorado Station {B. 1890, p. 21). Germi- 
nation tests of the seed are noted in Colo. B. 1888, p. 38; S. C. B. 1888, p. 85. 

Lespedeza (Lespedeza striata) [also called Japan clover] .—An annual forage plant, 
native in Asia, and but little known in the United States prior to 1860. Since that 
time it has widely spread throughout the Southern States and has now become nat- 
uralized as far north as the Ohio River. Jn the South it is preeminently the plant 
for summer pasturage on sterile clay soils. It will grow where there is not suffi- 
cient lime to sustain melilotus. For such soils it is valuable as a renovator. Its 
growth on poor, dry soil is low and bushy. On rich, moist soil it attains a height of 
15 to 20 or even 24 inches, and yields a heavy crop of hay. 

Composition.— The pasturage afforded by lespedeza is very nutritious. The hay 
is rich in albuminoids and is' relished by stock. The composition of hay from les- 
pedza grown in Alabama is given as follows: Water, 9.13; ash, 4.11; protein, 13.70; 
fiber, 21.55; nitrogen free extract, 47.52; fat, 3.99 per cent (O. E. S. B. 11). 

Culture.— Lespedeza is a tender plant, easily killed by late freezing in the spring 
and by early frosts in the fall. It has not succeeded in the North (Iowa B. 11) and 
made a growth of only 2 or 3 inches in Nevada {Xev. B. 1890, p. 14). It failed in Cal- 
ifornia. It should be sown in the spring after danger from freezing is past. The 
land may be thoroughly prepared or simply scarified. Sow about 12 pounds of seed 
and harrow in. Tlie seed is expensive, costing from $4 to $6 per bushel of 25 to 30 
pounds. If a heavy crop the first year is not important, 6 pounds of seed will suffice 
and produce an abundance of seed ibr the second season. Lespedeza reseeds without 
care unless too closely pastured. The growing of lespedeza seed for sale is profita- 
ble, the yield being about 5 bushels per acre, aud the hay remaining after threshing 
is worth about half as much as when cut for hay alone. To secure the heaviest crop 
of seed thin sowing is advisable. Lespedeza is never troublesome in cultivated fields 
as it is easily subdued by the plow. It is aggressive in pastures and meadows and 
runs out the grasses, hence it is best sown alone or with some winter-growing plant. 
Manuring.— On poor ridge land at the Mississippi Station in 1888 a plat ferti- 
lized with 200 pounds of plaster yielded 4,380 pounds of hay per acre, while the un- 
fertilized plat afforded a growth too low for mowing; 100 pounds of cotton-seed 
meal, 100 pounds of acid phosphate, and 30 pounds of muriate of potash, gave the 
largest yield. 

Harvesting. — For a hay crop lespedeza must have good land, which should be 
made perfectly smooth. Set the mower to cut very close to the ground. Lespedeza 



192 LETTUCE. 

requires very little time in curing, and too much stm will cause the leaves to fall off.' 
The hay is easily handled and is of an attractive green color. 

(Ala. College B. 6; Cal. R. 1890, p. 218; Iowa B. 11; La. R. 1S91, p. 11; Miss. B'^ 
20; R. 1888, p. 31, R. 1890, p. 31, Neb. B. 6; N. C. B. 70, B. 73; lex. College B. 3.) 

Lettuce (Lactuca saliva). — Tests of varieties are recorded as follows: Ala. Cane^ 
brale B. 1; Colo. R. 1889, j). 99; Ky. B. 32, B. 38; La. B. 3, 2d ser.; Md. R. 1889, p. 60; , 
Mass. Hatch B. 7; Mich. B. 67, B. 70, B. 79; Minn. R. 1888, p. 260; Neir. B. 15; N. , 
Y. State R. 1882, p. 136, R. 1883, p. 188, R. 1884, p. 214, R. 1885, p. 132, R. 1886, p. 229, R. . 
1887, p. 326, R. 1888, p. 122, R. 1889, p. 333; Ohio B. 43; Ore. B. 15 ; Pa. R. 1888, p. 146, . 
R. 1889, p. 173, B. 10, B. 14; Tenn. B. vol. V, 1; Utah B. 3, B.12. The test at the 
New York State Station in 1885 included 147 nominal varieties, of which 87 appeared i 
to be distinct. These are very fully described and are classified, following Vilmorin i 
under the three heads of cabbaj^e, cos, and cutting lettuce, of which the last was 
regarded purely artilicial. English and foreign synonyms are given with. each name 
and in an index. The next year {N. Y. State R. 1886, p. 229) the test covered 70 new 
names, 60 of the so-called varieties being from Germany and Italy. 

Various cultural questions have been somewhat investigated. At the New York 
State Station {R. 1884, p. 307) the rooting habit of lettuce was investigated and found 
to be strongly downward. A comparative test of mature and immature seed {R. 1885, 
p. 137) showed no great difference in the resulting crops. In Mass. Hatch B. 4, direc- 
tions are given for growing lettuce indoors in such a way as to escape mildew, and 
remedies for the latter are also prescribed. 

In Ohio B. 4S full directions for greenhouse culture are given, with a list of 40 
varieties, characterized in groups and to some extent individually. 

In Mass. Hatch B. 16, after a general summary of results in electroculturo, an 
account is given of experiments there made in growing lettuce under the influence 
of dynamic electricity. "Everything considered, the results were in favor of elec- 
tricity. Those plants subjected to the greatest electrical influence were hardier, 
healthier, larger, had a better color, and were much less affected by mildew than 
the others." (See also Electroculture.) 

Germination tests are reported in Me. R. 1888, p. 139, R. 1889, p. 150 ; Mich. R. 
1889, p. 18, B. 57; N. Y. State R. 1883, p. 60, 69; Ohio R.1884, p. 199, R. 1885, pp. 163, 
176; Ore. B. 2; Pa. R. 1889, p. 164; S. C. R. 1888, p. 67; Ft. R. 1889, p. 105. 

Lettuce rot {Botrytis vulgaris). — Those who raise lettuce in greenhouses for winter 
market, or in hotbeds for early spring trade, are greatly troubled by their plants 
rotting before they are half grown. In most cases this is due to the above-men- 
tioned fungus. Its preseuce on a plant is indicated by a dark-colored decayed spot 
near the ground. This spreads rapidly, involving the stalk and bases of the lower 
leaves, drying them up. As the disease progresses the yonng, tender leaves of the 
head are attacked, and, decaying, form a slimy mass. If undisturbed, the fungus 
filaments will soon send their fruiting branches to the surface, where many spores 
are formed to spread the disease to other plants in the bed. From the nature of this 
crop, fungicides containing copper can not be employed, and the only means for 
preventing the spread of the fungus is the removal of diseased plants before they 
can form their spores. Careful cultivation, so as to secure a vigorous, rapid growth 
of plants is helpful, and a low temperature will prevent the rapid germination of 
any spores which may find their way to the plants. Lettuce will grow vigorously 
in a temperature in which the spores of the fungus will make but little progress, 
and careful attention to this will aid in saving the crop. {Mass. State B. 40.) 

Lima beau. — See Bean. 

Lima-bean mildew {Phytophthora phaseoli). — This disease is of comparatively re. 
cent discovery (Conn. State Sta. R. 1889, p. 167). It first shows itself as a spot hav- 
ing a white, woolly apiiearance on one side of the unripe pods. Tliis spot extends rap- 
idly during damp weather, penetrating the pod and appearing on both sides; the pod 
is soon covered with a white, thick, woolly coating. At the same time the pod begins to 



LINDEN. 



193 



decay and finally becomes shriveled and black. The black appearance is not due to 
this fungus, but" to another, for which it has prepared the way. The mildew does 
not confine itself to the pods, but is found on the young shoots, distorting and check- 
ing their growth. Sometimes it is found upon the leaves and leaf stalks. So far it 
has been confined to Lima beans, but may l)e found on others. It is recommended 
that all infected vines and pods be burned to prevent the spread. No doubt the use 
of some of the common fungicides would tend to repress its attacks, though tests are 
not reported. (Conn. Staie M. 1SS9, p. 167, II. 1S90, p. 97.) 

Lime.— Lime is an essential constituent of all good soils and a prominent ingre- 
dient of the ash of all agricultural plants. It is extensively used as a soil amend- 
ment and is especially valuable for the renovation of worn soils. Like gypsum, its 
action as a fertilizer is not well understood, but it probably acts indirectly, render- 
ing available to a certain extent the mineral elements of plant food— potash and 
pirosphoric acid— but being most effective in reducing to assimilable form the inert 
organic nitrogenous matter of the soil (see Comports). 

Lime, which is understood to mean quicklime (CaO), is prepared by burning lime- 
stone, shell, or corals until their carbonic acid is driven oft'. Lime of course varies 
according to the material from which it is prepared. Good limestone contains 90 to 
98 per cent of calcium carbonate with small amounts of magnesia, silica, and iron, 
and when properly burned will yield a practically pure, rich lime; magnesium lime- 
stone, or dolomite, contains carljonate of lime varying from 20 to 80 per cent and car- 
bonate of magnesia varying from 10 to 60 per cent, besides admixtures of silica, iron, 
and alumina, and yields a poor lime, which slakes slowly, but which has been used 
with good results as a soil improver {N. J. R. 1SS2, p. 40) ; oyster shells contain frOm 
85 to 90 per cent of carbonate of lime and yield a good lime. The weight and bulk 
of different kinds of lime before and after slaking are thus given in N.J. B. 1882, 
p. 41: "A bushel of good stone lime weighs 93 pounds; when slaked it will measure 
nearly 3 bushels, each of which will weigh about 45 pounds. A bushel of unslaked 
oyster-shell lime weighs 60 pounds; when slaked it will measure something over 2 
bushels, each of which will weigh 40 pounds. A bushel of magnesia stone lime weighs 
80 pounds; when slaked it measures about 2 bushels, each of which will weigh 55 

pounds." 

A product of some agricultural importance is the refuse from gas works known as 
gas lime. This material is impregnated with sulphur compounds which are injurious 
to vegetation and it should be allowed to weather before being applied to crops. For 
composition see Appendix, Table IV. 

For eftect of lime on mechanical condition of soils see Clay. For limekiln ashes 

see Ashes. 

(Ala. College B. 3, n. ser.; Conn. State R. ISSO, p. GO, R. 1882, p. 50; Md. R. 1891, p. 
304; N. J. R. 1881, p. 30, R. 1SS2, p. 46.) 

Limes {Citrus medica var.).— This fruit is mentioned as planted with other citrus 
fruits in Cal. R. 1890, p. 300; N. Mex. B. 2. In Cal. B. 39 a physical analysis and an 
acid determination are shown. The acid percentage was 6.86, nearly the same as 
that of the Lisbon variety of lemons, ascertained at the same time, but the per- 
centage of juice and pulp was considerably higher than that of either of two lemon 
varieties examined. 

In Cal. R. 1885-'86, p. 77, occurs an argument in favor of utilizing unsalable limes 
and lemons in the manufacture of citric acid. The limited market for lime juice seem- 
ing to be supplied, the preparation of citric acid in the portable form of citrate of 
lime is recommended, witii which should be combined, when feasible, the manufac- 
ture of the essential oil of lemons or of oranges. A process of manufacture is de- 
scribed. 

Linden {Tilia spp.).— European lindens are named in the tree lists of several sta- 
tions, and in Minn. B. 24 it is noted that several varieties had been tried at that 
station and found too tender. For the American linden see Basswood. 
2094— No. 15 13 



194 LINSEED MEAL. 



Linseed meal. — The liuseed meal used in feeding is the ground press cake remain- 
ing after the extraction of linseed oil from flaxseed. The old process of removing 
the oil from the seed was not as thorough as the now process, so that there is con- 
siderable difference between the composition of ol<l-process and new-process linseed 
meal (See Ajypendix, Tables I and II). The new-process meal contains less than half 
as much fat (oil) and rather more protein than tlie old-process meal. 

Linseed meal for milk and butter production. — Old and new-process linseed 
meal were compared at the Massachusetts State Station {B. 38, R. 1S90, p. 15) as to 
the quantity and quality of milk produced and the cost. The old-process meal was 
bought at $27 and the new-process at $26 per ton. The value of the fertilizing in- 
gredients was somewhat higher iu the new-process meal, making the net cost of food 
a little lower than for old-process meal. In general the yield of milk and the per- 
centage of fat in the milk was higher on the old-process meal. 

For the result of a compaj'ison of old-process linseed meal with cotton-seed meal 
and gluten meal by the same station {B. 41) see Cottonseed meal for milk and butter 
production. 

Two comparisons of new-process linseed meal with corn meal reported by the Wis- 
consin Station {B. 1885, p. 97) gave opposite results, one showing little, if any advan- 
tage, and the other a decided advantage for linseed meal over corn meal. A comparison 
of liuseed meal and wheat bran at the same station {B. 1886, p. ISO) indicated that 
pound for pound the linseed meal gave slightly the larger milk production, but as- 
suming bran to cost $12 and liuseed meal $25 per ton, bran was much the cheaper 
food. 

The Iowa Station {B. 14) observed that ''the substitution of bran and oil (linseed) 
meal for half the amount of corn meal resulted iu a marked increase in both quantity 
and quality of milk, the increase in quality being still more than the increase in 
quantity." 

In a comparison of linseed meal, corn meal, and bran, the New York State Station 
yB. 1887, p. 15) noticed that an increase in tlie amount of albuminoids fed was favorable 
to increase in both milk yield and live weight; that the albumiuoidsin linseed meal 
seemed to be more especially favorable to increase in live weight, and those in the 
bran to increase in milk yield. In other words, this experiment indicated wheat 
bran to be the better of the two for milk production. 

The Iowa Station {B. 16) made an experiment to ascertain how much linseed meal 
might be fed, without injury, and found that with mature cows 8 pounds per day 
might be fed, provided the cows were accustomed to it gradually; and that no ill 
effects resulted from feeding large amounts of linseed meal to pregnant cows. (N, Y. 
State B. 1889, p. 198; Vt. B. 1890, p. 88.) 

Linseed meax for beef production. — As mentioned above, New York State Sta- 
tion {B. 1887, p. 15) found that linseed meal was more favorable to beef production 
than to milk. Linseed meal was fed in a ration with other food to steers at the Massa- 
chusetts State Station (B.40). 

See also Cattle, feeding for beef and for groivth. 

Liver flukes {Distomum spp.). — These parasites infest the livers of cattle, sheep, 
and goats, the bile ducts being the chief seat of activity. Their bodies are flat, pale 
brown, irregular, three-fourths to one and one fourth inches long, and one-sixth to 
one-half an inch wide. A portion of their life cycle is passed in the body of a fresh- 
water snail, and on this account they are more abundant in low-lying localities. The 
eggs are carried from the bile duct into the intestines and pass from these in the excre- 
ment. On falling into the water the eggs hatch and seek the snails, from which the 
flukes finally emerge to fasten on grass or to float in drinking water, whence they are 
taken into the bodies of animals. If present in small numbers no serious effect is pro- 
duced on the health of the animal. If abundant, serious damage results, as theyob- 
s'truct the flow of bile and the result is a jaundiced apiiearance of the animal through 
the presence of bile in the blood. This is continued until the ducts become thickened 



1 



LOUISIANA STATIONS. 195 

and are coated ■\\'itli hard, gritty ciusts. The bile uudergoes a change and the circu- 
lation of the blood is retarded. This results in a dropsical affection either of the ab- 
domen or of the jaw (called "water jaw"). Extreme debilitj- and emaciation, fol- 
lowed often by profuse diarrhea, end the life of the animal. If examined tlie abdo- 
men or swollen jaw will be found filled with a watery lluid, and the liver will be 
soft or almost rotted. Eggs of the flukes may be found in the gall bladder, as well 
as numerous flukes in the bile ducts. 

There appears to be no medical treatment of value, although tonics will often give 
temporary improvement. A liberal use of salt seems beneficial. Cattle having ac- 
cess to salt marshes do not seem to be troubled with flukes to any serious degree. 
Pure water is an important factor in preventive treatment. 

Stock should not have access to stagnant pools in regions known to be infected. 
{Ark. B. 1SS9, p. 100; La. B. 10, 2d ser.; Tex. B. IS.) 

A species described in Tex. B. IS under tlie name of Bistominn texanum is probably 
the same as Distomiim inagiiuni Bassi. 

Locusts {Caloptenun spp.). — See also Cicada. Locusts or "grasshoppers" are so 
Avell known as to require no description for their identification. Ordinarily they 
are not sufliciently abundant to cause any seriou§ injury. However, the migratory 
ones, commonly called Kocky Mountain locusts, do occasionally become so numerous 
as to destroy every green thing in their path. Sometimes the other species become 
troublesome, but not often. Tliey may be killed by scattering the following bait 
wherever they are abundant: Bran 40 pounds, middlings 15 pounds, sirup 2 gallons, 
and arsenic 20 pounds. Mix Avith soft water. They eat this mixture greedily and of 
course are poisoned. Care must be taken that no domestic animal has access to the 
places where this mixture is spread. Paris green or kerosene-emulsion sprays may 
be used. Where present in great abundance the "'hopper-dozer" is the best means 
for combating them. This implement is made of sheet iron 8 or 10 feet long, turned up 
an inch in front and a foot behind, with pieces soldered in the ends. Hooks are placed 
in front by which it may be drawn over the ground. If the ground be rough, run- 
ners 1 or 2 inches high are advisable. Into this a layer of tar or kerosene and water 
one-half inch deep is placed and the machine drawn over the infested place. The 
grasshoppers will jump into the tar or kerosene and be quickly killed. This size 
may be draAvn by two men or boys; larger ones may be made to be drawn by horses. 
Plowing after the eggs are laid will cover them so deeply as to prevent hatching or 
the emergence of the young from the ground. {loiva B. 14, B. 15; Minn. B. S, B. 17, 
B., 1SS8, p. SOo; N. J. B. K.) 

Locust trees. — The black or yellow locust (Bohinia piseudacacia) "is admired for 
its racemes of pretty white flowers and graceful foliage," and its wood is valued, 
but it has been extensively killed by a borer. It is noted in Minn. B. 24 as "too ten- 
der and uncertain over most of this State, and too liable to attacks of borers to war- 
rant its general planting anywhere." In sheltered situations southward in the 
State it has met with some success. This and the honey locust {Glediischia triacan- 
thos) were planted at the South Dakota Station (B. ISSS, p. 19, B. 12), but no imjior- 
tant results have been reported. " Two or three species " of locust besides the honey 
locust are noted in Ala. B. 2, n. ser. Attention otherwise given to the locust has re- 
lated to the pests of the first-mentioned species. 

Loudon purple. — See Insecticides. 

Louisiana Stations. — The three stations in Louisiana are organized as a depart- 
ment of the Louisiana State University and Mechanical College, under act of Con- 
gress of March 2, 1887. They have the same governing board and director. 

Sugar expruimkxt station, Audubon Park, Xew Orleans, organized in October, 
1885, by the Sugar Planters' Association. Tlie staff consists of the president of the 
college, director, assistant director, two chemists, sugar-maker, farm manager, and 
secretary. The princiiial lines of work are chemistry, field experiments with fertll" 
izers and crops, horticulture, sugar-making, drainage, and irrigation. 



196 LUCERN. ^ 

State experiment station, Baton Rouge, organized in January, 1886, by the State 
bureau of agriculture. The staff consists of the president of the college, director, 
assistant director, clieniist, assistant chemist, botanist, veterinarian, entomologist, 
horticulturist, farm manager, secretary, and treasurer. The principal lines of work 
are chemistry, field experiments with crops, horticulture, diseases of plants and 
animals, and entomology. 

North Louisiana experiment station, Calhoun, organized in April, 1888, under ■ 
act of Congress of March 2, 1887. The staff consists of the president of the college, " 
director, assistant director, chemist, geologist, farm manager, and superintendent of 
stock. The principal lines of work are field experiments with fertilizers and crops. 

Up to January 1, 1893, the three stations had published 4 annual reports and 47 
bulletins. Revenue in 1892, $34,900. 

Lucern. — See Alfalfa. 

Lumpy ja^wr. — See Actinomycosis. 

Lung diseases. — The principal disease affecting the lungs of hogs is inflammation 
of the lungs, due to exposure in inclement weather. Careful attention to the feed- 
ing, dieting, and comfort of the animal will in most cases effect a cure. 

The principal disease of the lungs of sheep is one caused by minute, threadlike 
worms. The lambs become infected and the Avorms continue to live and increase, 
not only in the lungs but in the alimentary canal as well. Preventive measures 
are best employed. If known to be present in a flock, wean the lambs early and 
keep them in separate pastures provided with pure water. The symptoms are a dry, 
husky cough, increased respiration, irregular feeding, and discharge from nose and 
eyes. If the nasal discharge be examined from time to time the parasites may be 
found in it. The worms are 1 to 2 inches long and of a whitish color. If the lungs of 
a dead sheep present a liver-like appearance and sink when thrown into water, this 
parasite may be looked for in little clusters throughout the lung cavities. Inhalation 
of chlorine gas or sulphur fumes is recommended as a treatment for this parasite 
(ia. B. 10, M ser.). 

Lupines (Lnpinus sjip.). — A large genus of leguminous herbs or little shrubs, with 
terminal or axillary racemes of showy flowers. A number of species are grown for 
ornament, i The three species commonly grown for forage are the white {Lnpinus al- 
ius), the yellow (L. luteus), and the blue {L. hirsutus) lupines. These plants are 
bushy and somewhat woody, and are generally too coarse for fodder, though used in 
some countries for sheep. They contain a bitter compound not relished by stock. 
They are among the plants which collect nitrogen from the air and are valuable for 
green manuring. {Conn. Storrs B. 5, B. 6.) 

At the Massachusetts State Station {B. 1890, p. 172) it has been found that when 
lupines are plowed under the first of August, a month afterwards the soil can be 
worked for seeding down grasses or winter crops. 

Colo. B. 12 contains brief descriptions of the native lujiines {Lnpinus argenteus and 
var. argophyllus). 

In California {R. 1S90, p. 242) the sand lupine {Lupinus formosns), a large low bush 
with purple flowers, is a troublesome weed which extends its long, tough rootstocks 
in every direction, and is difiicult to extirpate. 

For analyses of white and yellow lupines see 0. E. S. B. 11. 

Lysimeter. — The lysimeter is essentially a rain gauge filled with soil and is used 
to measure the amount of water which percolates or passes through a soil. In con- 
nection with the ordinary rain gauges it should serve to show also the evaporation 
from the soil. Lysimeters Avere first constructed in 1796 by Dalton in England. The 
first instruments were crude affairs, but considerable improvement has been made 
in their construction, especially by American investigators. The object sought after 
in eA'ery case has l>een to approximate as closely as possible inside the lysimeter the 
same conditions which obtain in the surrounding soil. To secure this end unusual 
l^ains are often taken to force down the lysimeter box into the soil without in any way 



MAINE STATION. 



197 



disturbing the iuclosed earth (see special report by Levi Stockbridge on investiga 
tious with the lysimeter, etc., at the Massachusetts Agricultural College, 1879, and A. 
r. state E. 1SS2,1).U). 

A decided disadvantage coniniou to all the older forms of lysimeters is thus stated 
by Dr. Johnson {Com>. State R. ISSO, p. 95) : ''The very fact that a stratum of soil is 
undermined for collecting the water that percolates through it decidedly affects per- 
colation and evaporation-nsually diminishes the percolation and increases evapora- 
tion by breaking the continuity of the porous earth, which, when continuous, sucks 
down Water from the surface when this is the wetter, and sucks up water from the 
subsoil when that is the wetter, thus limiting the movement of the water ot the soil 
within a narrower range than it naturally w^ould have." 

This statement was confirmed in actual practice at the New York State Station. 
It was found {R. 1SS7, p. 113) that " the earth within the lysimeter became abnor- 
mally dry in timesof drought, and ontheadveutof rain absorbed more water than it 
wouid if not thus isolated^ The upward movement of the soil water in fair weather 
beino- restricted, the soluble soil constituents washed downward faster and appeared 
in th° drainage water in greater proportion than was the case under normal condi- 
tions " As a means of approaching the conditions w^hich prevail in natural soil, an 
instrument was constructed which differed from the ordinary form of lysimeter in 
beiu<- provided with an artlHcial water table, which is kept at a constant height by 
the chilly addition of sufhcient water to make up the loss from evaporation. It is 
claimed for this lysimeter that it furnishes not only a measure of percolation, but 
also an approximately correct daily record of soil evaporation. "The conditions 
within this lysimeter differ from those in the outside soil in the height of the water 
table being constant. But by providing lysimeters of various depths and by noting 
the fluctuations in the height of the natural water table, a fair estimate may be formed 
of the movements of water in the natural soil." 

For details of construction see Ind. R. 1888, p. 21; N. T. State B. 1888, p. 187. ^ ^ 
luvesti'^ations with these instruments have not as yet been fruitful of decisive 
results Johnson concludes {Conn. State B. 1880, p. 95) from the investigations of 
Stockbrid.-e, Sturtcvant, and others, that with a rainfall of 26 to 44 inches the per- 
colation will amount to 5 to 10 inches. At the New York State Station the percola- 
tion through the improved lysimeters described above varied during the months 
of June-September, 1889, from 24 to 37 per cent of the rainfall. The percolation 
through the old-style lysimeters during the entire year varied from 38 to 44 percent 
of the rainfall, and during the growing season, May-September, from 14 to 23 per 

^'Tc'on". Slate R. 1880, p. 91; Ind B. 1888, p. 21; Xehr. B. 6; N. Y. State B. 1, B. 
1882, p. 14, B. 1883, p. 31, B. 1884, p. 347, B. 1885, p. 293, B. 1886, p. 326, B. 1887, p. 
lis, B. 1888, p. 313, B. 1890, p. 390.) 

Magnolia {MaqnoUa spp.).— Brief notes are given in Ala. College B.2, n. ser., on 
the ornamental and useful characters of the magnolias. The wood is generally soft 
and not well adapted to cabinetwork, but)fthat of M. acuminata, the cucumber tree, 
is used for pump logs and for making wooden bowls. An investigation of the fuel 
value of the wood and bark of M. gyandljtora is recorded in Ga. B. 3, with general 
ash analysis, having especial reference to the manurial value of the ash. 
For partial analysis, see Appendix, Table V. 

Maine Station, Orono.— Organized under State authority March 3, 1885, and 
reorganized under act of Congress October 1, 1887, as a department of the State 
College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts. The statf consists of the president of 
the college, director, agriculturist, botanist and entomologist, meteorologist, veter- 
inarian, two chemists, horticulturist, assistant botantist and entomologist, assistant 
horticulturist, foreman of farm, and stenographer and clerk. Its principal lines of 
work are field experiments with fertilizers, crops, vegetables, and fruits; diseases 
of plants; digestibility of feeding stuffs; feeding experiments with milch cows and 



198 MAIZE. 

pigs; ami dairying. Up to January 1, 1893, the station had issued 81 annual reports 
and 30 bulletins. Iveveuue in 1892, $1.5,353. 

Maize. — See Corn. 

Malt sprouts. — See Appendix, Tables I and II. 

Mammitis [also called Garget, or Inflammation of the uddei']. — A disease of the 
udder common in cows wliich are heavily fed at the time of calving. Allowing the 
milk to remain too long in the udder is a frequent cause of mammitis. The symp- 
toms are swelling of the milk glands, pain in the udder, and fever. The flow of 
milk is decreased and the cow evinces pain during milking. If not relieved ab- 
scesses may form, or a portion of the udder may lose its power of secretion. 

The milk should be drawn frequently and hot fomentations applied to the udder, 
which should be frequently and carefully rubbed with the hand. Some soothing 
ointment should be rubbed on the udder. The following formula may be used; 
8 ounces of vaseline, and 3 ounces each of extract of belladonna, gum camphor, and 
extract of henbane. If the gland becomes hard, the following ointment may be 
used: 1 dram each of iodine and iodide of potassium, with 4 ounces of vaseline. To 
reduce the fever a purgative of Epsom salts may be given. The diet should be 
light. {La. B. 10, M ser.) 

Mangel ■wurzels. — For feeding trials see Pigs. For composition see Appendix, 
Tables land II. 

Manure. — Manure, according to Harris, is anything containing an element or ele- 
ments of plant food, which, if the soil needed it, would, if supplied in sufficient 
quantity and in an available condition, produce, according to soil, season, climate, 
and variety, a maximum crop. 

The fertilizing materials comprehended in this definition may be conveniently 
classed in three groups: 

(1) Commercial fertilizers (see Fertilizers). 

(2) Farm manures {see Barnyard manure and Green manuring). 

(3) Soil amendments or improvers (see Ashes, Gypsum, Lime, Marl, Peat, etc.). 
Maple sugar. — In Vt. B. 25 preliminary information is given respecting the United 

States Government bounty upon maple and other sugars reaching a certain standard 
of purity, together with a report on investigations on maple sugar. Sugar testing 90° 
or over by polariscope commands a bounty of 2 cents per ponnd ; sugar testing between 
80° and 90°, If cents. The polariscope is explained, but this instrument not being 
available for farm use, methods of approximatetesting by the hydrometer and by the 
thermometer are described, the latter being preferred as safest, when an accurate 
thermometer is intelligently used. The main question was how maple sirup must 
be handled in order to make a sugar testing 80°, and extensive experiments were con- 
ducte'd in sugaring off sirups. A poor sirup requires more heat to reach this test 
than a good one, and it was found that to make a sugar testing 80° a first-run sirup 
should be treated to 235° F., the general run of good quality sirup to 235°, and the 
later runs to 238°. From the last ri^ns a sugar testing 80° cannot be made. 
Large numbers of samples were sent to the station, generally of ordinary 
grades, most of which tested over 80°, a few over 90°, and one even as high 
as 96°. The question is discussed whether it is desirable to gain the highest bountj^, 
i. e., for sugar testing 90°. Since the amount of sugar decreases as the standard 
rises it would pay only when one can be sure of a correspondingly high price for the 
high-test sugar. The subject of sirup making is also discussed, and data are given 
for deciding whether one can more profitably make sirup or make sugar and gain 
the bounty. 

In Vt. B. 30 the results of the bounty after one year are discussed. It appeared 
from the returns that 2,,328,8t6 pounds of sugar were weighed and sampled for the 
bounty, of which 82,237 pounds tested over 90°, 1,939,339 between 80° and 90°, and 
the remainder below 80°, seven-eighths of the amount thus being entitled to the 



MARL. 199 

higher or lower bonuty. The aggregate bounty for the State was $35,094.88. It 
appeared iu general that only those who made some 2,000 pounds of sugar took the 
steps necessary to secure the bounty. The '' relative prolit of sugar and sirup" is 
discussed. 

Maple trees. {Acer spp.).— The hard or sugar maple (A. saccharinum, according to 
recent authority properly A. iarhatnm) has received considerable attention as a 
source of sugar, and as a shade and timber tree. In the opinion of the Iowa Station 
{B. 16) "as a combined shade and ornamental tree a well-grown hard maple has no 
superior." In Minn. B. 24 it is described as "very hardy over most of the State in 
heavy, rich lands, when grown in forests, and forming one of our most valuable tim- 
ber and fuel woods." It does well as a street or lawn tree southward and south- 
eastward in the State, if the trunk is shaded; elsewhere iu the State it winterkills 
badlj if exposed, especially when young. In Mich. B. 39 it is stated that this maple 
is planted far more abundantly in that State than any or all other trees, deciduous 
or evergreen ; but that a large proportion of the trees die from the attacks of insects. 
The proper manner of setting and treating the tree is described. The hard maple 
has been included iu the South Dakota {B. 15) forestry plantations, but no impor- 
tant results are reported. See also AJa. B. 2, n. set: In Mich. B. S3 (a report of a 
forestry convention) occurs a paper upon "The sugar maple in its relation to the 
forestry question," in which it is argued that within the maple belt no other tree is 
so well suited to secure the preservation of living forests, on the ground that an im- 
mediate and continuous profit is obtainable from making maple sugar. In this paper 
the tree is not rated high for timber. 

The soft or silver-leafed maple (A. dasycarpnm, according to late authority properly 
called 4. saccharinum) has been much planted for shade and ornament, for wind- 
breaks, etc. {Ala. College B., 2 n. ser.; Minn. B.24; Nebr. B. 18; S. Dak. B. 1888, p. 19, B. 
12, B. 23.) By the South Dakota Station (B. 23) this is judged, where perfectly hardy, 
to bo as good a rapid-growing tree with softwood asany available in that State, aiul a 
fit substitute for box elder to form the greater part of a grove. " It retains the habit of 
rapid growth later iu life than box elder, but does not endure shade quite so well, 
and hence is not quite so desirable as a nurse tree." In the central part of the State 
it winterkills, while young at least, and sends up several shoots from near the ground, 
necessitating careful pruning. According to Minn. B. 24 in many parts of the State 
it is a good street tree, and valued for wind-breaks on account of its quick upright 
growth." The difficulty that its limbs are liable to be broken by the wind can be 
largely overcome by shortening the branches. A cut-leafed variety of this species 
is also noted in Minn. B, 24. 

The red maple (A. rubrmn) is briefly described in Ala. College B. 2, n. ser. and Minn. 
B. 24. It furnishes a cabinet wood and is used as an ornamental and shade tree. 

Other species noted in Minn. B. 24 are the Norway maple [A. platanoides) and the 
Tartarian maple {A. tartaricum). The Norway maple is considered to rival the hard 
maple in value, but to be a little uncertain in that latitude. Its varieties have 
special ornamental qualities. The Tartarian is a small pretty tree of promising 
hardiness, but not long tried. 

In Cal. E. 1S9U, p. 2.3G, occurs the following note : " Of the various maples that are 
native of the country east of the Sierras, none except the Acer negmulo, or "box 
elder," has ever equaled (in the State) our native California species. The most val- 
uable of the native species is Acer macroplujlla, which in suitable soil and within the 
range of the moist ocean winds is of enduring and rapid growth. It can be highly 
recommended as an avenue and shade tree. Its timber is also quite valuable. 
For ash-leafed maple see Box elder. 

Marl.— The term "marl" is somewhat iudefiiiite, andiu diflercnt localities is ap- 
plied to widely different materials. In a general sense it means essentially a mix- 
ture of carbonate of lime and clay with more or less sand, which readily falls to 
pieces on exposure to the air. Although pi obably the greater part of the marls found 



200 MARL. 

in this comitrj- conform to this defiuition autl depeud for agricultural value on their 
lime content, there are quite extensive deposits of the cretaceous marls known as 
green sand in New Jersey, which contain considerable amounts of potash (difficultly 
available) and phosphoric acid, in addition to a variable amount of lime. 

Marl l)eds are widely distributed in the United States and have been developed to 
a considerable extent in New Jersey, Maryland, Virginia, Kentucky, North Carolina, 
and South Carolina. The marls of these deposits generally belong to three classes, 
and occur in geological formations which are found, as a rule, one above the other 
in immediate succession. 

The upper layer, blue or shale marl (neocene), is generally found at or near the 
surface, and consists cliieily of sea mud with partially decomposed shells and bones. 
Its value depends mainly upon its content of carbonate of lime (40-50 per cent), al- 
though it contains in addition small percentages of potash and phosphoric acid. 
This class predominates in Maryland, Virginia, and North Carolina, and has been 
extensively used with good results on worn-out or naturally infertile soils. 

The second class, eocene or chalk marl, is commonly "a coarse kind of friable chalk, 
consisting of comminuted shells and corals of a light yellowish or grayish color to 
white, sometimes compacted into a pretty solid limestone." Its content of lime is 
greater (50-95 per cent) than that of the shell marl and the percentages of potash 
and phosphoric acid less. 

In the lower layer occur cretaceous marls known as green sand in New Jersey. 
Those vary considerably in chemical composition and agricultural value. Their 
fertilizing value is determined chiefly by their content of potash and phosphoric 
acid, althongh many are calcareous. The Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, and 
South Carolina marls of this class generally average higher in carbonate of lime than 
those of New Jersey, but New Jersey greensand averages considerably higher in 
potash and phosi)horic acid. This marl has long been used with beneficial results 
by New Jersey farmers. Their experience has developed the following facts: 

Marls containing the most phosphoric acid are the ones which are the most highly 
esteemed by farmers. 

Marls, containing carbonat e of lime in fine powder, besides any shells that may be 
In them, are the best and most lasting fertilizers, though they must be used in large 
quantities. 

Marls, consisting of pure grains of greensand, though containing their full per- 
centage of potash, are frequently witliont any fertilizing action, and their effects are 
not very well marked in any cases (JV. J. U. 1SS2, p. 44). This is due, probably, to 
the fact that the potash exists in the form of an insoluble silicate, and is very slowly 
available to the plant. 

If some practicable method of rendering this potash readily available, either by 
chemical reagents or by composting can be devised, the value of the marl will be 
greatly enUauced. Work in this line has been undertaken in New Jersey and at the 
Maryland Station, but as far as known the results have not yet been reported. 

In N. J. It. 1SS2, p. 43, it is 8tate<l that "greensand marls have been of inestimable 
value and influence in improving New Jersey agriculture. They have been the means 
of restoring large districts of worn-out land to fertilitj^; they have improved the 
texture and productiveness of lands naturally too light to be otherwise worth culti- 
vation ; they continue to be used in large quantities, and constitute a valuable low- 
priced fertilizer, very desirable where the cost of transportation is not too great." 

In N. C. E. ISSO, p. 79, Dr. W. C. Kerr, writing of the use of marl in North 
Carolina, says: "I have never found a case of its failure to pay, and many worn-out 
and originally poor farms have been regenerated by its use. The eftect of marl is 
permanent; one good uuuling will last two generations and more." 

Although such favorable results follow the use of marls on land in close proximity 
to the deposits it must be borne in mind that only in very rare instances do these 
marls furnish suflicicnt plant food to i)ay for costly manipulation or extended trans- 
portation. 



]\IAY BEETLE. 



201 



The value of marls as fertilizers was early appreciated by the farmers of eastern 
Virginia, and Edmund Ruffiu, in his work on Calcareous Manures, publislied in 1S32, 
describes the nature of the marl deposits of that j)artof the State and discusses fully 
the principles and practice of marling as then understood. 

The wide variations in composition of ditfereut marls are shown in the following 
table : 



New Jersey sri^en sand . 

Maryland inai-ls 

North Carolina marls . . 
Kentucky marls 



Potash. 



Lime. 



Per cent. 
3. 53-7. 00 
0. 24-4. 76 
0. 2.5-1. 50 
0. 18-3. 12 



Per cent. 
1. 26- 9. 07 
trace-3!). 90 
5. 00-45. 00 
0. 37-33. 96 



Phosphoric 
acid. 



Per cent. 
1. 02-3. 87 
trace-1.74 
0. 10-10. 00 
trace-0. 36 



{Ala. College B. 8, n. ser. ; Cal. B. 1890, p. 83; Canada Expt. Farms B. 1889, p. 42, 
B. 1890, p. 112; Conn. State B. 36, B. 58, B. 1879, jjp. 43, 46, B. 1882, p. 52, B. 1884, 
p. 75; Ky. B. 39; La. B. 25, B. 1, 2d set:; Md. B. 1889, p. 79, B. 1890, p. 119, B. 1891, 
p. 298; Mich. B. 9; Miss. B. 4, B. 1890, p. 38 ; N. J. B. 1880, p. 37, B. 1881, p. 28, B. 
1882, p. 43; N. C. B. 1883, p. 96, B. 1884, p. 84, B. 1885, p. 73. B. 1887, p. 50, B. 1888, 
p. 41; Term. B. vol. 11, 1; Tex. B. 13; Ft. B. 1889, p. 36.) 

Martynia {Martijnia prohoscidea) [also called Devil's claws or Unicorn plant]. — A 
wild plant in the South and West, the young green fruit of which is used for pickles. 
" The rijie pods are black, hard, and horny, and provided with two long hooked 
beaks or claws. The flower resembles somewhat that of a catalpa, to which it is 
closely related." It has been grown at the Minnesota {B. 1888, p. 258) and Nebraska 
(B. 12) Stations. 

Maryland Station, College Park. — Organized under act of Congress March 9, 
1888, as a department of Maryland Agriculture College. The statf of the station 
consists of the president of the college, director, chemist, agriculturist, horticul- 
turist, physicist, assistant agriculturist, treasurer, and stenographer. Its principal 
lines of work are chemistry, field experiments Avith fertilizers, field crops, vegetables, 
and fruits. Up to January 1, 1893, the station had published 4 annual reports and 
28 bulletins. Reve»iue in 1892, $15,000. 

Massachusetts Hatch Station, Amherst. — Organized under act ol Congress, 
March 2. 1888, as a department of the Massachusetts Agricultural College. The 
staff consists of the president of the college and director, agriculturist, horticultur- 
ist, entomologist, meteorologist, two assistant horticulturists, assistant agriculturist, 
treasurer, and auditor. The principal lines of work are meteorology, field experi- 
ments with fertilizers and fruits, and entomology. Up to January 1, 1893, the sta- 
tion had published 4 annual rei)orts and 68 bulletins Revenue in 1892, $15,000. 

Massachusetts State Station, Amherst. — Organized under State authority, 
July, 1882. The staff consists of the director and chemist, mycologist, five assistant 
chemists, assistant in field experiments and stock feeding, and foreman. The prin- 
cipal lines of work are chemistry, analysis and control of fertilizers, field experi- 
ments with fertilizers and field crops, diseases of plants, analyses of feeding-stuifs, 
and feeding experiments. Up to January 1, 1893, the station had published 9 an- 
nual reports and 45 bulletins. Revenue in 1892, $13,600. 

May beetle (Lachnosterna fusca) [The adult insect is also known as June bug 
and its larva as White Grub or Grub- worm]. — A very common beetle, three-fourths 
of an inch long, dark brown or black. The beetles rest during the day and feed at 
night on the leaves and fruit of the trees. The eggs (40 to 60 in number) are de- 
posited in the ground in a ball of earth, and soon after the female dies. 

The larviT- live for three years in the ground. The grub is soft, white with brown- 
ish head,and has six legs well toward the front of the body. The beetles may be treated 



202 MEADOWS. 



II 



with arsenites or they may he jarred from trees early in the raorniug. Plowing and 
exposing the grubs to birds will cause the destruction of many. They are also held 
in check to a considerable degree by natural enemies. 

Rapid rotation and high cultivation of crops are unfavorable for grubs. 

(Ark. B., 1890, p. 70; Eij. B. 31; Me. B. 1889, p. 189; Mass. Hatch B. 12; N. 
Mex. B. 2 ; Ohio B. vol. 111,4; Vt. B. 1889, p. 156; W. Fa. B. 1890, p. 155.) 

Meado-ws. — The grasses best snited for meadows in Minnesota are discussed in 
Minn. B. 12. Grasses and clovers sown in the spring with a small grain crop should 
have a hard, fall-plowed seed bed. If the soil is wet and heavy, harrowing should 
be very light, but if the land is dry it may be thorough. Permanent meadows are 
not considered as profitable as short rotations of meadow and cultivated crops. For 
wet lands^ a mixture of redtop and alsike clover is recommended. The latter makes 
a good growth in the first few years while several years are required for the best re- 
sults from redtop. For this reason redtop does not find a place in short rotations. 
The cost of orchard-grass seed, from $3 to $5 for the 3 bushels necessary to an acre, 
practically excludes this grass from a short rotation. Timothy fits into rotation well, 
but alone it " serves for only a few years in a permanent pasture or meadow." Blue 
grass in Minnesota grows too short for meadows. 

In choosing a field for a permanent meadow it is well to avoid dry, sandy, or grav- 
elly soil. 

At the Michigan Station {B. 77) recently seeded meadows yielded more hay than 
those which had been in grass aud pastured for about twenty-five years. The fol- 
lowing plants were sown alone: Meadow fescue, meadow foxtail, tall oat grass, red- 
top, June grass, orchard grass, alfalfa, Afirojyyrmn ienerum, fowl meadow grass, taller 
meadow fescue, timothy, red and mammoth clover. Meadow fescue and perennial rye 
grass were sown together. The yields made by these two were compared with the 
hay from a mixture of timothy, tall oat grass, orchard grass, tall fescue, fowl meadow 
grass, red clover, mammoth clover, and Agropyrum tenerum. The mixture afforded 
by far the largest crop. 

The Massachusetts State Station {B. 1891, p. 184) condemns the seeding down of 
grasses in the spring in Massachusetts. On the other hand, in Kansas {B. 2) it has 
been found best to sow in the spring, not earlier than April 15. On the Kansas Sta- 
tion farm a mixture of orchard grass (2 bushels per acre) and red clover (3 quarts) 
has proven more satisfactory than any other combination. 

Medlar (Mespilus germanica). — A small tree and its fruits, related to the crab ap- 
ple, somewhat cultivated in Europe but rarely in this country. The fruit is edible 
only in the early stages of decay. A plantation of throe varieties is noted in La. B. 
3, 2d ser. 

Melilotus {MeUloius alba) [also called Bokhara clover and Large white clover]. — 
Uses. — Melilotus resembles alfalfa, but grows much taller (3 to 8 feet) and bears a 
number of small white flowers. It is a biennial but will reseed itself indefinitely. 
It thrives on calcareous soils, making some growth even on the bare rotten limestone, 
where no other plant could subsist. On the black prairie soils of the South and on 
yellow loam and white lime soils it has a high va ue as a renovating crop. These 
black prairie soils, most of which do not respond to commercial fertilizers, are easily 
improved by seeding to melilotus. The decay of the large roots not only supplies 
plant food, but by leaving numerous small holes in the soil aids in the di'aiuage. 
Melilotus is valuable both for pasturage and for hay. At first animals refuse to eat 
it, but later relish it. It makes an early spring growth and remains green late in 
the fall. In Nevada melilotus grew well along streams but did not thrive in dry 
situations. 

On the lime lands of the South, for early and late pasturage and for restoring the 
fertility of exhausted fields, it has no superior among the clovers. When cut early it 
is a A-aluable hay crop, but in this r('si)ect is surpassed by lespedeza and red clover. 
Though melilotus grows on lime soils North and South, it has been appreciated 



METEOROLOGY. 203 

chiefly in the South. In some States farther north it is considered a weed. As a 
renovating crop it merits trial on calcareous soils in every latitude. Melilotus has 
also some value as a bee plant. It has been tested at the Massachusetts State Sta- 
tion, giving a smaller yield of hay than timothy. The best reports come from the 
Mississippi and Alabama Canebrake Stations, where the land is highly calcareous. 
At the Mississippi Station it thrives best on soil richest in lime — where the rotten 
limestone is near the surface— making less thrifty growth on clay hills and rich bot- 
toms. 

Composition. — For composition see Appendix, Table II. 

Culture. — February and March are the best months for sowing. From 2 to 4 
pecks of seed per acre should be sown broadcast. A smaller amount of seed will 
give a smaller crop the first year, but will suffice if the plant is allowed to reseed 
Itself. Sow the seed on well prepared land and the winter rains will cover it. Or 
if the land is not in good condition, harrow after sowing. Melilotus may be sown 
with oats in February or the seed may be scattered over a field of fall sown oats. 

Harvesting. — During the first season one or two cuttings may be made; during 
the second season two or three. If the land is to remain in melilotus more than two 
years, only two cuttings are made the second season, after which there is usually 
sufficient seed formed to insure a stand. It is important that melilotus be cut before 
the stalks become coarse and woody. From 15 to 20 inches is the best height. The 
first cutting of the second season is secured about May 1. Melilotus produces a 
heavy growth of hay, which, though excellent for home use, is not so salable as 
lespedeza hay. 

Melilotus must be cured with care, as too much sun causes shedding of the leaves. 
At the Massachusetts State Station it produced at one cutting 3,090 pounds of hay 
per acre the first season; its yield is much heavier the second season. 

Rotation.— Corn, cotton, and oats all succeed well on a field that has been in 
melilotus two years. Such a rotation sometimes increases the corn crop from 10 or 
15 to 25 or 30 bushels per acre and upwards. When it is desired to run the land 
in melilotus more than two years, seeds must be allowed to form, and these may 
be left as they fail, or the land may be harrowed. 

{Ala. CanehrakeB. 7, B. 9, B. 10, B. 11, B. IS, B. 14; Colo. B. 2; La. B. 26, B. 1891, 
p. 11, Me. B. 1SS9, p. 161; Mass. State B. 1S90, p. 161, B. 1S89, p. 294; Mich. B. 68; 
Miss. B. 20, B. 1889, p. S3, B. 1890, p. SI; Nev. B. 1890, p. 15; N. C. B. 73; Tex. B. 3.) 

Meteorology. — More or less extensive meteorological observations have been 
reported from the following experiment stations: Alabama, Colorado, Connecticut 
Storrs, Delaware, Georgia, Indiana, Kansas, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Massa- 
chusetts Hatch, Massachusetts State, Michigan, Mississippi, Missouri, Nebraska, 
Nevada, New York State, North Carolina, Oiiio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode 
Island, South Carolina, South Dakota, Texas, Utah, Virginia, West Virginia, Wiscon- 
sin, and Wyoming. A meteorologist is employed at thirteen stations. 

In many cases only the simplest observations— temperature, precipitation, etc. — 
have been attempted, in others records are kept of barometric pressure, precipita- 
tion and temperature at different heights ; direction, velocity, and pressure of the 
wind; percentage of cloudiness, classification, movement, and direction of clouds; 
amount of sunshine and sun temperatures; atmospheric electricity, frosts, dews, 
hales, coronse, storms, and other natural phenomena. 

Some of the stations, notably those of Alabama, Indiana, and North Carolina, have 
organized comprehensive weather services, coiiperating with the Weather Bureau of 
the U. S. Department of Agriculture, and efforts are b^ng made to extend this 
cooperation. 

The Massachusetts Hatch Station is especially well equipped for meteorological 
work. It is supplied almost exclusively with self-recording instruments, including 
some of the most expensive and delicate apparatus used for meteorological investi- 
gations in this country {Mass. Hatch B. 1889, p. 6, B. 1890, p. 8). 



204 MEXICAN CLOVER. 

The Alabama College aud North Carolina Statious have issued full reports on the 
climatology of those States based, on observations running back, in the first case 
seventy to eighty years, in the second, seventy-two years {Ala. College B. IS, i\. ser.; 
N. C. Special B. 1S91. 

Meteorological articles of special interest which have appeared in station publica- 
tions are: Origin of Cold Waves {N. C. Met. B. 1S90, p. 72); Protection from Frosts 
{Minn. B. 12) ; The Formation and Classification of Clouds {N. C. Met. B. 1890, p. GS) ; 
and a General Sketch of the Climate of North Carolina {Special B. 1S91, p. 157). 

Mexican clover {Bichardsonia acdbra). — This plant, though not a clover, bears 
some resemblance to the clovers in its habit of growth. It has become naturalized 
along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico. It prefers a sandy soil, coming up in culti- 
vated fields after crops are laid by. The jacld of hay is from 1 to 2 tons per acre. 
This is an annual plant and is not suitable for pastures. {Ala. College B. 6, n. ser.; 
Miss. B. 18S0, p. 34, B. 1S90, p. 32.) 

Michigan Station, Agricultural College. — Organized under act of Congress Feb- 
ary 21, 1888, as a department of Michigan Agricultural College. The staff consists of 
the president of the college and director, agriculturist, chemist, botanist, zoologist, 
horticulturist, veterinarian, secretary aud treasurer, assistant to director, three 
assistant agriculturists, two assistant horticulturists, two assistant chemists, and 
librarian. Up to January 1, 1893, the station has published 4 annual reports and 89 
bulletins. Eevenue in 1892, $16,054. 

Middlings. — See the articles on the feeding of different kinds of animals. For 
composition see AppenAix., Tables I and II. 

Mignonette leaf blight {Cercospora resedce). — A fungous disease which often causes 
the loss of many mignonette plants. It ajipears either as small sunken spots, rather 
pale in color with a brownish border or as reddish discoloratious, more or less in- 
volving the leaf, upon which are finally developed the pale spots or patches. The 
disease spreads very rapidly, and the dead areas increase in size aud become irregu- 
lar in shape, the leaves curl, wither aud hang lifeless on the stem, and in ten or 
twelve days th e plant looks as though sufi'ering badly from drought. Early and 
repeated application of Bordeaux mixture has been proved a successful remedy for 
this disease. {N. J. B. 1890, p. 363.) 

Milk. — The work of the stations on milk will be treated under the following 
heads: (1) Properties and composition, (2) creaming, (3) skim milk, (4) serving to 
customers from cans, (5) basis of selling at creameries and cheese factories, (6) se- 
cretion, and (7) effect of food on yield and composition. (See also Milk fermenta- 
tions, Milk tests, and Milking.) 

Propkkties and composition. — Milk is the secretion of the mammary glands of 
the females of the mammalian group. It is an opaque, bluish-white fluid consisting 
primarily of about 87 per cent water and 13 per cent solids. The solids include 
fat, which is separated in butter-making, casein, which is of imj)ortauce in cheese- 
making, milk sugar, aud ash, together with traces of other substances. The fat 
exists in the form of minute globules, varying considerably in size, which are held 
in suspension in the milk. The casein is a nitrogenous material belonging to the 
same class of compounds as egg albumen. The casein, milk sugar, and ash are dis- 
solved in the water and constitute the milk serum in which the fat globules are sus- 
pended. The curdling of milk is due to the coagulation of the casein. The souring 
is due most frequently to fermentative changes which take place in the milk sugar, 
resulting in the formation of lactic acid, which in turn causes the casein to coagu- 
late, i. e., the milk to curdle. Milk is subject to numerous other fermentative 
changes not mentioned here, which are reviewed in Experiment Station Bulletin 
No. 9, of the Office of Experiment Stations, U. S. Department of Agriculture (see' 
Milk fermentations). 



MILK. 



205 



The ash contains tlio mineral ingredients of milk, as potash, soda, phos)>liates, 
lime, magnesia, traces of iron, etc. According to Babcocl<, of the Wisconsin Sta- 
tion, milk contains a material called fibrin, which coagnlates after the milk is 
drawn, forming a network of iine elastic fibers (see Creaming of milk). The compo- 
sition of cows' milk varies quite widely with the breed, stage of the milking period, 
character of food, etc. An average composition may be given as follows : Water 87, 
fat 4, casein and albumen 3.4, milk sugar 4.9, and ash 0.7 per cent. 

Fat globules. — An idea of the minuteness of the fat globules of cows' milk may be 
gained from the statement that twenty-live average globules placed side by side 
would be about equal to the thickness of ordinary writing paper, and that a pint of 
milk contains not far from a million globules. The size of fat globules, however, is 
far from beiug constant, varying with the breed, the stage of the milking period, 
health (*f the cow, and other things. It is characteristic of the fat globules of Jersey 
and Guernsey milk to be relatively large and quite uniform in size, while those of 
the Ayrshire and Holstein milk are small. For instance, the New York State Sta- 
tion found the proportion of fat globules over three divisions of the micrometer 
scale in diameter to be as follow-*: Jersey milk 70 per cent, Guernsey milk 55 per 
cent, Devon and American Holderness milk '65 per cent, Ayrshire milk 24, and Hol- 
stein milk only 11.3 per cent. The fat globules diminish in size as the period of lac- 
tation advances, which accounts for the decrease in yield of fat: the New York 
State Station found that the number of globules actually increased as the milking 
period advanced. Dividing the milking period into four parts it was found on an 
average for a large herd that the relative number of globules was 100 in the first 
quarter, 139 in the second quarter, 149 in the third quarter, aiid 18.^ in the fourth 
quarter. That is, the whole amount of milkgiv^en in the last quarter contained 89 
per cent more fat globules than that given in the first quarter. The same station 
found in a trial in which five cows were milked that both the total number and 
the number of large globules in the milk from a milking increased with the suc- 
cessive portions drawn. 

The question of the size of fat globules is an important one in connection with 
butter-making (see Crvaming of milk). 

Studies on fat globules have been reported as follows: Ind. B. 24; N. H. B. ISSS, 
p. 84; N. Y. State B. 18^5, p. 266; N. Y. State B. 1891, p. 143; Me. B. 1800, p. 58; Vt. 
B. 1890, p. 65; Wis. B. 1890, p. 238. 

Investigations by Babcock {N". Y. State B. 1885, p. 274) pointed toward a relation 
between the melting point of butter fat and the size of the globules. 

Composition. — The New York State Station {B. 1891, p. 141) analyzed the milk of six 
breeds of cows during one period of lactation, with the following average results : 

Average composition of millc of different breeds. 



Breeds. 



Holstein-Frlesian 

Ayrsliire 

Jersey 

Americin Holdoruess. 

Gueriisey 

Devon 



No. of 

analyses. 



Average of all. 



132 
252 
238 
124 
112 
72 



Water. 



Per cent. 
87.62 
86.95 
84.60 
87.37 
85.39 
SG.26 



86.37 



Total 
solids. 



Per cent. 
12.39 
13.06 
15.40 
12.63 
14.60 
13.77 



13. G4 



Fat. 



Per cent. 
3.46 
3.57 
5.61 
3.55 
5.12 
4.15 



4.24 



Casein. 



Per cent. 
3.39 
3.43 
3.91 
8.39 
3.61 
3.76 



Milk 
sujrar. 



Per cent. 
4.84 
5.33 
5.15 
5.01 
5.11 
5.07 



3.58 



5.09 



Ash. 



Per cent. 
0.735 
0.698 
0.743 
0.698 
0.753 
0.760 



0.731 



By averaging over 2,400 American analyses the Vermont Station (B. 1890, p. 97) 
found the relation of the solid ingredients to each other in milk containing difl'erent 
percentages of total solids to be as follows: 



206 



MILK. 

Eelation of milk constituents in total solids. 



Percent ape of 
total solids. 


In 100 parts of total solids. 


Fat. 


Casein. 


Milk sugar 
and ash. 


11 
12 
13 
14 

15 
16 


28 
29 
31 
33 
3G 
38 


26 
25 
25 
25 
20 
26 


46 
40 
44 

42 
38 
36 



It will be noticed that the casein remains about one-fourth of the total solids, 
wliile the fat increases proportionally as the total solids increase. See also N. Y. 
State li. 1891, p. 139; Wis. B. 1S86, p. 159. 

The milk from the first portion of any single milking is relatively poor and increases 
in richness to the strippiugs, which are relatively very rich. Thus the New York 
State Station found that in the case of five cows the first pint of milk contained only 
0.3 per cent of fat, while the last pint contained 6.85 per cent, and the mixed milk 
from the whole milking averaged 2.55 per cent. In every instance the first half con- 
tained only from one-third to one-half as much fat as the last half. Similar results 
are reported in Conn. State B. 1S91, p. 114. (See also Ind. B. 24; N. H. B. 9.) 

Variation in qiialiti/.— The milk of the same cow differs both iu composition and in 
yield from day to day. Babcock states that yield may vary by 15 per cent and the 
amount of fat by as much as 50 per cent. Four cows tested at the Wisconsin Sta- 
tion (B. 1SS9, p. 42) showed an average daily variation of from 1.18 to 1.8 pounds of 
milk; and the yield of fat per day fluctuated about 8 per cent. {111. B. 17.) 

The manner of milking also affects the composition of the milk. It was found 
that cows which ordinarily gave milk with 4 aud 5 per cent fat, respectively, gave 
milk with only 2.7 and 3.92 per cent, respectively, when milked one teat at a time. 
The vnilk was richer in fat when milked rapidly (3 to 4 minutes) than when milked 
slowly— double that time— though the yield seemed not to be aft'ected {Wis. B. 
1889, p. 44). 

The Wisconsin Station {B. 1889, p. 42) found that change of milker, manner of 
milking, and change of environment all exert a more or less decided influence, tem- 
porarily at least, on the quantity and quality of the milk produced, the fat being, 
as a general rule, more sensitive to such changes than the other ingredients or the 
total yield of milk (see Milking). The Vermont Station {B. 22) found that some 
cows made a better showing at fair grounds than at home and others vice versa, but 
in all cases the fat was the ingi-edient most subject to variation. 

The excitement attendent upon dehorning also has different effects upon the 
milk of individual cows. Often cows in the same barn which were not dehorned 
showed the effects on yield and composition of milk quite as much as those dehorned. 
In all cases the effects were only temporary, lasting from one to five days. In gen- 
eral, the fat was the ingredient most likely to be affected, and this, together with the 
yield of milk was slightly diminished. {Ark. B. 1888, p. 22; Minn. B. 19, p. S; iV. 
Y. Cornell B. 37; Wis. B. 1888, p. 142, B. 1889, p. 57.) 

For effects of spaying cows see Spaying. 

As the milking period advances the milk yield diminishes and the percentage of 
solids increases, that is, the milk becomes richer. The indications are that this in- 
creased richness is confined almost wholly to the fat, and that there is little variation 
in the percentage of solids not fat. {N. E. B. 9; N. Y. State B. 1891, p. 105.) 

Morning's and evening's milk.— As regards the composition of the milk secreted dur- 
ing the day aud that secreted during the night, analyses of a large number of sam- 
ples at the New York Station {B. 1890, p. 14) showed very little difference, 



MILK. 207 

although tho night's milk contained on an average slightly more water. The quan- 
tity of milk secreted jier hour was practically the same during day and night, but 
the amount of fat secreted averaged IH per cent more during the day than during 
the night. 

The New Hampshiie Station (B. 9) found that while cows were at jiasture the 
morning's milk was richest in fat, but wlieu they were kept in the barn the night's 
milk was richest. Thus, the average percentage of fat in tho milk of one Jersey 
cow during Juue, July, and August was : Morning's milk 6.26, night's milk 5.75 ; and 
during January, Fcbrnary, and March: Morning's milk 5.81, night's milk 6.30. 
"Other cows gave corresponding results." 

The Maine Station {li. 1887, p. 117) found as the average of two years that in 
winter the morning's and night's milk of Jerseys dift'ered but little, but that with 
Ayrshires the morning's milk was better than the night's by a small constant differ- 
ence. " Tlie mixed milk of common cows during Juno and July contained 0.51 per 
cent more solids and 0.60 per cent more fat in the morning than at night." 

At the Mississippi Station {B. 13) it was found that when cows were milked at be- 
tween 5:30 and 7 in the morning and between 3:30 and 5 in the afternoon, it required 
on an average 18.1 pounds of the morning's milk and only 13.5 pounds of the night's 
milk to make a pound of butter. 

For effect of warm vs. cold water see Cows, warm vs. cold water. 

For fibrin in milk see Creaming of milk. 

For effects of time of milking, intervals between milking, manner of milking, 
and thorough milking, see Milking. 

As to the rate of decrease in milk yield with the advance of the period of lactation. 
Dr. Sturtevant gives {N. Y. Slate E. 1886, p. 26) a table based on the averages for 35 
native cows and 59 calvings, 45 Ayrshire cows and 145 calvings,and 3 Jersey cows 
and 6 calvings, representing in all 83 different cows and 210 calvings. 

Babcock has studied the viscosity of milk in its relation to creaming and churn- 
ing qualities, etc., and has devised a viscometer for determining the viscosity of 
emulsions. {N. Y. State E. 1886, p. 297.) 

Analyses of milk have been reported, among others, in the following publications: 
Ala. College B. 25, n.sei'.; Ark. B. 12, E. 1889, p. 5; Conn. State E. 1891, pp. 96, 112; 
Del. E. 1889, p. 164; III. B. 9, B. 16; Ind. B. 24; Iowa B. 8, B. 11, B. 14; Eans. E. 1888, 
p. 69; Ey. B. 3, Mass. State B. 32, B. 38, E. 1888, p. 11, E. 1889, pp. 12, 48, E. 1890, 
p. 39, E. 1891, p. 299; Mass. Hatch. E. 1891, p. 11; Me. E. 1885-'86, p. 65, E. 1890, 
p. 17; Mich. B. 68; Miss. B. 15; N. H. B. 9, E. 1888, p. 69, E. 1889, p. 69; N. J. B. 
61; N. Y. Cornell B. 13, B. 17, B. 22, B. 25, B. 29; N. Y. State B. 34, n. ser., E. 1890, 
pp. 10, 171, E. 1891, p. 232; Pa. B. 12, E. 1888, pp. 55, 95; Tex. B. 14; Vt. B. 22, 
R. 1889, p. 51, E. 1890, p. 107; Wis. B. 18, B. 24, E. 1888, p. 28, E. 1890, p. 114. 

Milk of different breeds: III. B. 9, B. 12; Mass. Hatch E. 1891, p. 11; Me. E. 1890, p. 
17; Mich. B. 68; N. H. B. 9; N. J. B. 65, B. 77; N. Y. State B. 34, n. ser., E. l"0,p. 
171; Wis. E. 1889, p. 115. 

Milk from different teats, Wis. E 1889, p. 44. 

Mineral ingredients of milk. — Analyses of the ash of milk have been reported by 
the Maine (E. 1890, p. 52) and New Hampshire (/>'. ISSS. p. 89) Stations. These are 
tabulated below, showing the percentage of mineral ingredients in 100 parts of ash, 
The analyses of breed milk are by the Maine Station and the mixed herd milk by 
the New Hampshire Station. 



208 



MILK. 

Analyses of ash of millc. 



Jansje, Holstein 

Agnes Smit, Holstein 

Nancy Avondale, Ayrshire 

Queen Linda, Ayrshire 

Agnes, Jersey 

Ida, Jersey 

Herd millc 



Potas- 
sium 
oxide. 



Per ct. 
26.49 
27.23 
18.80 
25.97 
2i.65 
23.94 
27.83 



Sodium 
oxide. 



Per ct. 
8.88 
9.37 
11.72 
7.02 
7.79 
8.94 
8.65 



Cal- 
cium 
oxide. 



Per ct. 
21.94 
19.65 
26.85 
24.05 
25.58 
22.13 
21.05 



Mag- 
nesium 
oxide. 



Per ct. 
3.25 
2.47 
3.10 
2.34 
2.50 
2.59 
1.67 



Oxide 

of 
iron. 



Per ct. 
0.44 
0.42 
0.39 
0.19 
0.46 
0.20 



Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 



Per ct. 
26.11 
29.63 
25.52 
30.31 
31.41 
32.97 
25.34 



Sul- 
phuric 
acid. 



Perct. 
2.43 
1.41 
3.21 
1.38 
2.70 
0.93 



Chlo- 
rine. 



Per ct. 
13.49 
12.68 
1.^. 44 
10.51 
10.21 
10.71 
14.83 



The amount of fei'tilizing ingredients contained in 1,000 pounds of cows' milk has 
been variously calculated as follows : 

Fertiliziud ingredients in 1,000 pounds of whole milk. 





Potassium 
oxide. 


Phosphoric 
acid. 


Nitrogen.* 




Pounds. 
1.69 
1.47 
1.74 
2.09 
1.69 
1.45 


Pounds. 
1.74 
1.85 
2.46 
1.90 
3.00 
2.45 


Pounds. 

Not det. 

Not det. 

Not det. 
4.80 
7.00 
5.45 















*Principally as casein. 
{N. E. E. ISSS, p. 89; N. Y. State E. ISSD, p. 208; Me. E. 1890, p. 52.) 

Milk, creaming. — See Cream and Creaming of milk. 

Skim milk. — See also Butter-making. For the value of skim milk for feeding see 
Cattle, feeding for ieef and for growth, and Pigs, feeding. 

It is the fat chiefly which rises to the surface of milk in creaming and is removed in 
skimmitjg; consequently the composition of the skim milk will largely depend upon 
the efiliciency of creaming. The casein, milk sugar, and ash nearly all remain in 
the skim railk. The fat which remains consists very largely of small globules which 
failed to separate or rise as soon as the others. The fat in skim milk may be as high 
as 1 per cent or even more by inefficient methods of creaming and less than 0.1 per 
cent by centrifugal creaming. Seventy six samples of skim milk from various 
sources which Avere analyzed at the Massachusetts State Station {E. 1891, p. 337) 
showed the following average composition: Water 90.5, solids 9.50, fat 0.45, and 
casein 3.53 per cent. 

A compilation of American analyses prepared by the Vermont Station (E. 1891, p. 
119) showed the following average composition: 

Per cent. 

Total solids 9.75 

Fat 0. 30 

Casein 2. 75 

Albumen 0. 75 

Milk sugar 5. 15 

Ash 0.80 

Other analyses of skim milk are reported in Me. E. 1890, p. S3; N. Y. State E. 1890, 
p. 172. The fertilizing- ingredients were: IS'itrogen 0.56 per cent, phosphoric acid 



MILK. 209 

0.2 per cent, aud potnssimn oxide 0.185 per cent. At current prices of fertilizer in- 
gredients in the East this would give a value of about $2.30 per ton for the fertilizing 
ingredients of skim milk. 

Mii,K, SERVING TO CUSTOMERS FROM CANS.— It lias been claimed that Serving milk 
by drawing from tlie bottom of a can by a faucet and by dipping from the top of 
the can both result in injustice to the customers, owing to the rise of the cream in 
the can during delivery. 

The New York Cornell Station {B. 20) has made a comparison of the composition 
of the milk served to successive customers along the route by dipping from the can 
Avith an ordinary dipper. It was found that with no other agitation of the milk than 
that due to the motion of the wagon and the dipping ''substantial justice is done 
all the patrons as far as the amount of fat apportioned to each is concerned." 

In this connection may be noted observations by the Ontario Agricultural College 
Station {B. 66) on the composition of milk served by drawing through a faucet at 
the bottom of the can. There was found to be practically no difference in the per- 
centage of fat in successive portions drawn from the same can. 

Milk, basis of selling at creameries and cheese factories. — See Creameries, 
Cheese factories, and Milk tests. 

Milk, secretion. — The New York State Station has studied the secretion of milk 
by fifteen cows representing six breeds during one period of lactation. When the cows 
were milked at 5 a. m. and 5 p. m. the average amount of milk secreted per hour 
was 0.7 pound during the day and 0.696 pound during the night, or practically the 
same for day and night. As mentioned elsewhere, they found practically no differ- 
ence between the composition of mornings' and nights' milk, the nights' milk aver- 
aging only 0.14 per cent more water than the mornings' milk. It was calculated from 
this and from determinations of the number of fat globules in milk that there were 
secreted each second on an average nearly 136 million globules of fat. 

As mentioned on page 204 the percentage of fat increases as lactation advances, 
while the solids not fat remain practically stationary; the solids increase in any 
single milking from the portion drawn first to the strippings and the indications are 
that "the differences in the successive portions of milk drawn are almost wholly in 
the relative amount of fat they contain ; " and the fat is more subject to change than 
the other milk ingredients from conditions affecting the animal, as deliorning, etc. 

It has been claimed that the amount of fat in cows' milk was much greater than 
could be accounted for by the amount of fat contained in the food eaten. The New 
York State Station found that the total amount of crude fat consumed by fifteen 
animals during nearly one period of lactation was 4,.587.9 pounds and the total 
amount of fat proihiced in the milk was 3,793.4 pounds. When the cows were fresh 
in milk the production of fat exceeded that consumed in the food, but very soon 
these became equal, and in the latter part of the milking period the amount con- 
sumed was in excess of that produced. The indications from this are that whether 
or not the milk fat is derived wholly or in part from the fat in the food, ordinarily 
the food contains enough fat to equal that produced in the milk. (N. H. B. 9; K. Y. 
State B. 24, B. 1884, p. 61, B. 1891, j)}). 121, 155; Wis. B. 1SS9, p. 61. 

Milk, effect of food.— The question of the effect of food upon the yield and 
composition of milk is one which has called forth a variety of opinion and much ex- 
perimental work. It is held by many that food is, after all, of only secondary im- 
portance, and that much more depends upon the qualities of the animal itself, the 
size of the milk glands and the capability of the latter for producing milk. At the 
same time a certain amount of food is of course necessary to keep up the secretion. 
The belief is prevalent among farmers that the character of the food or the propor- 
tion of food ingredients it contains directly or indirectly influences the milk secre- 
tion, and this belief is borne out by the results of some feeding experiments in this 
country and abroad. The effect of food on the milk secretion may make itself 
apparent in several ways, (1) The quantity may increase or decrease, resulting 

2004—1^0. 15 14 



210 MILK. 

ill a, more or less watery milk; (2) the quantity of milk yielded may increase 
or decrease without any change in the composition of the milk; (3) the propor- 
tion of solids to Avatcr may change without any change in the quantity of milk 
yielded, also resulting in a richer or poorer milk; (4) the milk may become richer in 
respect to a single milk ingredient without a change in tlie other solids; aud finally 
(5) the taste of milk may be attected. The lirst case involves a chauge in the water 
content alone. The second and third cases involve an increased or diminished pro- 
duction of solid ingredients by the milk glands. The fourth case involves increased 
]iroduction of a single milk ingredient without a corresponding increase of the 
others. The fifth case is generally supposed to result from the transmission of qual- 
ities from the food to the milk. It has recently been contended by a prominent 
authority abroad that the composition of milk is less subject to change as a result of 
feeding than is usually supjiosed to be the case aud that grain or rich food added to 
a ration which alreadj^ meets the food requirements of the animal does not influence 
the composition of the milk, although it may increase the yield of milk. The change 
in the relation of the different ingredients of the milk solids to each other, that is, a 
one-sided increase in the ijerceutage of a single ingredient, has been noticed in only 
!i few isolated cases and the ability to induce sncli a change ajtpearsto be character- 
istic of only a very limited number of foods. 

Numerous and A'^aried feeding experiments with cows have been made at our sta- 
tions and the results of some of these have thrown light on the effect of food on milk 
secretion, although a large proportion have had other objects in view. Exi)erimenls 
extending over six years have been made at the Wisconsin Station to compare the 
effects of com silage and field-cured' corn fodder on milk and butter production. The 
results of these have not been altogether consistent. In the earlier experiments (E. 
18S8, p. 2S) the indications were that the silage tended to slightly increase the yield, 
giving a more Avatery milk. The later experiments (R. ISSU, p. 130, li.1890, p. 80), 
however, which form the majority, indicate that slightly more milk and of equally 
good quality was produced on silage. 

At the Massachusetts State Station, in a long series of comparisons of corn fodder, 
corn stover, and corn silage, these materials were found to compare Avell, pound 
fol' ])ound, in their effect on yield and composition of milk. 

At the Michigan Station tlie yield of nulk Avas found to be slightly larger on 
silage than on corn fodder. 

At the Maine Station, when corn silage and timothy hay (mostly timothy) were 
compared, the yield of milk was of equal or better quality on silage than on hay. 

At the Vermont Station {R. 1S90, p. SO) the milk yield Avas larger on hay than on 
silage or corn fodder; the quality if the milk Avas maintained on silage, but fell off 
slightly on corn fodder. 

At the Massachusetts State Station {R. 1S8U, p. 12), in four years of comparison of 
corn fodder, corn stover, corn silage, sugar beets, carrots aud hay, the effect of these 
different foods on the milk Avas not uniform Avitli different cows, but seemed to be 
largely a matter of individuality. Both sugar beets and carrots when fed in place 
of part of the hay of a ration "almost witliout exception raised the temporary yield 
of milk, as a rule exceeding the corn silage in that direction." 

The summary in 17. R. 1890, p. 7->, of a large number of cases where cows were 
changed from succulent to dry food and vice veraa, showed jiractically no change in 
the composition of the milk which could be attributed to the change of food. The 
same station found (ii. i6'.9(?,2>. it*;) that the change from barn feed to pasturage 
Avas almost universally accompanied by a greater or less increase in both the yield 
and the richness of the milk. According to observations reported in 1891 (H. if. 
1891, p. i>9) the increase on pasturage averaged about one-fourth of a pound of but- 
ter per Aveek per cow. These results, together Avith other observations at the sta- 
tion in the same line, lead to the statement that '' pasture feeding and Avatery food 
do not make watery milk." 



MILK. 211 

At the Wisconsin Station (R. 1SS9, p. 146, K. 1890, p. 164), on the contrary, "an in- 
crease in the amount of water drank was associated with an increase in the amount 
of milk produced;" and "the water in the milk was greatest following the days 
when the most water was drank." 

The New Jersey Station {B. 77) found in connection with its tests of dairy breeds 
that while the yield of milk generally increased during the summer months the 
quality fell off. 

With reference to the eft'ect of grain feed, a comparison at the Wisconsin Station 
(/?. 1S85, p. 97) of old-process linseed meal and corn meal gave indications that the 
linseed meal slightly improved the quality of the milk, but usually at the expense 
of quantity. Pound for pound, linseed meal gave slightly larger yield of milk than 
bran, with no apparent change of quality due to food ( Wis. R. 1S86, p. 130). In a 
comparison of e(iual weights of ground oats and bran, the cows invariably increased 
in milk yield on oats, with practically no change in the fat content of the milk 
{Wis. R. 1890, p. 63). 

The Maine Station {R. 1885-86, p. 65, R. lS8G-'87, p. 84) found from trials in two 
years that "the substitution of cotton-seed meal for an equal quantity of corn meal 
unmistakably increased the production of milk and butter to a profitable extent." 

At the Pennsylvania Station {B. 17) the substitution of cotton-seed meal for bran 
was accompanied by an increase of about one-fifth in the yield of milk, with prac- 
tically no change in percentage of fat in the milk. 

The New York State Station {R. 1891, p. 112) substituted cotton-seed meal for 
corn meal aud silage for part of the hay in the ration of seven cows well advanced 
in milk. The change in the ration Avas an increase in both albuminoids and fat In 
the food. Not only was the milk yield maintained for a montli on this richer ration 
at a time when the cows might be expected to be drying up, )>ut in the majority of 
cases the percentage of fat increased, so that in every case except two there was an 
absolute increase in the quantity of fat secreted on the richer ration. 

The Vermont Station {R. 1890, p. 75) studied the efiect on milk of feeding a large 
amount of a rich grain ration as compared with feeding a normal amount. The 
effect was not uniform with the different cows. One gave no return for the extra 
grain either in yield or in richness of milk, while two others responded to the extra 
grain by increased yield of milk, the quality of which was not diminished. 

The New York State Station {B. 106, B. 110, B. 114, R. 1884, p. 49) found that 
acid food, as spoiled or sour brewers' grains, wet starch feed, or dry starch feed to 
which acetic acid had been added, did not impart any unpleasant taste to milk or 
affect its keeping quality. The indications from a trial of feeding dry starch or 
glucose waste was that it tended to increase the yield of milk without affecting its 
composition {N. Y. State R. 1885, p. 10). 

The same station (B. 23, B. 34, B. 35) found gluten meal very favorable to milk 
yield. 

The New Hampshire Station (B. 14) noticed in a comparison of gluten meal and 
corn meal that "in almost everj' case with each of the eleven cows a change from 
gluten meal to corn meal, i. e., a change from a narrow to a wide nutritive ratio, 
resulted in a decided falling oft' in the product (milk) while the reverse change 
resulted in an equally decided increase." 

Probably the most interesting experiment of all on this subject was made at the 
Iowa Station {B. 14) in a comparison of gluten meal with corn-and-cob meal. When 
gluten meal, containing large amounts of protein and fat, was fed there was an in- 
crease both in the percentage of total solids and fat aud in the total amount of fat 
produced in the case of every cow. The proportion of fat to the other milk constit- 
uents was noticeably larger on gluten meal. This would seem to be a case of a 
one-sided increase of the fat, which, as mentioned above, has been noticed in only 
a few isolated cases. The effect of the gluten meal on the yield of milk was not 
uniform, but apparently there was little if any change in yield which could be at- 
tributed to the food. 



212 MILK. 

It vrill be secu tliat the results of carefully made experiments are often conflict- 
ing, which suggests that the element of individuality plays an important part in 
such experiments as these and makes it difficult to lay down fixed laws. The whole 
matter of the efliect of food on milk and butter production is only imperfectly 
understood and needs more extended and consistent investigation. 

From the results cited above it seems safe to assume for the present that in general 
corn fodder, corn stover, corn silage, and probably the root crops do not unfavorably 
ali'ect either the yield or composition of milk ; that succulent foods do not necessarily 
produce watery milk; and that such rich nitrogenous foods as linseed meal, gluten 
meal, etc., are especially favorable to milk production. The extent to which these 
foods can be given will naturallj' depend upon circumstances, such as the character 
of the stock, and the market value of these feeding stuff's and of dairy products. 

(Iowa B. 13; Eans. B. 1S88, p. 91; Mass. State B. 32, B. 34,^B. 35, B. 38, B. 41, B. 
1884, pp. S6, 59, R. 1885, p. 10, B. 1886, p. 11, B. 1887, pp. 11, 35, B. 1888, pp. 11, 38, 
B. 1889, pp. 12, 48, B. 1890, p. 15, B. 1891, p. 59; Minn. B. 1888, p. 112; Miss. B. 13, 
B. 15; N. H. B. 13; N. J. B. 19; N. Y. State B. 84, B. 1883, pp. 95, 156, B. 1887, p. 15, 
B. 1888, p. 297, B. 1890, pp. 8, 364; Ft. B. 1889, p. 51, B. 1890, pp. 51, 88, 107; Wis. B. 
1884, p. 11, B. 1885, p. 9, B. 1886, pp. 25, 34, 147, B. 1888, pp. 5, 67, B. 1889, pp. 69, 130, 
B. 1890, p. 80.) 

Milk fermentations. — The subject of milk fermentations in their relations to dairy- 
ing has been treated in B.9 of the Office of Experiment Stations, U. S. Department 
of Agriculture. 

Milk is subject to a very large number of fermentative changes which aifect it in 
widely different ways. The most familiar forms are the ordinary souring of milk 
and the curdling of milk by rennet. The former is due to minute organisms (bacteria) 
which get into the milk after it is drawn, and the latter to the action of a ferment 
prepared from a calf's stomach. Besides these fermentations there are numerous 
others, as alkaline fermentations, butyric acid fermentation, alcoholic fermentations, 
fermentations which result in bitter milk or slimy milk, and others which result in 
blue, violet, red, yellow, and green milk. 

The organisms and substances concerned in these fermentations of milk may be 
divided into two distinct classes, namely, organized and unorganized ferments. The 
former include the minute living organisms (microorganisms), such as bacteria, yeasts, 
etc., which by their growth cause changes or fermentation. 

The unorganized or chemical ferments, on the other hand, are substances devoid 
of life which are capable of causing certain chemical changes in other substances 
without themselves being changed. Rennet and pepsin are familiar examples of 
unorganized ferments. 

Bacteria proper, which have most to do with milk and cream, are found in immense 
numbers everywhere, and play an important part in nature. They are all extremely 
minute. In shape they show three chief varieties, which may be compared, respect- 
ively, to a lead pencil (hacilliis), a ball (coccus), and a corkscrew (spirillum). With 
the highest powers of the microscope they appear as scarcely more than simple dots 
and lines. They are to be classed with plants rather than animals, in spite of the 
fact that many of them are endowed with motion. 

The isolation and cultivation of a single kind of bacteria is a matter requiring the 
greatest care. Cultures containing only a slugle kind of bacteria are called pure 
cultures. Although imperfectly studied as yet, manj- different forms of bacteria are 
known which are distinguished by their habits of growth, the substances in which 
they thrive, and the changes which they produce in various substances as a result 
of their growth. 

Yeasts are also plants of a low order which grow very rapidly in certain sub- 
stances and thus cause changes which are commonly called fermentations. The 
most common kind of yeast is that used in making beer and raising bread. 

It is becoming more and more evident every year that the bearing of these fermen- 
tations upon dairying is of the utmost importance. The practical application of our 



I 



MILK. 213 

knowledge of the ferinontiitions of milk will couceni each of the three chief dairy 
products, milk, butter, aud cheese. 

Handling milk. — To those dealing with milk itself in any form the various fer- 
mentations are especially undesirable and are constant sources of trouble. Such per- 
sons want the milk pure and sweet, and any of the various forms of fermentation 
injure the milk lor their purposes. Now, so far as these matters are concerned, the 
study of milk fermentations has taught us first of all that all fermentations 
of milk, even the common souring, are due to the contamination of the milk with 
soiuething from the exterior after it is drawn from the cow. If they are thus all due 
to contamination irom without, all that is needed to prevent them is to treat the 
milk in such a way that no such contamination is permitted. But simple as this is 
in theory, study has shown that it is a matter of practical impossibility. The vari- 
ous organisms atfectiug milk are so numerous and so common everywhere that no 
practical method can be devised for keeping them out of the milk. The person who 
handles milk must therefore recognize their presence in the milk as inevitable, and 
he must simply turn his attention to means of reducing them to the smallest number 
and keeping their growth within the smallest possible compass. This has been 
shown to be best accomplished by the two precautions, absolute cleanliness and low 
temperatures. The great source of these organisms is in the unclean vessels in which 
the milk is drawn and in the tilth which surrounds the cow. By scrupulous clean- 
liness in the barn and dairy the number of organisms which get into the milk may 
be kept comparatively small. Of equal value in preserving milk is the use of low 
teini)erature, and to be of the most use it should be applied immediately after the milk 
is drawn. When drawn from the cow milk is at a high temperature, aud indeed at 
just the temperature at which most bacteria will grow the most rapidly. If the milk 
is cooled to a low temperature immediately after it is drawn the bacteria growth is 
checked at once and will not begin again Avith much rapidity until the milk has be- 
come warmed once more. Thio warming will take place slowly, and therefore the 
cooled milk will remain sweet many hours longer than that which is not cooled. 
(This is the principle of the milk cooler.) Early cooling to as low a temperature as 
is practicable is the best remedy for too rapid souring of milk. A practical knowl- 
edge of this fact will be of great value to every person handling milk. 

While the lactic organisms are so common and so abundant as to make it hopeless 
to trj' to keep them out of the milk, this is not true of the organisms producing the 
abnormal fermentations, such as blue milk, I'ed milk, slimy milk, etc. These organ- 
isms are not so abundant, and by the exercise of care they may all be prevented 
from getting into the milk and causing trouble. If a dairy is suddenly troubled 
Avith slimy milk or any other abnormal trouble, the dairyman may feel sure that the 
cause is to be found in some unusual contamination of his milk and that the remedy 
must be extra cleanliness. He may, perhaps, find the cause in the hay, brewers' 
grains, or something of that sort which the milker has handled, or in the dust which 
has been stirred up in the milking shed. He must look for the trouble in something 
apart from the cow, and usually in his own carelessness, either in the barn or the 
dairy. We must always remember that with a healthy cow all contamination of 
the milk must come from the outside. Sometimes such troubles may be traced to an 
individual cow among a large herd. Such a cow should be cleaned, and especial 
care should be taken to carefully wash her teats with a weak solution of acetic acid 
for the purpose of removing whatever bacteria may be clinging to them. Such 
methods will soon remove the trouble. 

It is well to notice that certain abnormal odors and tastes in milk may be pro- 
duced directly by the food eaten by the cow. If a cow eats garlic or turnip the 
flavor of the milk is directly afl'ected. Various other foods may in a similar manner 
aftect the taste of milk, but this class of taints may be readily distinguished from 
those due to bacteria growth. The odors and taints due to the direct influence of 
tlie food are at their maximum as soon as the milk is drawn, never increasing after- 



214 MILK. 

ward. But the taints due to bacteria growth do not appear at all in the fresh milk, 
beginning to be noticeable only after the bacteria have had a chance to grow. 

Varioua methods have been devised for destroying the organisms after they have 
found their way into the milk. Numerous chemicals have been used, and several 
methods of using heat have been devised. Milk is preserved for family use or for 
infants by heating in bottles set in a vessel of water at about 165° for ahalf hour. 
The bottles are then closed with rubber stoppers or plugs of cotton, quickly cooled, 
and kept in a cool place. Into the details of this sul)ject we can not go at present. 
The methods have been devised for the consumer of the milk rather than ibr the 
dairyman, and the latter need not concern himself with them. The less.ons for the 
dairyman to learn from tlie study of the fermentations of milk are scrupulous 
cleanliness in all affairs relating to milk care in tbe dairy, thorough washing with 
boiling water of all milk vessels, and low temperatures applied to the milk imme- 
diately after it is drawn from the cow. 

Butter making, ripening of cream. — To the bntter-maker the bacteria of milk 
prove friends instead of enemies. After the cream is separated from the milk 
it proves of advantage to the butter-maker to allow bacteria to grow in it before 
churning. It is the custom of butter-makers to allow their cream to "sour" or 
"ripen" for a number of hours before churning. This is accomplished by allowing 
it to stand in a warm place for twenty-four hours. During this time the bacteria in 
it are multijilying rapidly and of course producing the first stages of the various 
forms of fermentation of which they are the cause. Prominent among them will be 
some of the lactic acid organisms, and these will pi'oduce the souring of the cream. 
But the changes which occur ai"e not confined to the lactic acid organisms, for the 
Avarm temperature will hasten the growth of various other organisms which happen 
to be present in the cream. The butter-maker finds certain advantages in ripening, 
such as increased yield of butter in churning and improved flavor and aroma of 
tlie butter (see Bufifr from sweet and from sour cream). 

The aroma of butter is undoubtedly connected with the decomposition products 
of the bacteria growth. The first person to investigate this matter, in the light of 
modern discoveries, was Storch, a Swedish scientist. He assumed that the butter 
aroma was due to the growth of organisms, and made a study of the bacteria in butter 
and cream for the purpose of finding, if possible, the proper species of organism for 
producing the aroma. After considerable search he finally succeeded in isolating 
from ripening cream a single bacillus which seemed to produce the proper butter 
aroma when it was used in pure culture to ripen cream. Shortly after this Weig- 
inaun studied the same phenomenon and also succeeded in obtaining cultures of an 
organism which produced a normal ripening and gave rise to a proper aroma. This 
ferment is coming into use in some of the creameries in Germany and Denmark, the 
claim being made for it that it insures certainty in the result of the ripening process. 
It has not yet been introduced into<this country for practical purposes. 

The value of using such a ferment, if it can be supplied in a practical manner, is 
easily seen. It will introduce improvements into the creameries similar to those 
introduced into breweries by means of the study of yeasts. In normal butter-making 
as practiced to-day there is no way of obtaining any control of the bacteria present 
in the cream. A given specimen of cream will contaiu a large variety of bacteria. 
Conn has shown {Conn. Starrs B. 1890, p. 136) that there may be a score of difterent 
species of bacteria growing in cream which has been collected in the usual way. 
The butter-maker has no means of regulating this assortment or even of knowing 
anything about it. During the ripening process there will ensue a conflict of the 
difierent organisms with each other, and the result will be influenced by temperature, 
variety of species, quality of cream, and length of tiu^e of ripening, as well as by 
the advantage which certain species of organisms may get from an earlier start. 
In such a conflict it will be a matter of accident if the proper species succeeds in 
growing ra]>idly enough to produce its own effect on tlie cream unhindered bv the 



MILK. 215 

others. Now it certaiuly makes a gre;it ditVureneo in the product what species of 
bacteria happen to grow most rapidly. Storch found only a siugle species that pro- 
duced the proper aroma, and Conn has found (Conn. Sions B. 1S90, ^y. 158) that 
(•roam ripened with improper species of bacteria produces very poor butter. 

The bacteria which grow in ripening cream have been found to produce all sorts 
of disagreeable flavors and tastes in milk or cream if allowed to act nnhiiidered. 
It seems to be only the lirst j^roducts that have the pleasant flavor. Too long :i 
rijiening results in the production of a butter containing too strong flavors, and one 
(if the diliiculties of butter-makers is to determine the right length of time for 
proper ripening. 

The matter of the production of the proper butter aroma as the result of the iise of 
artiflcial ferments in riiiening cream is at present too nncertain for definite conclu- 
sions. We may be confident that the flavor of the butter is largely dependent upon 
the decomposition products of the bacteria that grow in the cream, and we have 
positive evidence that some orgaixisms will produce much better equality of butter 
than others. We may hope that the further study of the decomposition prodncts of 
ditferent organisms and their relation to cream and butter will ofier to the butter- 
maker the solution of this difiticult problem in the future. If that occurs we may 
hope, not that the butter-maker will be able to make better butter than the best 
that is made to-day, but that he will be able to obtain the best product with uni- 
formity; and we may also expect that the creameries which at present make an 
inferior (juality of butter will be able to improve it so as to compete with the best. 

As for the other purposes of ripening, it is not possible to say much at present. 
Evidently the greater ease of churning and the larger product obtained from 
ripened cream are matters closely related to each other. The simple fact is that fat 
is more easily collected into masses of suflicient size to be removed mechanically 
from the butter-milk; but why the ripening makes them thus more easily collected 
is yet not fully explained. The difficulty of an explanation lies in the fact that we 
do not know exactly the condition of the fat in the milk. 

Cheese-making. — The ripening of cheese has been proved to be a matter of the 
action of microJirganisms. Bacteria are then an aT>solnte necessity to the cheese-maker, 
for as a result of their slow, long-continued action, cheese acquires a rich, delicate 
flavor and other desirable characteristics, without which it is unjialatable and worth- 
less. The ripening process has been shown to consist chiefly in the transformation of 
insoluble casein into s(duble albuminoids, and it appears that it is associated with 
the production of several ferments. The numljer of organisms in ripening cheese 
lias been found to be from 25 to 16.") millions per ounce and to increase slowly during 
ripening. These include a large number of dirt'erent kinds of bacteria, but proper 
ripening is believed to be due to a limited number of different species, perhaps a single 
species. Abnormal rijiening, resulting in black cheese, bitter cheese, cheese flecked 
with red sjiots, poisonous cheese, and several other troublesome infections, have all 
with certainty been traced to the action of bacteria, and will be avoided when we 
learn to ripen cheese with pure cultures of the proper species of bacteria. As yet 
we have only learned that there is a causal connection between the ripening and the 
microorganisms; but the conditions attecting their growth, the variety of species 
Avhichcan produce a normal ripening of cheese, whether different species of organisms 
will produce difl'erently flavored cheeses, whether the cheeses of the markets are 
due to difl'erent organisms used in the ripening or chiefly to different conditions 
under which they are grown, ai-e all problems to be settled before any practical 
results can be expected. 

We may then, perhaps, predict a time in the not distant future when both the 
butter-maker and cheese-maker will make use of fresh milk. The butter-maker will 
separate the cream by the centrifugal machine in as fresh a condition as possible 
and will add to the cream an artificial ferment consisting of a pure culture of the 
proper bacteria, and then ripen his cream in the normal manner. The result will be 
uniformity. The cheese-maker will in like manner inoculate fresh milk with an 



216 MILK FEVER IN COWS. 

artificial fernieiit, and tlius be able to control his product. Perhaps he will have a 
large variety of such ferments, each of which will produce for him a definite quality 
of cheese. To the dairy interest, therefore, the bacteriolooist holds out the hope 
of uniformity. The time will come when the butter-maker may always make good 
butter and the cheese-maker will be able in all cases to obtain exactly the kind of 
ripening that he desires. (Conn. Storrs B. 4, B. 1890, p. 136, B. 1891, p. 172.) 

Milk fever in cow.3 [also called Parturient apoplexy]. — A braiu affection, due in 
many cases to bi'eed peculiarities, over feeding, or lack of exercise before calving. 
Among exciting causes after calving are sudden changes in tlie weather, cold drink, 
or improper food. One attack predisposes to another. It appears from one to three 
days after calving. The symptoms are a slight chill, diminished secretion of milk, 
loss of appetite, hard and loud breathing, blood-shot eyes, hot ears, horns, and fore- 
head, cold extremities. At first there is slight fever, but the temperature soon falls 
below the normal. The bowels are constipated, with retention of urine. The ani- 
mal finally drops and struggles violently for a time. The symptoms run their course 
in from two to twenty-four hours. 

For treatment the animal should be kept in comfortable quarters and as far as 
practicable in a natural recumbent position. The Indiana Station {B. 17) advises 
giving 20 to 30 ounces of whisky or brandy diluted in warm water. After half 
an hour administer from one to two pints of molasses dissolved in hot water; repeat 
this treatment every four to six hours. Apply ice or cold water to the head. The 
Ehode Island Station {B. 6) advises the use of a " wet pack," made by covering the 
animal with a wet sheet over which blankets are put, to cause and keep up perspira- 
tion. Laxative medicine should be given. If paralysis of the throat occurs hypo- 
dermic injections of eserine are useful. 

This disease may be prevented by careful feeding and keeping the bowels active 
previous to calving. 

(See also La. B. lO, 2d ser.; Me. B. 1889, p. 262.) 

Milk tests. — One of the most useful things which the stations have done for 
dairying lias been to call attention to the vast difference in the quality of milk given 
by different cows, and to place in the hands of the dairymen several simple and ap- 
proximate! j' accurate methods for testing the quality of the milk given by each cow 
in his herd. Through the efforts of the stations farmers and breeders are coming to 
understand that the value of a cow for butter making is not shown by the quantity 
of milk, but by the amount of butter-fat she gives ; and that cows which ordinarily 
pass for good cows may differ greatly in the amount of butter-fat which they yield. 
They know, too, that it costs nearly or quite as much to keep a poor cow as a good 
one, which means that the cost of food per pound of butter will be very much 
higher in the case of the poor cow than in that of the good one. Nearly everv 
fiirnier who has roughly studied his cows by the yield of the churn realizes that 
while some are profitable, many are really kept at a loss, and these latter naturally 
eat up part of the profits from the better animals. To weed out the less profitable 
or unprofitable animals from a herd, and to make sure that every animal kept is 
qualified in a high and profitable degree to convert the hay and fodder articles of 
the farm into butter-fat, is an important matter, and one upon which success in 
dairying largely depends. And this is one of the provinces of the simple milk 
tests. 

The churn test, which until recently has been the farmers' main dependence, 
requires too much time and labor to be commonly and rigidly applied. The ordi- 
nary methods of the chemical laboiMtory require too complex and costly apparatus 
and too skillful manipulation to be adapted to the use of farmers or creameries. 

Simple methods depending on the specific gravity (lactometer) or on the thick- 
ness of the cream layer in cream tubes, do not furnish satisfactory indication of the 
actual amount of fat. All methods depending lipon the color or transparency of 
the milk are likewise unrelin))lo. The transparency of milk is affected by the size 



MILK TESTS. 217 

of the fat globules, so that samples of milk containing like percentages of fat may 
be unequally transparent. 

The lactocrite, an apparatus by which the fat of a given quantity of milk, after 
having been set free by a mixture of sulphuric and acetic acids, is separated and 
collected by centrifugal force, is au expensive piece of apparatus and the method 
has not made its way into general use. 

The "oil test," which is practically a churn test on a small scale, has been found 
( Wis. B. 12) by actual comparison with a large churn to differ, with the same cream, 
by 3 or 4 per cent of butter-fat, not all the materials separated by the method being 
actually fat. 

Numerous other methods, which from time to time have been proposed, have not 
seemed to answer the demand, or at least have not found general application, be- 
cause they were either too complicated, expensive, or insufficiently accurate. 

No less than seven different methods, all quick and fairly reliable, but differing 
somewhat as to simplicity of apparatus and manipulation, have been devised 
and subjected to very rigid trials at the stations, both by experienced chemists and 
by farmers, dairymen, and others unaccustomed to chemical work. These simple 
methods all dipend upon the same genenil principle. The casein, albumen, fibrin, 
etc. ("curd"), of the milk surround the minute fat globules and hinder their rising 
as cream and aggregating to make butter. By treating the milk with acids or 
alkali this curd is more or less acted upon or dissolved, thus diminishing the hinder- 
ance to the rising of the fat globules. These collect at the top of the solution in a 
layer, the thickness of which can be readily measured. This separation of the fat 
from the dissolved curd is aided by either collecting the fat in gasoline or ether, 
which is afterwards evaporated, or by adding hot water, or by centrifugal motion. 

Short method ( Wis. It. ISSS, p. 124). — This was the first of these (juick methods to 
make its appearance, and is the only one in which the nature of the fat is changed. 
It depends upon the fact that when milk and a solution of strong alkali (caustic 
potash and soda) are heated together at the temperature of boiling water for a suf- 
ficient time the alkali and the fat of the milk unite to form a soap, as occurs in ordinary 
soap manufacture where fats and grease are heated with alkali (potash or soda). 
This soap is dissolved in the hot liquid. The casein and albumen are changed by 
the alkali and become much more easily soluble. If an acid is now added (a mixture 
of acetic and sulphuric acids is used in this method) the alkali of the soap is 
taken away by the acid, leaving the fat free. The casein, albumen, etc., are first 
precipitated and then dissolved by the acid. There is then nothing left in the milk 
to prevent the fat from following the law of gravity and rising and collecting in a 
narrow tube at the top of the liquid, where it may be measured by a graduated scale 
like that of a thermometer. The percentage of fat indicated by this reading is found 
by reference to a table. The author states that this method does not give accurate 
results where less than 0.5 per cent of fat is present, unfitting it for testing skim 
and buttermilk low in fat. In 146 comparisons, made by difi'erent stations, of 
this method and the gravimetric methods ordinarily used by chemists, twenty-one 
showed differences of 0.2 per cent or more from the gravimetric, this difference being 
very rarely more than 0.3 per cent. Of six samples of skim-milk tested four differed 
by 0.2 to 0.22 per cent. The time required for a single analysis is approximately 
three and a half hours, although several analyses may be made at the same time. 

Parsons method {N. H. B. 1888, p. 69; N. Y. State B. 19, n. ser.).— The measured milk, 
according to this method, is shaken with alkali (soda solution), alcoholic soap so- 
lution, and gasoline. The gasoline under these conditions dissolves the fat and 
rises with it to the surface. A part of this solution of fat in gasoline is measured 
out, the gasoline evaporated, a few drops of strong acetic acid added, the fat dried 
in an oven, and what remains behind measured in a narrow graduated tube. 
From this measurejuent the perccntai!;e of fat in the milk is found by reference to 
a table. The time required for the analysis is about two and a half hours, but 



218 MILK TESTS. 

several analj'ses may be made at the same time. Of uinety-tbree trials matle with 
whole milk six differed from the gravimetric deteimination by 0.2 per cent or over; 
of seventeen tests of cream five differed by 0.2 per cent or over, the greatest error 
being 0.52 per cent; and of thirteen tests of skim milk there was in no case as largo 
as 0.15 per cent. The cost of the necessary apparatus is from $5 to .$10, depending 
upon the number of duplicates to be made at once. 

Faili/er and Willard method {Kans. li. 18S8, p. 149). — The casein, albumen, etc., are 
dissolved by heating the milk with strong hydrochloric acid, the fat is dissolved 
and collected at the surface by gasoline, and the gasoline is evaporated by gentle 
heat, leaving the fiit free. Hot water is now added, which brings the fat up into 
the narrow graduated neck of the tube where it can be read oft'. 

The time required is about half an hour for a single sample, or an hour and a quar- 
ter for four samples. In five out of twenty-two trials made there was a difference 
of 0.2 per cent or over from the gravimetric analyses. 

Patrick viethod; Iowa Station milk test {Iowa B. S, B. !', B. 11). — The curd (albu- 
men, casein, etc.) of the milk is dissolved by boiling the milk with a mixture of sul- 
phuric and hydrochloric acids and sulphate of soda, the last lieing used to prevent 
the formation of a scum of undissolved materials which holds the fat. The acid 
mixture, as recently modified, contains rectified methyl alcohol. The liquid is then 
cooled, the fat rises to the surface, is heated again to clarify it, a part of the acid 
solution is drawn oft' through a small hole in the body of the tube ordiuai'ily closed 
by a rubber ring, and the column of fat is read off on the scale. The time required 
is about twenty minutes for a single test or six may be made in one and a half hours. 
The cost of chemicals is not more than one cent for each analysis. In thirty-five 
trials of this method the results of only three differed by 0.2 per cent from the re- 
sults obtained by the gravimetric (laboratory) method; and in thirteen tests of 
skim milk only one test differed by 0.2. The method has not given good success with 
samjjles of buttermilk. 

Cochran method {.lonrnal Anali/tical Chemistry, vol. Ill, ^7. 381; N. T. Cornell B. 
17 ; Pa. B. 12). — The chemicals used in this method to dissolve the casein, etc., are 
sulphuric and acetic acids, which are heated with the milk about six minutes. After 
cooling, ether is added which dissolves out the fat and brings it to the surface. The 
ether is evaporated by gentle heat, and the liquid poured into a narrow measuring 
tube, where, after the addition of hot water, the fat collects in a clear layer and is 
read off. A table gives the per cent of fat corresponding to the reading of the tube. 

In ten trials out of fifty-nine made by this method the results dift'ered by 0.2 per 
cent of fat or over from the results l>y chemical analysis. In nine analyses of skim 
milk this difference was in onlj" one case as high as 0.15 per cent ; in six tests of but- 
termilk the greatest difference Avas 0.27, all others being under 0.15 per cent. 

The method is covered by a patent. It is not a station method, but has been 
tested by several stations. The cost of apparatus and the right to use the method 
varies from $10 for the dairyman's outfit, sufticient for testing four samples at a 
time, to $50 for the large creamery outfit for making sixty tests at one time. The 
cost of chemicals is about one-half cent per analysis, and the time required one-half 
hour for a single test, or one and a half hours for twenty-four tests. 

Bcimling or Vermont Station method ( Vt. B. 31). — This test, which is similar to the 
one devised by Dr. Babcock, depends on dissolving the curd by treating the milk 
with a mixture of hydrochloric acid, without the application of heat, and whirling 
the bottles containing the liquid in an improved centrifuge for from one-half to one 
minute. This is said to be sufficient to cause the fat to collect in the narrow neck 
of the bottle where it is read oft', the reading indicating the per cent of fat in the 
milk taken. No hot water jacket around the separator or hot water in the bottles 
is used. The time required for a single test is not more than five minutes, and 
twenty-five samples can be tested in an hour. 



MILKING. 219 

In the case of twenty-four ,sami)lcs wlucli weru tested by an inexperienced person, 
75 per cent of the results were within 0.1 of the chemical analyses, and in no case 
was th<' error as larjre as 0.3 per cent. Prof. (Jooke says, " If thesanijile has been 
correctly taken and tlie column of fat in the tube is correctly read, there is no 
chance for the results to be wrong," Skim milk and buttermilk containing less 
than 1 per cent of fat cau not be accurately tested by this method. The cost of 
chemicals is not more than (me-fifth cent per test. The machine is patented and 
costs, including bottles, from $20 to $50, according to the size, the one suggested for 
creameries carrying six bottles and costing $2.5. 

Bdbcock method {Wis. B. 24,31). — In this method the curd is dissolved by sul- 
phuric acid, no heat being applied. The separation of the fat is then aided by a 
simple centrifugal apparatus consisting of a wheel fitted with pockets and sur- 
rounded by a tank filled with hot water (about 200^ F) . The bottles containing the 
liquid are placed in an inclined position within the pockets of the wheel with the 
mouths toward the axis and whirled rapidly for several minutes. The acid and the 
dissolved curd and water of the milk being much heavier than the fat are thrown 
outward (to the l)ottom of the bottle) by the rapid motion and the fat collects near 
the neck. The separation of the fat is ra])id and very complete. Hot water is now 
added to bring the fat up into the graduated neck, and the bottles are whirled for a 
few minutes more to clarify it. The reading of the column of fat gives the per cent 
directly. 

"Two samples of milk may be tested in duplicate in fifteen minutes, including all 
the work from the mixing of samples to the cleaning of bottles. After the milk has 
been measured sixty tests may be made in less than two hours, including the clean- 
ing of the bottles." The cost of the acid for the test should not exceed one-half cent 
per test. With properly made bottles tlie breakage is very slight. This test has 
been adapted to testing cream. {Conn. State B. IOC, B. lOS, R. 1891, p. 107; Me. B. S.) 

The Babcock method has been more thoroughly tested and has found wider apjili- 
cation than any of the others. Hundreds of comparisons of this method and the 
gravimetric method are on record, the overwhelming majority of which go to show 
that the Babcock test properly manipulated gives accurate results, and that it is 
practical. It has been practically applied in thousands of private dairies and 
cheese and butter factories throughout the United States, and is used at the stations, 
the agricultural colleges, by dairy commissions, city milk tests, etc. Its use marks 
one of the most important advances in dairying in this country. 

{Colo. B. 20; Conn. State B. 106, B. 108, B. 1891, p. 107; Del. B. 1889, p. 164; ill. 
B. 10, B. 9, B. 12, B. 14, B. 16, B. 18; Iowa B. 8, B. 9, B. 11, B. 13; Me. B. 3, 2d ser.; 
Miss. B. 15, E. 1891, p. 28; N. Y. Cornell. B. 25, B. 29; Xev. B. 16; Pa. B. 12, B. 1890, 
p. 172; Vt. B. 16, R. 1888, p. 144; W. Va. B. 13, R. 1890, p. 77; Wis. R. 1890, p. 98. 

Milking. — The advantages of thorough milking have been brought out by trials 
at the Mississippi Station {Miss. R. 1888, p. 42). 

The Wisconsin Station (/'. 1889, p. 44) reported experiments on the effect of change 
of milker, rapidity of milking, manner of milking, milking tubes rs. hand milking, 
and milking one teat at a time. Differences were noticed between good milkers 
which were attributed to the manner of milking, since the cows were all milked dry. 
The greatest effect was always noticed at the first milking after a change of milker, 
and with some cows this was more marked than with others. 

In the comparison of milking fast and slow, cows were milked in from three to 
four minutes, and in double that time. The yield of milk seemed to be little affected, 
but in every case richer milk was given Avhen the cows were milked fast, and this 
was most marked Avith cows giving the most milk. On an average from the whole 
lot of cows there was a gain of 11.73 per cent in the total yield of fat from fast milk- 
ing. This difference in quality, however, seemed to decrease gradually, thongii not 
to disappear altogether. When cows were milked one teat at a time there was a 
decided difference in the comjiosition of milk from the different teats. The milk 



220 



MILKING TUBES 



richest in fat was invariably obtained from the teat milked second, that milk* 
first coming next in richness, that milked third following, and that milked fourth 
the poorest. If the order in which the teats were milked was changed, the order of 
richness also changed so as to confoi'm to the above rule, indicating that the richness 
of the milk from separate teats was due to the order of milking rather than to any 
characteristic difterences in the parts of the udder. With this manner of milking 
the average percentage of fat in the milk from all four teats was considerably below • 
that with ordinary milking. Comparisons of milking bj- hand and with tubes were, , 
as a rule, unfavorable to the milking tubes. On the whole, the yield was slightly 
less with tubes than with haad milking, anu the quality of the milk was poorer, , 
although there were individual exceptions to this rule. The average for the eight ; 
cows tested showed a total loss with tubes of 6.5 pounds of milk and 2.718 pounds of! 
fat per day. 

As to the frequency of milking, tests made at the New Hampshire station of milk- 
ing hourly and at the Vermont Station of milking two and three times a day, indi- 
cated that while there was a gain in some cases from frequent milking this was only 
temporary and was not apparent after two or three days. There was often a de- 
crease in both yield and composition when frequent milking was continued. The 
Vermont Station found that in these fluctuations of quality the fat only was affected, 
the casein, sugar, and ash remaining practically constant. (iV. R. B.. 9; Ft. R. 1890, 
P- 90.) 

Milking tubes. — See Milking. 

Millet. — Under this general name are included a number of different kinds of 
grass. The popular names given to the various species are so numerous and so 
confused that great care is necessary in distinguishing them. 

Common millet (Panieum miUaeeum) is an annual grass, from 2 to 4 feet high, with 
profuse foliage and abundant flowers in open nodding panicles, grown in the United 
States chiefly for green fodder, (Tenn. B. vol. V, 2). 

Texas millet {Panieum texanmn) is an annual grass, from 2 to 4 feet high, with an 
abundance of rather short and broad leaves. It is a native of Texas, where it is 
grown for forage and hay. " On rich, moist soil it yields several cuttings during the 
summer, and a total of 3 or 4 tons of hay per acre." Dr. Collier's analysis of Texas 
millet gave the following results: Albuminoids, 4.70; fiber, 23.16; nitrogen-free ex- 
tract, 47.07; fat, 2.12 per cent. (See also 0. E. S. B. 11; N. C. B. 73.) 

Pearl millet {Pennisetum spicatum) [also called Egyptian or Cat-tail millet] is an 
annual grass, from 3 to 6 feet high, with long broad leaves and a stout stem, termi- 
nated with a thick, erect "head" (panicle\ 6 to 10 inches long, resembling the spike 
of the common cat-tail. It is cultivated for green forage chiefly in the Southern 
and Southwestern States. It is commonly sown in drills 2 and 3 feet apart, and is 
cultivated like corn. It prefers rich and moist soil. After flowering the stem grows 
woody. In an experiment at the Georgia Station, pearl millet yielded 19.474 pounds 
of dry fodder per acre from three cuttings. 

An analysis of the dry matter gave the following result : 





Protein. 


Nitrogen- 
free 
extract. 


Fiber. 


Ash. 


First cutting 

Second cutting 

Third cutting 


Per cent. 
16.64 

.2.17 

13.65 


Per cent. 
30.71 

14.60 

38.37 


Per ct. 

37.37 

59.57 
36.50 


Per ct. 

15.28 

13.66 
11.48 



{AJa. Cavchralce B. 9; Ga. B. 12; Eans. R. 1SS9, p. 43; La. B. S,2d ser.; N. C. B. 
73; 0. E. S. B. 11; Tenn. B. vol. V, 2.) 



MILLO MAIZE. 221 

Italian or golden millet (Setaria italioa) is an annual grass, 2 to 4 feet high, with 
numerous long and broad leaves and a terminal spike-like panicle 4 to 6 inciies long. 
"The millets of this class are ready to cut just as heading out and before blooming. 
They make a valuable and safe forage, but in more advanced stages the feeder should 
be exceedingly careful, for when ripe these millets act injuriously upon the kidneys" 
(Tenn. B. vol. V, 2). The results of an analysis of golden millet at the North Caro- 
lina Station were as follows: Albuminoids, 6.4; fiber, 25.5; nitrogen-free extract, 
45.70; fat, 1.7 per cent {N. C. B. 73). 

German millet or Hungarian grass (Setaria italicavar. gervianica) differs from the 
Italian millet in having a more dense or compact panicle, which is usually erect. The 
following analysis is reported by the New Jersey Stations (B. 1889, p. 176) : Dry 
matter, 92.23 per cent; fat, 0.87; protein, 3.95; carbohydrates, including fiber, 45.69; 
ash, 6.18; nitrogen, 1.21; phosphoric acid, 0.35; potash, 1.29 per cent. (See also Ap- 
pendix, Tables I and 11.) 

Golden Wonder millet, a new variety of the same class as German millet, has 
bright yellow heads {Iowa B. 7; Eans. B. 1889, p. 43; La. B. 8, 2d ser.) 

Japanese millets {Setaria italica vars.). Several varieties of millets grown at the 
Massachusetts Hatch Station from seed imported from Japan have yielded large crops 
of stalks and seed {Mass. Hatch B. 7, B. 18, B. 1890, p. 4, B. 1891, p. 9). 

African or Indian millet (»9or(//iH»» vulgare or Andropogon sorghumvar.), is a form 
of the botanical species to which belong sorghum, broom corn, durra, Kaffir corn, 
millo maize, and chicken corn. It grows 8 to 10 feet high, and has a large head 12 
to 14 inches long. If cut and cured when the seeds are in the dough stage it keeps 
well in out-door shocks and is relished by stock. It is also excellent for green food. 
The grain may be safely fed to animals {La. B. 8, 2d ser.). It is adapted to the South- 
ern and Southwestern States. 

Many-flowered millet (il/(7m?jt nitt/ii/fo/Hoi), introduced into California from New 
Zealand in 1879, " makes a great abundance of excellent forage, which, when cut 
young, is fine and tender, and practically frost-proof." The seed is very small. 
This grass requires careful management to get a good stand, and for this reason has 
not proved generally satisfactory to California farmers who have tried it. On the 
experimental plats at the California Station it grows well {Cal. B. 1885-86, p. 91, 
B. 1890, p. 209). 

Millo maize {Sorghum vulgare ov Andropogon sorghumvar.). — Anon-saccharine va- 
riety of sorghum similar to Kaffir corn (see p. 187) and dui-ra (see p. 121). It has 
tall, slender, and juicy stalks with abundant foliage, and produces a considerable 
number of suckers. The heads are erect, in compact panicles, with large seeds. It 
requires a longer season of growth than Kaffir corn, and therefore in many localities 
is liable to injury by frost. Two varieties, white and yellow, are grown. 

At the Kansas Station {B. IS) in 1889 millo maize yielded 15 tons of green fodder 
and 57 bushels of seed, but in 1880, an unfavorable season, it yielded only 5 tons of 
green fodder and 2 bushels of seed per acre. In 1888 it was killed by sorghum blight 
{Kans. B. 1888, p. 64). 

At the Georgia Station {B. 12, B. 17) the white variety has yielded from 16 to 25 
toQS of green fodder and from 31 to 7 tons of dry fodder at three cuttings, and the 
yellow variety from 14| to 23 tons of green and from 3 to 7 tons of dry fodder at 
three cuttings. As compared with other forage crops grown at the same time these 
yields were relatively large. 

At the Louisiana Station {B. 8, n. ser.) millo maize produced a large amount of 
green fodder, but required all summer to mature seed. At the North Louisiana Sta- 
tion in 1890 it yielded 11^ tons of dry fodder and 34 bushels of seed per acre. 

The yellow variety gave a large yield on the black bottom land at the Alabama 
Canebrake Station {B. 9). 

At the Texas Station {B. 3) millo maize grows well and resists drought, but is not 
considered superior to other sorghums for forage. 



222 MINNESOTA STATION. 

At the California Station it has proved of equal value witli Kaffir corn (Cat. B. 1890, 
li.210). 

At the Colorado Station it yielded an abundance of fodder and seed with a small 
amount of irrigation, but is liable to injury by frost {Colo. E. 1889, p. 125; B. 1890, pp. 
20, 211). 

Minnesota Station, St. Anthony Park. — Organized under act of Congress ini 
1888 as a department of the University' of Minnesota. The staff of the station con- 
sists of the president of the college, director, agriculturist, horticulturist, en- 
tomologist and botanist, chemist, dairyman, and secretary. The principal lines of 
work are chemistry, field experiments with vegetables and fruits, entomology, and 
dairying. Up to January 1, 1893, the station had published 2 biennial reports and 
25 bulletins. Revenue in 1890, $22,746. 

Mississippi Station, Agricultural College.— Organized under act of Congress 
February 1, 1888, as a department of Mississippi Agricultural and Mechanical College. , 
The staff consists of the president of the college, director, assistant director, an-ri- 
culturist, entomologist, assistant botanist, horticulturrst, veterinarian, two chem- 
ists, treasurer, and superintendents of substations at Ocean Springs, Holly Sprinu-s 
and Lake. The principal lines of work are botany; field experiments with field 
crops, vegetables, and fruits; feeding experiments; veterinary science and practice- 
entomology; and dairying. Up to January 1, 1893, the station had published 4 
annual reports and 23 bulletins. Revenue in 1892, $1.5,000. 

Missouri Station, Columbia. — Organized under act of Congress January 2, 1888, 
as a department of Missouri Agricultural College of the University of the State of 
Missouri. The staff consists of the president of the college, director and agricul- 
turist, chemist, horticulturi.st and entomologist, veterinarian, assistant chemist, 
farm superintendent, secretary, and treasurer. The principal lines of work are 
chemistry; field experiments with field crops, vegetables and fruits; feeding experi- 
ments; and veterinary science and practice. Up to January 1, 1893, the station 
had published 1 annual report and 18 bulletins. Revenue in 1892, $19,057. 

Molasses.— The sirup which drains from cooling sugar during the process of 
manufacture. At the Texas Station {B. 10) molasses was advantageously intro- 
duced into a ration of cotton-seed meal and cotton-seed hulls for cattle. The use of 
half a pint of molasses for each daily ration resulted in the profitable consumption 
of a larger amount of food by cattle. Molasses did not improve a ration consisting 
largely of silage. At the Maryland Station {B. 8) molasses was added to a ration of 
corn meal, cotton-seed meal, hay, and rye straw for fattening work oxen. {Conn. 
State B. 1888, p. 106; Ky. B. 1888, p. 27; La. B. 11, 2(1 ser.; Miss. B. 1888, p, 45.) 

Mowing machines. — See Di/namometer tests of farm implements. 

Muck. — See Beat. 

Mulching.— A mulch is anything spread on the ground to hinder evaporation of 
water from the surface. It is a matter of common observation that straw, leaves, 
chips, sawdust, boards, stones, etc., lying on the soil, keep it moist. They allow 
the soil water to flow freely up to the surface, but there the movement is checked. 
Stirring the surface soil by impairing its capillarity accomplishes, in a measure, this 
same result, but not so effectively as mulching. From experiments at the New York 
State Station ( B. 1888, p. 186), the conclusion is drawn that "a slight mulch exerts 
a far greater influence in retaining water than tillage 4 inches deep," and in ex- 
periments on corn at the Missouri Station {B. 14) mulching prevented evaporation as 
effectually as thorough tillage. 

Mulching, moreover, preserves the tilth by preventing puddling, protects from 
surface washing when heavy rains occur, and prevents growth of weeds. 

Its value as a winter protection to grass and other plants is well known, and it is 
a common opinion that a large part of the value of top-dressings with barnyard 
manure on grass is due to its action as a mulch. 



MULBERRY. 223 

Mulches, however, find their chief upplication as mitigators of drought. They 
conserve the moisture in dry seasons, and keep the soil cool. These facts are clearly 
brought out in experiments at the Missouri College (/>'. 4), with corn and potatoes 
on mulched and unmulclied s'oil. 

The use of mulches in re(;laiming galled lauds, and the compaiative value of dif- 
ferent kinds of mulches, have been the subject of (juite an extensive report by the 
Tennessee Station (li. vol. Ill, 4). 

lu this report brief accounts are given of twenty-one experiments, from 1878 to 
1890, inclusive, in reclaiming hillside luud from which the soil had been washed, 
leaving exposed the clay and subsoil, scarred by deep gullies. Success was not 
attained until stable manure was liberally used, together with mulches. 

Attention is called to the action of microbes in helping to make atmospheric nitro- 
gen available to leguminous plants, and it is stated that these microbes multiiily to 
an enormous extent in the decaying vegetable substances in mulches. 

.Statements on the value of clover haulm as a mulch are quoted from the re])ort of 
the station for 188.'3-'86 (p. 135), and reference is made to experiments with damaged 
silage as a mulch on corn, recorded in the annual reports of the station for 1882-'86. 
Green weeds and straw from stubble lields are recommended as good materials for 
mulching. 

"Sedge grass deserves special mention on account of cheapness, abundance in 
many sections, extent of land covered by a given amount — four loads per acre for 
grass or clover — and general efficiency. It is especially valuable and practicable 
for 'galled' hillsides or on thin land, where it is desirable to grow a crop of clover 
to turn under. It settles very close to the ground after the first rain, effectually 
prevents washing, and will not blow off after once becoming settled.'' 

The following is a list of the materials used for mulch by the author of the above 
report, in the order in which he values them: Clover haulm, damaged silage, green 
weeds and straw from stubble field, sedge grass, briers, weeds, and trash from fence 
corners, partially rotten straw, straw, sorghum cane pomace, dry weeds and trash 
from clover fields in spring, and brush. 

(3/0. CoUe(jc B. 4; N. Y. State li. 188G, p. I'JS; Teiin. B. vol. HI, 4, B. 18S2, p. 1:22, 
B. 1SS3-\S4, p. 78, B. 1S8.5-'S6, pp. 101, 135.) 

Mulberry {Morus spp.). — Varieties of the mulberry belonging to various species 
have b3eu planted and observed at several stations. {Cal. B. 8, B, 1888- 89, pp. 49, 
87, 110, 188, 186, 197, B. 1890, p. 233; Mich. B. 55, B. 67, B. 80; Minn. B. 1888, p. 286; 
Mo. Collet/e B. 26; X. Y. Cornell B. 46; S. Dak. B. 1888, p. 28.) 

N. Y. Corndl B. 46 presents a full discussion of the merits of the mulberrj', his- 
torical notes respecting its culture in this country, a description and classification 
of varieties and species, and some culture notes. It is held that the mulberry is a 
neglected tree. "It possesses decided value in ornamental planting, and some of 
the varieties are useful for hedges, shelter belts, and snmll timber. The fruit has 
merit for the dessert, is easily grown, and is produced more or less continuously 
throughout a period of two to four months every year."' The value of the mulberry 
as a fruit-bearing tree is especially emphasized. 

While the botany of the mulberry is recognized to be perplexing, there are thi'ee 
well-marked general types in cultivation — the white, black, and red {M. alba, M. 
nigra, smd M. rubra) — besides the Miilticanliti group, M. lafifolia, and the Japanese 
group, M. japouica. The "New American" of the white group is considered to be 
the best mulberry yet known for the Northern States. The Downing from the Multi- 
cditHn has the greatest reputation, but the true Downing is now little known except 
in the South. The Russian subgroup of the white mulberry type has been largely 
introduced in the West, and is valuable for hedges and small timber on the prairies, 
and for ornamental planting. (lu S. Dak. B. 1888, p. 28, it is said to be a failure as 
a tree, but good for hedges). 

The native red mulberry is regarded as the parent of four varieties, of which one, 
the Hicks, is ranch used in parts of the South to supply food for swine. 



224 MURIATE OF POTASH. 

M. rubra ''h.as given us some of the most importaut varieties, aud, as it is natu- 
rally variable and adapted to our various climates, it is the probable progenitor of 
the American mulberries of the future." 

The California Station also looks upon the mulberty with high esteem. "The 
value of the mulberry for shade, for fruit, for home use, for timber, ultimately for 
silkworm culture, and its extreme ease of culture, make it desirable that the people 
should know more about the tree. It thrives on widely difierent kinds of soil, and at 
all the stations in that State. ( Cal. K. 1890, p. 233. ) All the typesadopted in the New 
York Cornell bulletin are named as " best adapted to the greater part of California, 
including the interior, where they rival the fig in enduring heat, even where only a 
moderate supply of moisture is to be had. The best growers and the handsomest 
trees of the group have proved to be the Japanese Nagasaki and Shoo, which also 
have a large leaf of close texture, admirably adapted for the food of the silkworm." 

At the Minnesota Station the Russian variety was on trial with doubtful success; 
this was found hardy at the Michigan Station, but, in general, mulberries were not 
regarded quite hardy in that State, even near the lake. 

Muriate of potash. — See Ftrtilizers and Potash.. 

Muskmelon {Cuoumis 7«e7o).— Tests of varieties sometimes including the canta- 
oupe are recorded as follows: Colo. R. 1889, p. 101, B. 1890, p. 193; Ey. B. 32; Minn. 
B. 1888, p. 249; Nebr. B. 12; Nev. B. 1890, p. 16; N. Y. State B. 1882, p. 126, B. 1883, 
p. 185, B. 1884, p. 202, B. 1885, p. 121, B. 1886, p. 237, B. 1887, p. 321; Utah B. 3. 

Tests of varieties of cantaloupes are reported in Ala. College B. 20, B. 28, n. ser.; 
Ala. Canebrake B. 2, B. 6; Ga. B. 14; Ey. B. 38; N. Y. State B. 1883, p. 185, B. 1884, 
p. 202, B. 1885, p. 121, B. 1886, p. 237, B. 1887, p. 321. 

Analyses of muskmelon varieties with reference to sugar content were made at the 
Massachusetts State Station {B. 1889, p. 311, B. 1891, p. 336), for which see Appendix, 
Table III. 

A note in Fla. B. 14 describes the manner in which muskmelons were successfully 
grown at that station. At the New York State Station {B. 1SS4, p. 204) the theory 
was tested that the earliness aud productiveness of melons is promoted by pinching 
off the ends of the stems, thus encouraging the growth of the branches, upon which 
the first flower is invariably female. The advantage of the method proved to be 
only theoretical. 

The roots of a plant were washed out at the New York State Station (i?. 1886, p. 
161), showing that the tap root at the depth of 4 inches became nearly horizontal, 
descending very gradually ; and that the horizontal roots, one of which was traced 
to a distance of 5 feet, lay 2 or 3 inches below the surface. 

Experiments in grafting muskmelons are noted under Cucurbits. 

The accepted opinion that cucumbers spoil muskmelons when planted near was 
refuted by an experiment in which ninety-seven muskmelon flowers were pollinated 
from cucumbers of diff"erent varieties and no fruits at all were developed (N. Y. Cor- 
nell B.25). Germination tests of muskmelon seed are recorded in N. Y. State B. 
1883, pp. 60, 69; Ohio B. 1885, p. 177; Ore. B. 2; Ft. B. 1889, p. 106. 

Mustard (Brassica spp.). — Five varieties of mustard were planted at the New York 
State Station (B. 6, B. 1885, p. 192). One of these— the tuberous-rooted mustard- 
is noted as a new introduction. " The roots, which form the part most used, are thick 
and fleshy, resembling in form, color, and taste those of the half long white radishes." 

White mustard tested at the Pennsylvania Station (B. 1888, p. 44) as a forage crop 
yielded only about 1 ton per acre. For analysis with reference to food constituents, 
see Appendix, Table III. Germination tests of mustard seed are on record in Ohio B 
1885, p. 167; Ore. B. 2; Vt. B. 1889. p. 106. 

Mycology.— See Fungi and Diseases of plants. 

Nebraska Station, Lincoln.— Orgauized under act of Congress July 1, 1887, as a 
department of the University of Nebraska. The staff' consists of the chancellor of 
the University, director and agriculturist, botanist, chemist, physicist, two assistant 



\ 



NEW JERSEY COLLEGE STATION. ' 225 

••ht-raists, entomologist, horticulturist, assistant agriculturist, assistant physicist, 
foreman of farm, and treasurer. The principal lines of work are chemistry, meteor- 
ology, soils, field experiments with field crops, vegetables, and fruits, and entomol- 
ogy. Up to January 1, 1893, the station had published 5 annual reports and 20 
bulletins. Revenue in 1892, $15,176. 

Nectarine ( Pntnus pcrsica var.). — Variety tests of the nectarine are recorded as fol- 
lows: Ark. li, 1S88, p. 57; Cal. E. 1882, p. 82, B. 188S-'89 pp. 86, 109, 137, l'J4; 
La. B. 8, Sdser; Mo. B. 10; Nev. R. 1890, p. 30; N. Mex. B. 4; K. Y. State B. 1884, p. 
:?J; B. I. B. 7; Tenn. B. vol. Ill, 5; R. 1888, p. 12; Va. B. 2. 

Nematode root galls {Heterodera radicicola). — Diseases of plants caused by the 
attacks of minute thread-like worms. Nearly all our economic plants are subject to 
the attacks of nematodes, but they are especially injurious to peas, beans, beets, 
melons, cucumbers, potatoes, tomatoes, cabbage, turnips, parsnips, celery, cotton, 
and young nursery stock. These pests attack the roots, causing variously shaped 
knots or galls to form. After the galls have reached their greatest size they begin 
to decay. Often the root wholly or partially rots off, and the plant wilts and dies, 
or at least becomes greatly stunted. 

In new ground the nematodes cause but little damage. It is said that a very dry 
soil is not as favorable to their growth as a wet one. 

They spend their entire life underground and are so small, hardly more than a 
hundredth of an inch in length, that their destruction is very difficult. In Europe 
infected ground is sowed with cowpeas, or some crop upon which the nematodes are 
especially bad, and the roots are all pulled up and burned. If this is repeated a few 
times most of them may be destroyed. Freezing and the free use of salt may also 
kill many of them. Another way is to starve them out by permitting nothing to 
grow on infected land or only such plants as are not susceptible to their attacks. 
This plan, followed by careful rotation of crops, will be found the most practical 
in a large way. For nursery stock, planting in new ground or sterilizing the soil 
by heating may be found profitable. Of course, no plant already infected should 
be plauted. 

No chemical means of treatment are yet known, except the use of salt as stated 
above. (Ala. B. 9, B. 21; Fla. B. 9; N. J. B. 1890, p. 366, 518; N. Y. Cornell B. 43.) 

Nevada Station, Reno.— Organized January 2, 1888, under act of Congress of 
March 2, 1887, as a department of Nevada State University. The staff of the sta- 
tion consists of the president of the college and director, entomologist and botanist 
agriculturist and horticulturist, chemist, librarian, and foreman of farm. The 
principal lines of work are soils, field crops, horticulture, diseases of plants, ento- 
mology, and dairying. Up to January ], 1893, the station had published 18 bulle- 
tins and 4 annual reports. Revenue in 1892, $15,066. 

New Hampshire Station, Durham.— Organized under act of Congress February 
22, 1888, as a department of the New Hampshire College of Agriculture and 
Mechanic Arts. The staff consists of the president of the college, director, super- 
intendent of dairying department, bacteriologist, two chemists, meteorologist, ento- 
mologist, assistant chemist, foreman of farm, and clerk. The principal lines of work 
are chemistry, experiments with field crops, feeding experiments, and dairying. Up 
to January 1, 1893, the station had published 2 annual reports and 17 bulletins. 
Revenue in 1892, $15,000. 

New Jersey College Station, New Brunswick. — Organized under act of Con- 
gress in 1888 as a department of Rutgers College. The staff of the station con- 
sists of the president of the college, director, biologist, chemist, assistant chem- 
ist, superintendent of college farm, disbursing clerk and librarian, and mailing 
clerk. The principal lines of work are botany, diseases of plants, weeds, feeding 
experiments with milch cows, and entomology. Up to January 1, 1893, the station 
had published 4 annual reports and a number of bulletins in the same series as 
those issued by the New Jersey State Station. Revenue in 1892. $15,000. 
2094— No. 15 15 



226 NEW JERSEY STATE STATION. 

Ne'w Jersey State Station, New Brunswick. — Organized under State authority 
March 18, 1880. The staff consists of the director, three chemists, chief clerk, 
and a laboratory attendant. The principal lines of work are chemistry, analysi.s 
and control of fertilizers, and field experiments with fertilizers. Up to January 1, 
1893, the station had published 10 annual reports and 133 bulletins. Eevenue in 

1892, $11,000. 

New^ Mexico Station, Las Cruces. — Organized under act of Congress, Novem- 
ber 14, 1889, as a department of the Agricultural College of New Mexico. The staff 
consists of the president of the college and director, horticulturist and agriculturist, 
two chemists, entomologist and zoologist, assistant agriculturist and horticulturist, 
assistant meteorologist, and clerk. The principal lines of work are field experi- 
ments with field crops, vegetables, and fruits, and entomology. Up to January 1, 

1893, the station had published 2 annual reports and 9 bulletins. Revenue in 1892, 
$15,071. 

New York Cornell Station, Ithaca. — Organized in February, 1879, by the faculty 
of agriculture of Cornell University, and reorganized under act of Congress, Octo- 
ber 26, 1887, as a department of Cornell University. The staff' of the station consists 
of the presulent of tlie university, director and agriculturist, deputy director and 
secretary, treasurer, chemist, veterinarian, botanist and arboriculturist, entomologist, 
horticulturist, cryptogamic botanist, assistant entomologist, two assistant agricul- 
turists, two assistant horticulturists, assistant chemist, and foreman of farm. The 
principal lines of work are experiments with field crops, field and greenhouse 
experiments with vegetables and fruits, feeding experiments, entomology, and dairy- 
ing. Up to January 1,189.3, the station had published 4 annual reports and 49 
bulletins. Revenue in 1892, $1.5,.300. 

New York State Station, Geneva. — Organized under State authority, March 1, 
1882. The staff' consists of the director, first assistant, five assistant chemists, horti- 
culturist, assistant horticulturist, and agriculturist. The principal lines of work are 
chemistry, meteorology, analysis and control of fertilizers, field experiments with 
fertilizers, field crops,vegetables, and fruits, diseases of plants, composition of feeding 
stufts, feeding experiments, and dairying. Up to .January 1, 1893, the station hadpub- 
lished 10 annual reports and 133 bulletins. Revenue in 1892, $68,500, 

New Zealand flax. — See Flux. 

Nitrate of soda. — See Ferfilktrs. 

Nitrogen. — See also Fertilizers and Feeding farm animals. Nitrogen in the free or 
gaseous state constitutes about one-fifth of the atmosphere surrounding the earth; 
about 3 per cent of the live weight of animals is nitrogen combined largely as albumin- 
oids or protein compounds; and of all plants it is a iirominent and important con- 
stituent. 

The nutritive value of all animal and vegetable foods depends largely upon the 
organic combinations of nitrogen which they contain. These nitrogenous or albumi- 
noid constituents of foods arc considered si)eeially necessary to the formation of 
muscle, tendon, and ligament in aninuils. Their composition and digestibility are 
therefore of great importance from the standpoint of animal production. The 
albuminoids are very variable in composition — Osl)orne has isolated and studied 
four distinct albuminoids from the corn kernel and five or more from the oat ker- 
nel {Conn. State R.,1S90, p. 114, B. lS91,p. 136)— bwt all show a high percentage of 
nitrogen — 16 per cent may be considered a fair average. The proportion of nitrogen 
dift'ors widely in difierent plants, in dift'erent parts of i)lants, and in the same plant 
a,t different stages of growth. The leguminous jdants are especially rich in nitro- 
gen; immature plants are as a rule richer than mature, and seeds than stems and 
leaves. (See Appendijc, Table I). 

The nutritive valne of }irotcin h;is been the subject of much investigation by the 
stations. I'or rcsmiK's of this worlc, sec Fixnlx. Fccdiinj farm aiihnuJx. etc. 



NITROGEN. 



227 



Nitrogen is of no less importance as an element of plant food. Notwithstandin"' 
its comparative abundance in nature, it is tlie most costly fertilizing ingredient 
which has to bo supplied to soils. This is duo to the comparative rapidity with 
which the organic nitrogen iu the soil is reduced to the inert gaseous form by iiutre- 
factive ferments or is transformed by the process of nitrification into soluble com- 
pounds for which the soil has very slight retentive power {Ind. B. 33) and which 
are thus readily washed out by the drainage water. 

SouncES OF NITROGEN IN SOILS.— The nitrogen of soils is derived from the resi- 
dues of former animal and vegetable life, from the fixation of free nitrogen by 
oKganisms of the soil, and from nitrogenous compounds absorbed by the soil from the 
air or washed down by rain amd snow, and exists in three different forms, (1) 
ammonia, (2) nitrates, and (3) nitrogenous organic matter. The amount of ammonia 
is usually insignificant, the nitrates occur iu larger amounts, sometimes amounting 
to as much as 5 per cent of the total nitrogen, but the great bulk of the nitrogen is 
in combination with organic matter. 

Recent investigations have shown that the fixation, transformation, and in some 
plants at least, the assimilation, of nitrogen is promoted or controlled by the vital 
activity of microscopic organisms in the soil. These different processes will be dis- 
cussed briefly under separate heads. 

Fixation of nitrogen by soils.— Certain lower orders of plants and other 
microscopic organisms have the power of assimilating the free nitrogen of the air 
and of converting it into organic combinations. The accumulation of the remains of 
these organisms in the soil materially increases its content of nitrogen. Besides 
this, the natural absorptive i^ower of a soil enables it to acquire a small quantity of 
the combined nitrogen of the air. 

Nitrogen carried down to the soil in rain and snow. — The extent of the 
supply from rain water is indicated by the following tabular statement of results 
taiued at the Kansas Station {R. 1SS9, p. 131) : 



Suinmurji of results vf unuh/ses of rain wafer. 
[Menu niiiifall for 4 years. '29. 14 iuclies.] 



Parts 
per uiil- 
liou of 
water. 



Total nitroger, — means for 4 years 

Nitrogen in ammonia— means for 3 years. 
Nitrogen in nitric aeid— means for 3 years 



0.522 
0.388 
0.156 



Pounds 
per acre. 



3.44 
2.C3 
1.06 



Observations at Rothamsted, Lincoln (New Zealand), and in Barbados, show that 
3.37, 1.74, and 3.77 pounds of nitrogen per acre, respectively, were brought down in 
rain, snow, etc., annually. The amount is small, but by no means insignificant. It 
is evident, however, " that if the ammonia and nitric acid of the air are to be of any 
considerable agricultural importance they must be taken up directly by crop or soil 
to an extent far beyond that which takes place through the medium of rain. The 
amount of ammonia and nitric acid in the air is certainly extremely small, but the 
air that is in contact with crop and soil is being constantly renewed. It is, there- 
fore, by no means impossible that the quantities absorbed may become considera- 
ble." — (Warrington.) 

Nitrification, or transfoRiMation of organic nitrogen into nitrates. 

The vast niter beds of Peru, Chile, and other countries, are the result of the activ- 
ity of microorganism8,;three distinct classes of which probably take part in the for- 
niati(m of the nitrate ; one converts the organic matter in ammonia, a second chaug<\s 
this aiiuuouia into nitrites, and the third transforms the nitrites into nitrates. 



228 NITROGEN. 

I 

Nitrification goes on in all warm, moist, alkaline soils, bnt it is only in regions of 
limited rainfall that the nitrates accumulate, as in the niter beds of Chile. In 
regions of abundant rainfall the nitrates are washed out by the drainage water. 
According to Deh^rain the annual loss in well-drained fallow land may amount to 
as much as 294 pounds of nitrate of soda per acre. 

Denitrification. — As opposing the process of nitrification in the soil, there are 
certain organisms which reduce nitrates to other lower forms less available to plants. 
These are known as denitrifying organisms, and are especially active when there is a 
limited supply of air in the soil, as in case of water-logged soils. The remedy for 
this, therefore, is drainage and improvement of the texture of the soil, thus facili- 
tating the circulation of air. 

Assimilation of nitrogen by plants by means of microorganisms (symbi- 
osis). — Recent investigations have shown that certain organisms infesting the roots 
of leguminous plants have the power of rendering the nitrogen of the air available 
to those plants (see Green manuring and Leguminous plants). 

Sources of nitrogen in fertilizers. — The chief sources of nitrogen in fertil- 
izers are the salts — nitrate of soda and sulphate of ammonia— and the organic sub- 
stances — dried blood, cottou-seed meal, castor pomace, dry ground fish, tankage, etc. 

"Nitrate of soda is mined in Chile and purified there before shipment. It usually 
contains about 16 per cent of nitrogen, equivalent to 97 per cent of j^ure nitrate of 
soda. It contains besides a little salt and some moisture. The usual guaranty is 
'96 per cent' of nitrate of soda, equivalent to 15.8 per cent of nitrogen. 

"Sulphate of ammonia, now made on a large scale as a by-product of gas-works, 
usually contains over 20 per cent of nitrogen, the equivalent of from 94 to 97 per 
cent of sulphate of ammonia. The rest is chiefly moisture. The usual guaranty is 
25 per cent of ammonia, which is equivalent to 20.6 p^r cent of nitrogen, but com- 
mercial sulphate of ammonia commonly contains less than that quantity." (Conn. 
Slate B., lS91,p. 27.) 

For the composition of the other sources of nitrogen in fertilizers see Appendix, 
Table IV. 

Best form of nitrogen to apply as a fertilizer. — It is probable that plants 
take up nitrogen through their roots exclusively in the form of nitrate. Conse- 
quently, when nitrate is applied to soils it is inimediately available to plants. 
Other forms have to undergo the processes of nitrification already exjilained. In 
the case of sulphate of ammonia and of other ammonium compounds, the trans- 
formation to nitrates is one stage further (ammonia stage) advanced than in case of 
organic matter. 

Classifying the nitrogenous fertilizers, therefore, according to the readiness with 
wliich they will be utilized by plants the order would be as follows : (1) Nitrates, (2) 
ammonium salts, (3) organic nitrogenous substances. In the third class there is a wide 
difference between sucli substances as the readily decomposable dried blood and the 
almost inert ground leather, even though they might be equally rich in nitrogen. (For 
methods of determining availability of nitrof^vU in fertilizers, see Fa'tilizeis.) It 
may be said in favor of the organic forms of nitrogen, that in the majority of cases 
they are transformed as fast as needed by most crops, and thus are less liable to loss 
in drainage, are more lasting in eft'ect, and do not hasten the growth of vegetative 
organs at the expense of fruit. Incidentally, their organic residues improve the 
chemical and physical character of the soil. 

For the reasons above explained, nitrate of soda has been found especially valua- 
ble for hastening the early growth of crops, and has generally given the best results 
when applied fractionally. Sulphate of ammonia, while less liable to leaching, has 
been found slow of action in the early spring when conditions are unfavorable to 
nitrification (Mass. B. 1892, p. 173 ; B. I. B. 1S91, p. SO). In the warmer regions of 
the United States, where conditions are generally favorable to rapid decomposition 
in the soil, the difference in ett'ectiveness of the difi'ereut I'ornis of nitrogen is not 
so marked and the organic forms of nitrogen have been found particularly effective. 



NITROGEN. 229 

In experiments on corn and cotton at Georgia, Louisiana, and South Carolina Sta- 
tions ( Ga. B. 11, B. 15, B. 16; La. B. 26, B. 27, B. 28, and B. S, B. 16, B. 21, 2d ser.; S. C. 
M. 1SS8, p. 246, B. 1SS9, p. 292), on sugar cane at Louisiana Station {B. 20, B. 28, B. 
21, 2d ser.), and on tobacco at Virgiuia Station {B. 12) the results in general indicated 
that the organic forms of nitrogen were as effective as the more soluble forms. The 
results of a special study of the availability of difi'erent forms of nitrogen to the 
corn plant are given in Fa. R. 1S80, p. 195. 

Special nitrogkn expkuimknts. — Special experiments with nitrate of soda on 
various crops have given interesting results. The tendency of nitrate of soda to 
increase the growth of stems and leaves at the expense of grain or seed is brought 
out in experiments at the Minnesota Station {R. 1888, p. 159) on wheat, oats, barley, 
mangel-wurzels and clover. In case of clover it prevented the production of seed 
entirely, and in every case largely increased the growth of the vegetative organs. 

Similar results were obtained at the Ohio Station {R. 1888, p. 109) with straw- 
berries. On the other hand, experiments at the New Jersey Station {R. 1891, p. 141) 
on strawberries showed an increase of 31 jier cent in yield of fruit due mainly, how- 
ever, to the increased size of the berries and not to an increase in their nimiber. 

Experiments with nitrate of soda on tomatoes at the New .Jersey Station carried 
on for three years (i>. 63, B. 79, B. O, R. 1891, p. 85) led to the following conclusions, 
especially apjilicable to early tomatoes : 

(1) Maximum yields of tomatoes depend upon a full supply of immediately avail- 
able nitrogen ; (2) nitrogen in itself is not a complete fertilizer; and (3) to econom- 
ically use commercial manures the farmer must know the average cajiacity of his 
soil for the crop. 

"The average results secured under the varied conditions of soil and season 
included in the three years of experiment, seem, however, to warrant a further prac- 
tical conclusion, viz: That under the conditions considered favorable for the growth 
of tomatoes— that is, good cultivation and previous liberal fertilization— the applica- 
tion of IGO pounds per acre of nitrate of soda alone will be uniformly more profitable 
for early tomatoes than combinations of minerals, barnyard manure, or a complete 
fertilizer." 

These results are generally confirmed by similar experiments at the Maryland Sta- 
tion {R. 1891, p. 412) and at the New York Cornell Station (B. 32). From the latter 
the conclusion was reached that nitrate of soda should be used alone on poor soils, 
and " that nitrate gives better results when applied two or three times than when 
the same amount is applied at once." 

Experiments on potatoes, timothy, and sweet potatoes indicate that nitrate of 
soda is a valuable fertilizer for those crops. {N. J. B. P, R. 1890, pip. 122, 149, 150.) 

The following directions for the use of nitrate of soda on wheat are drawn from 
experiments at New Jersey Station {B. 80, R. 1890, p. 142) : 

"When the crop has not been fertilized in the fall, 100 pounds per acre would 
probably be more profitable than larger amounts. 

"If the soil contains an excess of potash and phosphoric acid which has been 
applied to previous crops or directly, the amount can be safely increased to 150 or 
200 pounds per acre. 

"All lumps should be crushed and the application to the soil made as evenly as 
possible. In order to accomplish this it may be advisable to mix earth with the 
nitrate. 

" The best time to make the application is after the plants have obtained a fair 
start in the spring. If possible, it should be applied before a light rain; this will 
insure complete distribution in the soil." 

Methods of determining nitrogen.— In Conn. State R. 1889, p. 191, apparatus 
for the Kjeldahl method is described and illustrated. Conn. State B. 112 contains a 
report on a modification of the Gunuing-Kjeldahl method applicable to nitrates. The 
Schulze-Tiemann method for nitric acid is described and discussed in Conn. Siorrn 



230 NORTH CAROLINA STATION. 

Ji*. 1890, p. 163, and motlificntioiis based on experimental data proposed. A modifica- 
tion of the Kjeldahl- Jodlbaner luetliod for nitrogen in nitrates is proposed in Mc. B. 
1888, p. 204. A method of determining iiitrogen by the azotometric treatment of the 
solution resulting from the Kjeldahl digestion is described in N. Y. Cornell B. 6. 
Favorable results of a test of a modi ti cation of the official method for determining 
albuminoid nitrogen, consisting essentially of an increase of the amount of potas- 
sium sulphide solution used from 20 c. c. to 30 c. c, are reported in N. T. Cornell B. 37. 
In the same bulletin experimental data are cited to show that it is not advisable to 
use the modified Kjeldahl method for determining the total nitrogen in soils, but 
that more satisfactory results are obtained by a separate determination of the 
nitrates and nitrites. 

North Carolina Station, Raleigh. — Organized under State authority March 12, 
1877, and reorganized under act of Congress in 1887. The staff consists of the 
director and chemist, agriculturist, botanist and entomologist, horticulturist, mete- 
orologist, four assistant chemists, assistant agriculturist, assistant meteorologist, 
and secretary. The principal lines of work are chemistry, meteorology, analysis 
and control of fertilizers; field exiierimcnts with fertilizers, field crops, vegetables, 
and fruits ; seed testing ; and analyses of feeding stutt's. Up to January 1, 1893, the 
station had published 12 annual reports and 115 bulletins. Revenue in 1892, $23,400. 

North Dakota Station, Fargo.— Organized under act of Congress March 8, 1890, 
as a department of North Dakota Agricultural College. The staff consists of the 
president of the college and director, chemist, agriculturist, veterinarian, arbori- 
culturist, botanist, farm superintendent, assistant horticulturist, assistant chemist, 
and secretary. The princij)al lines of work are botany, field experiments with field 
crops, forestry, and diseases of plants. Up to January 1, 1893, the station had pub- 
lished 2 annual reports and 8 bulletins. Revenue for 1892, $17,887. 

Nutritive ratio. — See Feeding farm animals. 

Oak trees {Quercus spp.). — Several American and two foreign members of this 
important genus have received notice at the stations. According to the South 
Dakota Station (li. 1888, p. 24), " every planter should put acorns into his tree 
claim." They make little show the first few years, but when the roots are well 
formed they advance more rapidly. On account of their taproot they are difficult 
to transplant, though, according to Minn. B. 24, "nursery grown trees properly 
handled can be moved without serious loss." At the last given reference the bur, 
mossy-cup, or over-cup oak {Q. macrocarpa) is recommended as "our finest orna- 
mental oak, and a magnificent tree even in the most severe locations." " This tree 
and the white oak class, to wliich it belongs, haA^e very long taproots," and hence 
withstand the treading of cattle or the working of the soil around them far better 
than the red oak class, which have mostly surface roots, though if planted in open 
ground those also develop taproots. Tlie bur oak is characterized in S. Dak. B. 23 
as " one of the most valuable species of the entire oak family." It is very durable 
when in contact with the soil, and can be substituted with advantage for the more 
commonly used white oak in all cases." It is native in Minnesota and South Dakota, 
and, according to Nelr. B. 18, it is the most widely distributed oak in that State, 
and "in favorable situations attains a great size, even along its western borders." 
The valuable but less ornamental white oak {Q. alba) is noted in Cal. B. 1880, p. 68; 
Minn. B. 24; ,S. Dak. Ji. 1888, p. 24. The red oak {Q. rnhra) is characterized in 
Minn. B. 24 as "a good ornamental and timber tree, with foliage of a deep red color 
in autumn," and the scarlet oak (Q. coccinea) as a beautiful ornamental tree, having 
brilliant scarlet foliage after the first frosts of autumn. The jack or black oak {Q. 
nigra) is mentioned in S. Dak. B. 23 as inferior to bur oak, but growing much more 
rapidly when young. 

In California eastern oaks have been planted, which in general have been found 
to grow very slowly {Cal. B. 1880, p. 68). Tlie tanbark oak (Q. densiflora), native in 



OATS. 231 

that State, is noted in ral. /.'. JSSr-'SJ, p. JOS, U. 1SS4. p. 7.?. as ati imiiortaTit 
^<o^rce of tanning material, ln\t in danger of exhaustion. 

In Go. B. 3 are presented the rcsnlts of an investigation of the fuel value of white 
oak, red oak, and post oak {Q. ohiii>fHoha), including full ash analyses of the wood 
and the l)ark. (See A})pe)idu-, Table V.) 

In California two foreign oaks have come to be of importance. The English or 
German oak (Q. rnhur) has been tested widely in the State, and unlike the American 
oaks, when transplanted to that climate, "proves to be a rapid grower, nnexpect- 
edly resistant of drought, and promises well as the hard-wood tree of the future on 
the Pacific Coast. It is not clioice as to location, and would probably do well both 
on the mountains and in the jilains, where the latter are not too dry." {Cal. B. 29.) 
As noted in Cal. B. 1S90, p. 131, however, it is better adapted to the coast region 
than to other localities. '' The tree requires a deep soil, heavy loam being preferable 
to a light sandy soil." On account of the long taproot which it soon sends down, 
the sapling should be removed at the age of one year, or better, the acorn should be 
planted where the tree is to stand. {Cal. B. M, B. SI. B. 05. B. ISSO, p. 6S, R. 1885- 
'Sf].p. 131.) 

The cork oak (Q. siiber) has been jdanted in numerous localities in California, and 
large specimens are known to exist in at least six ditierent counties. Although of 
slow growth, it was judged (Cal. B. 1885-'S6, p. 131) to offer " a promising invest- 
ment to those who can afford to wait some time for returns." It was found to grow 
in a soil ill-suited to most other trees, for instance, in clay and even in ill-drained 
soil. While a large part of the State is eminently adapted to oak plantations, it was 
judged that the cork oak would jirobably grow faster in the warmer districts, and 
it is particularly recommended for the Sierra foothills {Cal. B. 1890, j). 331). It is 
stated to be very hard to transplant. (See also Cal. B. 81.) 

Oat grasses. — See Grasses. 

Oats. — Almost all the cultivated varieties belong to the species Arena saliva . 
Classified lists of the cultivated species and varieties have been jmblished in III. B. 
13; N. Y. State B. 1884, p. 390, B. 18S6, p. 100. The work of the stations on this 
cereal has included tests of varieties, analyses, experiments in methods of planting, 
rate, time, and depth of seeding, tests of fertilizers, and feeding experiments. 

Varieties. — Some twenty-five of the stations have rejjorted tests of varieties of 
oats, in a number of cases extending through a series of years. Among the varieties 
Avhich have given relatively large yields indifferent localities are the following: 
Schoenen, Probsteier, Improved American, Black Tartarian, Rust Proof, Surprise, 
Wideawake, Welcome, White Belgian, White Russian, Clydesdale, Japan, White 
Victoria, White Seisure, Barley, and Early Dakota. Out of thirteen varieties grown 
for hay at the Kansas Station, Blue Grazing Winter gave the largest yield, 4.85 tons 
per acre {Kavs. B. 29). The Illinois Station {B, 19) makes the following general 
statements regarding the varieties tested there : 

"The early-maturing varieties are superior to either the medium or late in the 
average yield of both grain and straw, the weight per bushel, and size of berries, 
but are inferior to either of these in per cent of kernel. As to berries (short plump 
and long slender), there is very little difference in yield, a noticeable difference in 
Aveight per bushel in favor of the short plump, and a difference of 2.1 per cent in 
kernel in favor of the long slender. 

"The white berries gave the largest yield of grain and the smallest per cent of 
kernel. The dun-colored gave the smallest yield and the largest per cent of kernel. 

"As to panicles, open or closed, the latter is superior in yield of both grain and 
straw and also in per cent of kernel. 

"As to weight per bushel, those which weigh less than 32 pounds are superior in 
both yield and per cent of kernel. Notwithstanding the common belief to the con- 
trary, those oats which weigh least to the bushel have usually the highest per cent 
of kernel, and consequently the highest food value." 



232 OATS. 

The Wisconsin Station lias called attention to important diiferences between 
varieties as regards the weight of the hnlls ( Wis. B. 17). 

{Ala. Canebrake B. 5 ; Cal. R. 1S90, p. 374; Colo. E. 1890, pp. 15, 185, 204, and 207; 
Ma. B. 14: Ga. B. 14; III. B. 12, B. 19; lucl. B. 6 (i<S^J), B. 14; Iowa, B. 15; 
Kans. B. 13, B. 29, B. 1S89, p. 52; K\j. B. 23, B. 35 ; Me. B. 18 {1887); Mass. Hatch. 
B. 11, B. 18 ; Mich. B. 34, B. 46; Mo. B. 15; Nehr.B. 6, B. 17; Nev. II. 1891, p. 13; 
N. Y. State B. 102, B. 4, n. ser., R. 1884, p. 390, B. 1886, p. 100; Ohio B. vol. Ill, 
3, B. vol. V, 1; Ore. B.4; Pa. B. 6, B. 10, R. 1889, p. 21, R. 1890, p. 149; S. C. B. 
5 {1889), B. 4, n. ser., R. 1889, p. 205; S. Bak. B. 11, B. 17, B. 21; Tenn. B. vol. Ill, 
2; Wis. B. IS, B. 17, B. 22.) 

Composition. — See Appendix, Tables I and II. 

CULTUKE. — Experiments in growing oats on rolled and unrolled land at the Wis 
consin Station {R. 1890, p. 120) and six other localities in the State give tlie follow- 
ing average results: Rolled ground, 61.12 bushels per acre, weighing 28.35 pounds 
per bushel. Unrolled ground, 58.89 bushels per acre, weighing 26.32 pounds per 
bushel. At the Kansas Station {B. 29) the use of the roller or press wheel is 
favored. At the same station {B. 13) good results are reported in one case from 
planting on unplowed land ; in another case fall plowing was more advantageous 
than spring plowing or no plowing {Eans. B. 29). The New York State Station {R. 
1889, p. 294) reports an experiment in which subsoiliug was somewhat beneficial to 
oats. In Illinois a seed bed of medium compactness gave the best results during 
several seasons {III. B. 12). 

In Illinois it was found better to sow oats before the first of April rather than 
later {III. B. 3, B. 12). In Louisiana oats can be profitably sown for forage early in 
October. In one experiment in that State it was observed that the oats sown in 
October were not killed by the cold in January as were those sown in November 
{La. B. 4). At the New York State Station {R. 1887, p. 69) fall sowing was not 
successful, but oats sown February 10 on land where wheat had failed to grow pro- 
duced a good crop. 

A number of stations report experiments which favor drilling rather than sowing 
broadcast {Ind. B. 6, B. 14; Eans. B. 13; Nebr. B. 17; Ohio B. vol. V. 1; B. I. R. 1890, 
p. 15; S. Dak. B. 17, B. 21). In one experiment at the Illinois Station only 44 per 
cent of the oats sown broadcast in the field grew, and the average number of stalks 
in each stool was less than two {III. B. 3). 

The proper depth of seeding in an average season would seem to be about 2 inches 
{III. B. 3, B. 12, B. 19; N. Y. State R. 1887, p. 66; Ohio B. vol. V, 1.) 

From 2 to 3 bushels of seed i)er acre will probably as a rule give the best results 
{Ala. College B. 6 {1887); III. B. 3, B. 12, B. 19; Ind. B. 6, B. 14; Eans. B. 29; Ohio 
B. vol. Ill, 3; S. Dak. B. 17). 

In an experiment at the Kansas Station {B. 29) a larger yield was obtained by cut- 
ting oats in the dough state than by letting them stand until ripe. 

When oats and peas are grown together for forage, the Minnesota Station {B. 11) 
advises that the seed be mixed in proportions of one part of oats to three parts of 
peas. 

Feutilizer tests. — The experiments thus far reported agree, in general, in indi- 
cating the desirability of having nitrogen in the fertilizer applied to oats, and in 
many cases the addition of phosphoric acid has iiroved beneficial. In some experi- 
ments nitrate of soda has given the best results and in others cotton-seed meal. The 
Indiana Station reports in favor of barn-yard manure as compared with commercial 
fertilizers {Ind. B. 34). In experiments in South Carolina on sandy and clayey soils, 
nitrogen in an uuorganic form was found most beneficial to oats. Nitrogen and 
phosphoric acid were needed on these soils, but potash was of doubtful value {S. C. 
B. 5, R. 1889, p. 198). At the Georgia Station {B. 14) on gravelly soil with hard 
red clay subsoil, cotton-seed meal was the only profitable fertilizer. In Massachu- 
setts nitrate of soda alone in smaH quantities proved beneficial {Mass. Hatch. B. 



OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 233 

IS). At the Ohio Station (B. vol. V, S) the increase iu yield was more uniform when 
the fertilizer contained nitrogen. Analyses of oats grown with different fertilizers 
at the New York State Station indicated tlie most marked effects from nitrate of 
soda. Nitrogen seemed to increase the size of the straw and retarded ripening, while 
phosphoric acid hastened ripening {N. Y. State R. 1S88, pp. 263, 344). At the Massa- 
chnsetts State Station {R. ISOO, p. 149) it was observed that where nitrogen was 
omitted from the fertilizers for oats, not only was the yield decreased bnt the foliage 
of the plants had alight green color throughout the season. "In the majority of 
cases where muriate of potash has fnruislied the potash, the maturing of the crop 
was somewhat later than where sulphate of potash was used." On alluvial soil iu 
Louisiana, cotton-seed meal and acid phosphate greatly increased the yield of oats 
(Zrt. B. 4). The same station reports that peas grown before oats increased the 
yield of the latter even when the pea vines were removed before plowing (La. B.ll). 
At the Kansas Station {B. 29) the application of salt as a fertilizer somewhat de- 
creased the yield o^ oats. The greater effect of fertilizers on drained than on nn- 
drained land has also been noticed {Ala. Cavchrake B. 5; La. B. 26). 

Feeding Experiments.— See Cotes; Cattle, fecdhuj for beef and for grorvth; and 
Pigs. 

Oats, black or loose smut {Ustilago avence].—A well-known fungous disease 
which appears about the time the grain heads out, and transforms the whole head 
into a black powdery mass of innumerable spores. The smut matures about the 
time of blooming, and the ripened spores are scattered by the wind, leaving the 
bare stalk standing at harvest time. The smut germinates the following season 
when the seed sprouts, early penetrates the oat plant, and develops with it. It 
shows its presence only when it reaches the head. Numerous experiments show that 
the smut is sown with the oat seed. It adheres closely to the grain, and can only 
be seen by the most careful inspection. Numerous unsuccessful attempts have been 
made to infect plants after they had made considerable growth. Anything which 
will prevent the germination of the spores adhering to the seed oats will prevent 
the smut. One form of treatment is to soak the seed for twenty-four hours in a 
solution of potassium sulphide (1 pound to 20 gallons of water), or to use twice as 
much of the chemical and soak half as long. Carefully dry, and sow at once. 
Another means is the Jensen, or hot-water, treatment. This consists in placing the 
seed oats in water heated to 132^° F. for fifteen minutes, care being taken that the 
temperature does not fall below 130^ nor rise above 135°. For full directions for 
these methods of treatment, see Fungicides. The use of either of these methods not 
only insures exemption from smut, but actually increases the crop of both grain and 
straw. Seed from fields where there is no smut does not need treatment, unless the 
smut is in other fields near by. 

Loose smut is also found upon wheat and barley, where the same treatment should 
be given as for oats. {Ind. B. 2S, B. 35; Kans. B. 8, B. 15, B. 22, R. 1889, p. 213; 
Mass. State R. 1891, p. 244 ; Nebr. B. 11; S. Dak. B. 17; N. Y. State B. 97; B. I. B. 
15; rt.R. 1890, p. 138). 

Odorless phosphate. — See Phosphates. 

Office of Experiment Stations, Washington, D. C. — Organized October 1, 1888, 
as a branch of the United States Department of Agriculture to represent the Depart- 
ment in its relations to the agricultural experiment stations in the several States 
and Territories. Its object is to promote uniformity of methods in the work of the 
stations, and in general to furnish them such advice and assistance as will best pro- 
mote the purposes for which they were established. To this end it indicates lines 
of inquiry, aids the stations in the conduct of cooperative exiieriments, helps to 
make available to them the processes and results of experimental inquiry in the 
United States and abroad, and compiles, edits, and publishes accounts of station 
investigations. It also acts as a bureau of information for the general public on all 
matters connected with the work of the stations in this and other countries. The 



234 OHIO STATION. 

admiuistrative ancl editorial Coicc of tlae office cuusistsof a director; assistant direc- 
tor and editor of departments of botany, field crops, and liorticulture; special editor 
for foreign work; editors of departments of chemistry, foods and animal produc- 
tion, and dairying; fertilizers, soils, and indexes; seeds, weeds, and diseases of 
plants; and librarian and record clerk. The office has issued 14 bulletins, 3 mis- 
cellaneous bulletins, 4 farmers' bulletins, and 4 volumes of the Experiment Station 
Record (see pp.4 and 126). 

Ohio Station, Wooster. — Organized at Columbus under .State authority April 25, 
1882, reorganized under act of Congress April 2, 1888, and removed to Wooster Sep- 
tember 1, 1892. The staff consists of the director, vice-director and horticulturist, 
agriculturist, entomologist, chemist, and assistant horticulturist. The principal 
lines of work are field experiments with fertilizers, fiel<l crops, vegetables and 
fruits, and entomology. Up to January 1, 1893, the station had published 11 annual 
reports and 47 bulletins. Revenue in 1892, $22,116. 

Oklahoma Station. Stillwater.— Organized under act of Congress June 23, 1891, 
as a department of Oklahoma Agricultural College. The staff consists of the presi- 
dent of the college, director, agriculturist and horticulturist, chemist and physicist, 
and superintendent of farm. The principal lines of work are field experiments with 
field crops, vegetables, and fruits. Up to January 1, 1893, the station had published 
4 bulletins. Revenue in 1892, $1,5,000. 

Okra (Hihiscus escuJentua) [also called Gumbo]. — An annual plant bearing numer- 
ous edible pods. Tests of varieties are reported in Neh-. B. 12; N. Y. State B. 18S5,p. 
189, B. 1886, p. 249, B. 1888, p. 130. The rooting habit of okra was observed at the 
New York State Station (/.'. 1886, p. 159) and found not to be specially shallow, 
though the plant is of tropical origin. 

Germination tests of okra seed are reported in N. T. State B. 1883, pp. 60, 69; Ohio 
B. 1885, f. 168; S. C. B. 1888, p. 79; Vt. B. 1889, p. 106. 

Olive ( OZeff e?fro/)fpa,)— This fruit appears to have been studied at the California 
Stations only ; but there, owing to the increasing prominence of its culture in the 
State, a thorough investigation of its varieties, etc., has been undertaken. Exper- 
imental plantations are noted in Cal. B. 1889, pp. 87, 111, 137, 187, 196, B. 85 (B. 
1890, p. 150), B. 91, B. 93 (B. 1890, p. 167). 

In Cal. B. 85 a record of several years' growth of a number of varieties is given 
and the same are described, especially with relation to the ratio of the pit to the 
pulp by bulk. 

Less complete data are given upon a number of other varieties. Notes are made 
also upon some seedling olives grown on the Berkeley experiment grounds. B. 91 
contains brief descriptive notes on 8 varieties of olives recently imported, B. 92 
(B. 1890, p. 167) presents a study of olive varieties in which time of ripening and 
productiveness and the quantity and quality of the oil were observed. 

The investigation of the proportion of kernel to meat in the fruit showed a vari- 
ation of from 8 to over 34 per cent for the kernel in difiereut varieties, a matter con- 
sidered of much importance with respect to the production both of oil and pickled 
olives. 

In studying the manuring of the olive, ash analyses were made {B. 85) of the 
wood of large and of small branchc^s, of leaves, and of fruit. Determinations of 
nitrogenous matter are also given. (For wood and fruit analyses see Appendijc, Table 
III). The fuel value of olive oil and other fats, etc., was investigated with the 
calorimeter at the Connecticut Storrs Station {B. 1890, p. 182). 

A general discussion of olive culture, arguing its importance, and treating of va- 
rieties, soil, propagation, time of bearing, and Qpemies maybe found in Cal.B. 
1885-'86, p. 109. 

The manuring of olives is considered with some fullness in Cal. B. 1890, p. 162. The 
view of some authors that the olive grows and bears best on the most barren ground 
is rejected. Analyses are given showing an abundance of potash in the wood, in 



ONION. 235 

the leaves, and especially in the fruit; also a good quantity of lime and phosphoric, 
acid. In general the quantity of oil is in ])roportion to the potash. California soils 
are considered to be " very well adapted to olive culture, provided we increase, by 
the use of manure, their proportion of nitrogen and phosphoric acid in localities 
where these ingredients are deficient." 

The olive in a soil which suits it docs not need much manuring, and excessive 
manuring, while it increases the yield, injures the quality of the oil. Instructions 
are given as to the time and mode of nuinuring. 

In Cal. B. 1890, p. 150 is a pa])er upon the ripening, ])icking, assorting, and 
conservation of olives. 

The effects of different soils and climates on ripening are noted, and the proper 
condition of the fruit for pickiug. If high quality of the oil is the object, the 
olives must be gathered when they show the black-A'clvety color in cold climates, 
but in warm climates, while still yellowish; if quantity is sought, they can be 
gathered at full maturity. "Very unripe olives furnish a bitter oil; those which 
are nearly ripe give an oil which has a. fruity taste, and, everything considered, is 
better than any of the others; olives which arc completely ripe produce an oil with 
a strong flavor, which is hardly agreeable and is subject to becoming rancid; over- 
ripe olives yield a very greasy, thick oil, which is very difficult to keep from spoil- 
ing.'' Picking by hand is stroiigly urged. The olives must be carefully protected 
from bruising, and should be sorted into four different qualities, which are named. 
The olives ought to be kept in any case as short a time as possible; all which are 
not in the best condition must be crushed at once. ''The only good method of 
preservation is to make use of trays on shelves of willow or cane." Directions are 
also given for pickling olives. The modes of preparation, it is stated, can be re- 
duced to two — one using a lye of greater or less strength, the other pure water only. 
The details of the methods are explained. 

In Cal. It. 1S90, j>. 173, olive oil is considered with special reference to purity and 
methods of testing for adulteration. The method by iodine absorption is de- 
scribed, but it is not considered wholly reliable, and a method adopted at the 
laboratories of the Italian custom-Jiouses is described, employing a solution of nitrate 
of silver as a test against cotton-seed oil. Several other reactions serving as tests 
against seed oils are described. 

Onion (Allium cepa). — This vegetable has l>een the subject of many variety tests, 
of culture and fertilizing experiments, and of a few other inquiries. Tests of vari- 
eties are reported as follows: Ala. College B. 20, n. ser.; Colo.B. 1888, pp. 118, 121, 
li. 1889, pp. 40, 98, B. 1890, pp. 50, 192; Ind. B. 18; Ey. B. S8 ; La. B. 3, 2d ser.; 
Md. B. 5; Minn. B. 10; B. 1888, pp. 23R, 20,1, Nehr. B. 6, B. 12, B. 19; N. Y. Stale B. 
1882, p. 125, B. 1SS3, p. 183, B. 1884, p. 200. B. 1885, p. 119, B. 1886, p. 236, B. 1887, p. 
318, B. 1889, p. 330; Ohio B., Vol. Ill, 9; Pa. B. 14; Fa. B. 11. In N. Y. State B. 
1888, p. 190, a classification is given of .54 varieties on the basis of the form and color 
of the bulb. Full descripticmswith English and foreign synonyms are given, and an 
index of the names. The potato onion and top onion are noted at the close of the 
list. Information respecting the top onion is also given in Minn. K. 1888, p. 258. 

An ash analysis of onions is given in Mass. State B. 1890, p. 305, B. 1891, p. 331 (see 
Appendix, Table III.) 

The root system of the onion was observed at the New York State Station {B. 1884, 
p. 310, B. 1886, p. 161) and was found to be very compact. The roots radiated in all 
directions below the surface and reached a length of 16 or 18 inches. 

The plan of sowing seed in the greenhouse and transplanting to the field was 
tested through three seasons at the Ohio Station {B. Vol. Ill, 9) with results re- 
garded quite favorable to the practice. The cost of growing a given amount of 
onions was actually lessened, while the crop was three or four weeks earlier and of 
finer appearance. The advantage, however, was considerably greater with foreign 
varieties adapted to a long season. 



236 ONION, BLACK MOLD. 

These experiments were indepeudent of similar ones published by T. Greiner in 
1889. Experiments tending to confirm this view are reported in Mich. B. 79; B. I. 
B. 14; Va.B.ll. 

A trial of planting rows of onions at different distances is recorded, iT. Y. State B., 
1882, p. 125; of planting at different distances in the row, N. Y. State B. 1883, p. 183; ■ 
Ohio B. 1885, p. 128, B. 1887, p. 229. At the New York State Station {B. 1883, p. 184, . 
B. 1884, p. 201) a comj>act vs. a loose subsoil for growing onions was tested, the re- 
sult in the fiist trial favoring the former, in the second the latter. At the Minnesota : 
Station {B. 10 B. 1888, p. 227), trials upon soil plowed and harrowed and harrowed 
only, proved quite lavorable to leaving the seed-bed compact. General notes on 
culture occur in Va. B. 11. Experiments with fertilizers on onions are reported in 
Minn. B. 1888, p. 225; Ohio B. 1885, p. 126. 

Germination tests of onion seed are recorded in Ala. College B. 2 (1887), Me. B. 1888, 
p. 140, B. 1889, p. 150 ; JS. Y. State B. 1882, p. 125, B. 1883, pp. 60, 69, 183; Ohio B. 1883, pp. 
170, 176, B. 1885, pp. 164, 175, B. 1886, p. 254, B. 1887, p. 284; Ore. B. 2; Pa. B. 
1889, p. 164; S. C. B. 1888, p. 85; Ft. B. 1889, p. 107, Tests of the quality of the stock 
of different seedsmen are reported in Ohio B. 1884, p. 141, B. 1885, p. 125, B. 1887, p. 
229. 

Onion, black moldi {Macrosporium sp.). — A fungous disease appearing on theplants 
about the time they are in flower. At first spots appear upon the stems some little 
distance below the heads. These increase in size and become dark brown or black. 
There may be two or three points of attack upon the same stalk, and sooner or later 
it falls over, becoming worthless. This fungus often accompanies the onion mildew 
as a secondary phase, but that it is not dependent upon it is now well known. The 
black mold may be held in check by destroying all the infected plants and burning 
the dead leaves and stalks. {Conn. State B. 1889, p. 158; N. J. B. 1890, p. 354.) 

Onion mildew {Pernospora sMeidcni). — A fungous disease, the presence of which 
is indicated by the appearance of small yellowish spots, from which the disease soon 
spreads and involves the whole plant. Upon the surface of the spots will be seen a 
mold-like coating, white near the edges and slightly red at the center. This is often 
accompanied by another fungus (see Onion, Mack mold). This disease is Avorse upon 
seed onions. Its attacks vary in severity. In some places but little damage is done, 
while in others hardly a seed pod is matured. The fungus survives the winter in 
the leaves and dead stalks, which, therefore, should be gathered and burned. The 
fungus is similar to the one causing the downy mildew of grape, and probably 
would yield to the same fungicides. (Conn. State B. 1889, p. 155.) 

Onion smut ( Urocystis ce2)ulw).—A. fungous disease, the presence of which is first 
indicated by dark spots at various heights upon seedling plants. These spots are 
sometimes found upon the first leaf, before a second has begun to show itself. After 
a time longitudinal cracks begin to appear on one side of these spots, which widen 
and show within a dry, fibrous mass, covered with a black, sooty powder, the spores 
of which are blown away or washed into the ground. Sometimes the fungus will 
appear upon the tip of the leaf. If this dies, the fungus is cut off and the main part 
of the leaf remains free, but usually the disease spreads throughout the entire plant, 
destroying it. Some of the stronger plants may survive, but they will be found to 
have smut spots of various sizes on the bulbs. Such bulbs usually rot soon after 
harvesting. This disease infects seedling onions only, and it is generally considered 
that the spores are in the ground when the.seed is sown. All diseased plants and 
refuse should be removed and burned. In this way the fungus may be kept in check 
to a certain degree. The spores retain the power of germination for an unusually 
long period— twelve or more years according to one authority. On this account onion 
growing should not be attempted for many years on ground once thoroughly infested. 
As yet no sufficient remedy is known. Sulphur and air-slaked lime (equal parts) in 
the drills has given favorable results in some cases. (Conn. State B. 111. B. 1859, 
p. 129, 1890, p. 103 ; Mass. B. 1891, p. 247 ; N. J. B., 1890, p. 353; Vt. B., 1890, p. 141.) 



ORANGE. . 237 

Onion vermicularia ( Fe?"mioM7ajn'a circinans) [also called Leaf spot]. — A fungous 
disease which attacks onions and sets, especially of the white kinds. It causes black 
blotches to appear upon the onion which are soon surrounded by concentric rings. 
The most serious attacks from this fungus are to be expected in the storehouse, 
where it spreads rapidly, often causing great damage. Onions should be stored in 
cool, dry, airy bouses, and if free from the fungus when put in the bins they will 
remain so. Care must be taken to prevent moisture and heating. If the onions are 
diseased it may be held in check by treating them with air-slacked lime, 1 bushel to 
25 of onions. Bins in which aft'ected onions have been stored should be fumigated 
and thoroughly cleansed before again using. The main precaution necessary is to 
have the ouions dry when put in the houses and to keep them so. 

If aft'ected onions have not begun to decay they may be used with safety for seed, 
but they may spread the disease late in the season to market onions if any should be 
near by {Conn. State. B. 1889, p. 163; N. J. R. 1890, p. 354). 

Orach (Atriplex hortensis). — This herb, used like sjiinach and sometimes called 
French spinach, is described in N. Y. State E. 1883. p. 208, as a tall annual plant, 
with numerous broad, slightly blistered, soft, arrow-shaped leaves, which are used 
like those of common spinach. Red and white varieties were grown at the New 
York State Station {R. 1883, p. 208). 

Orange (Citrus spp.). — Experimental plantations of oranges are noted in Cal, B. 
188S-'89, pp. 87, no, 137, 196, R. 1890, pp. 280, 289, 294, 300; Fla. B. 1; N. Mex. B. 2; 
N. C. B. 72, B. 83, R. 1890, p. 20. 

In North Carolina trial was made of the Ci7j'«s /ri/o?(rti«, and of the Japanese "Sat- 
suma," "Oonshiu," or " Kiu seedless" orange, which was grafted upon stocks of the 
former. C. trifoUata (also noted in Fla. B. 1) is reported as fruiting freely in north- 
ern Maryland, and is hardy as far north as New York. Its fruit is ornamental and 
of some use for marmalade, and the tree is suggested as suitable for a hedge plant. 
The Sateuma, a sweet orange of the mandarin class, has been reported very hardy. 
Its leaves were killed at the North Carolina Station by a severe winter, but the wood. 
seemed still sound. 

In California the comparative physical and chemical composition of varieties has 
been investigated. Reports of examinations showing proportions of pulp and rind 
and acid and sugar content, occur in Cal. B. 39, Sup. R. 1878-79, p. 59, R. 1880, p. 42, 
R. 1882, p. 63, and especially R. 1889-' 90, p. 106 {B. 93). In the last reference it is 
stated that 23 samples, mostly of navel, Mediterranean sweet, St. Michaels, and 
Malta blood oranges were examined with reference to physical and proximate chem- 
ical composition, and as to sugar, acid, and nitrogen ingredients, while ash analyses 
of several samples are also given. 

The average navel, though the largest of oranges, contained onlyabout72 percent 
of flesh, while the average Mediterranean showed 73 per cent, and the St. Michaels, 
81 per cent. The navel was the driest, while the St. Michaels had the largest pro- 
portion of juice, the Mediterranean sweet following second, and the Malta blood 
third. For analyses see Appendix, Table III. 

The fertilizing ingredients removed from the soil by a crop of oranges is shown for 
theCalifornian in comparison with the European fruit, the amount being materially 
less for the former. Potash is the predominating element, but this is well supplied 
in most California soils; phosphoric acid, though not very heavily drawn ujion, 
is rather deficient in the soils of the State, and should probably be prominent in 
any fertilizer used, as also nitrogen, which is largely demanded by this fruit but 
deficient in the soils of that region. Lime is largely required by the fruit, but 
is abundant in the soil. The considerable demand of the orange for sulphuric acid 
suggests the desirability of gyjisum as a fertilizer for this as well as for other 
reasons. 

Similar work has been undertaken with the orange at the Florida Station and 
some results obtained are reported in B. 17. An average analysis of fruit of several 



238 . ORANGE MELON. 

varieties from different localities is given (see Appendix, Table III) and, based upon 
this, the composition of a fertilizer which would restore the ingredients removed. 
It is found that potash, the ingredient most largely demanded, is precisely the one 
which is relatively detieient in popular orauge fertilizers sold in the State, while 
phosphoric acid, which is abundant in the soils of the State, is supplied by these fer- i 
tilizers in excess. A calculation of the amounts of the three ingredients in 1 000 
fresh oranges is given. 

Orange melon (Cucumis melo var.) [also known as Vine peach, Garden lemon, 
Mango melon. Vegetable orange, or Melon apple].— A variety of the muskmelon 
species, resembling varieties cultivated in Europe, said to be grown quite exten- 
sively in the Northwest by Swedes, Norwegians, and Danes, as is also a similar vari- 
ety known as Queen Anne's Pocket melon. 

The fruit is used to make pickles or as a vegetable to be dried or boiled. Descrip- 
tions and estimates based upon trial may be fouud in Minn. R. 1888, p. 249- N. Y 
State B.. 1888, p. 127; N. T. Cornell B. 15^ B. I. B. 1890, p. ItiO. 

Orchard grass. — See Grasses. 

Oregon Station, Corvallis.— Organized under act of Congress March, 1888, as 
a department of Oregon State Agricultural College. The staff consists of the 
president of the college and director, agriculturist, entomologist, chemist, horticul- 
turist, botanist, assistant chemist, and foreman of farm. The principal lines of 
work are soils, field experiments with field crops, vegetables, and fruits, and ento- 
mology. Up to January 1, 1893, the station had published 2 annual reports and 21 
bulletins. Revenue in 1892, $15,000. 

Osier willows.— See Wilioivs. 

Oxeye daisy.— See Weeds. 

Oyster culture.— Studies on oysters, with special reference to the conditions for 
their propagation, are in progress at the New Jersey Station. Accounts of the ob- 
servations thus far made are given in N. J. B. 1888, p. 163, B. 1889, p 197 B 1890 
p. 249, B. 1891, p. 179. ' ' ' 

Oyster-shell bark louse {Mijtihispis pomoruvi) .—kn insect introduced from 
Europe which has spread widely through this country. It is found mostly upon the 
apple tree, but sometimes infests the pear, plum, and currant. The younger twigs 
will be seen covered with scales shaped like an oyster shell, usually with the smaller 
end up. The S(^ales are about a sixth of an inch long and about the color of the 
bark. Under these scales the louse lives for a considerable portion of its life and 
deposits its eggs, about a hundred in number. In the spring the minute insects 
hatch out and crawl about for some time. Finally they attach themselves to the 
bark by their beaks, secrete a scale over themselves, and live upon the sap of the 
trees. When very numerous, as they sometimes are, this is a serious drain upon the 
tree. 

Inspect all young trees when planted and scrape or brush off all scales with a stiff 
brush, and wash with weak lye or strong soapsuds. Brushing off scales in the spring 
and washing or spraying with strong soda water or kerosene will kill the insects^ 
This must be done after the eggs have hatched. In the South there may be two 
broods in a season. {Me. B. 1888, p. 157; N. Mex. B. 3; N. Y. State B. 35, n. ser; 
Ohio B. Vol. Ill, 4 and 11.) 

Papaw.— The true papaw or melon-tree {Carica papaya) has been tested for intro- 
duction in California [B. 1880, p. 67, B. 1882, p. 107, B. 1885-86, p. 116, B. 1890, p. 
235). It was found too tender for the greater part of the State, but appeared capa- 
ble ot success in favored localities from San Diego southward. The possession by 
this tree of the peculiar property of making tough meat tender is attested on the 
ground of personal trial. '-All parts of theplant are pervaded with a peculiar i.rin- 
ciple (very rich in nitrogen and probably allied to pepsin) having a powerful iuMu- 
cnce oil muscular liber, causing it to separate" {Cal.B. lS81-'82,^. 107), 



PEA. 239 

The papaw of the eastern States {Asimina triloha) has been planted at Berkeley 
(Cal.B. lS80,p. 67). 

Paris green. — See InsecHcides. 

Parsley {Carure petroselinum [PetroseUnum aaUvum]). — Tests of varieties are de- 
scribed in Nehr. B. 6; N. Y. Slate E. 1883, p. 209, R. 1885, p. WO. In A'. Y. State R. 
1883, J}- 200, the Hamburg variety and one from Norway are particularly noted as 
having thickened taproots, used in the same manner as celeriac or turniji-rooted 
ceiery. 

Germination tests of parsley seed are reported in N. Y. State R. 1883, pp. 69, 85, 
208; rt. R. 1889, p. 107. 

Parsnip {Peiicedatium IPastinaca] sativum. — Variety tests of this vegetable are 
recorded in Xebr. B. 12; N. Y. State R. 1883, p. 180, R. 1885, p. 116. At the New 
York State Station in 1885 a row of wild parsnijjs was planted beside the cultivated, 
and the roots Avere found to be little inferior in size tliough much more rough and 
branching, suggesting that decided improvements may yet be made in the parsnip. 

The root system of the parsnip was observed at the same station {R. 1884, p. 311) 
and found to be a deep one. The tap root of one specimen was traced downward 
30 inches. Many branches started below the clay line; the fibrous roots in the upper 
layers of soil Avere numerous but rather short. An analysis of the parsnip is given 
in Mass. State R. 1891, pp. 318, 324 (see Appendix, Table HI). For a sugar analysis 
see Minn. R. 1888, p. 103. 

Germination tests of parsnip seed are recorded in Me. R. 1888, p. 140, R. 1889, p. 151; 
Ohio R. 1885, pp. 167, 176; Pa. R. 1880, p. 164; S. C. R. 1888, p. 85; Ft. R. 1889, p. 107. 

Parturient apoplexy. — See Milk fever. 

Pasturage. —For comparison of soiling and pasturage see SoUinff. 

For eftect t>n the milk of change from barn to pasture see Milk, effect of food. 

For eftect of grain ration for cows at pasture see Cows. 

Pea (PisHW sp., etc.). — See also Chick j^ea. The ordinary pea of the North is P. 
sativum, sometimes distinguished as English pea. In the South the cowjjea (/>o/ic/(o.'» 
sinensis'?) is more largely grown (sec Cowpea). 

Varieties. — Variety tests of English or garden i)eas are recorded in Ala. College 
B. 1, n. set:, B. 1, n. set-.; Ala. Canebrake B. 1, B. 6; Ark. R. 1888, p. 40, R. 1889, p. 98; 
Colo. R. 1888, p. 122; R. 1889, pp. 33, 94, 120, R. 1890, pp. 45, 186, 189, 211; Flu. B. 14; 
Ga. B. 11; Ind. B. IS, B. 31, B. 34, B. 38; Kans. R. 1888, p. 256, R. 1889, p. 151; Ky. 
B. 32, B. 38; La. B. 3, 2d ser.; Me. R. 1888, p. 129, R. 1889, p. 145, R. 1890, p. 103; 
Md. R. 1889, p. 61; Mich. B. 57, B. 70; Minn. B. 11, R. 1888, p. 240; Mo. B. 13; Nehr. 
B. 6, B. 12, B. 15; N. Y. State R. 1882, p. 139, R. 1883, p. 196, R. 1884, p. 228, R. 1886, 
p. 247, R. 1887, p. 330, R. 1888, p. 131, R. 1889, p. 318, R. 1890, p. 293; N. C. B. 74; 
Ohio R. 1883, p. 137, R. 1884, p. 142, R. 1885, p. 128, R. 1886, p. 174, R. 1887, p. 236; 
Ore. B. 4, B. 7, B. 15; Pa. B. 10, B. 14, R. 1888, p. 146, R.1889, p. 174; Tenn. B. Vol. V, 
1; Utah B. 3, B. 10; Ft. R. 1890, p. 160. 

In N. Y. State R. 1884, p. 238, a classification is made of the varieties tested atthat 
station, of which 98 appeared to be distinct. Three agricultural species are recog- 
nized: Pisum satiiuim, the comniuu garden \)e-d, P. macrocar2)on, the edible-podded 
pea, and P. arvense, the field pea. The varieties are subdivided according to height 
of vine, color and surface of seeds, and form of pods. The varieties recognized are 
fully described, synonyms given, and all the names indexed. In Hans. R. 1889, p. 
156, a descriptive list is given of 99 varieties, classified according to the surface 
and color of the seeds, earliness, and character of foliage. A variety of table peas 
from Cejlon is noted in Cat. B. 95. 

Composition. — An analysis of the seed of garden peas occurs in Conn. Storrs R. 
1800, p. 15 (see Appendix, Table III). 

CULTdJE. — Notes on the cultivation of jjeas are given in Ind. B. 18. 

At the New Y(u-k State Station in 1SX3 (/■'. p. 2''>4) Wxa cxjieriment was tried of 



240 PEA. 

planting the earlier and the later ripened peas of the Tom Thumb variety, from 
which it appeared that the earlier ripened vegetated decidedly better and gave peaa 
fit for use on the average five days sooner. A similar experiment with several 
varieties in 1884 (R. p. 231) showed an average gain of only one day in earliness, 
while in yield there was an advantage of 18 to 100 pods in favor of the latest ripened 
seed. Seed from well-filled and poorly-filled pods was also compared. In the case 
of Culverwell Telegraph variety plants from pods containing one or two seeds did 1 
better than those from eight-seeded pods, but were excelled by those from ten- 
seeded pods. This trial was repeated in 1885 {E. j). ISS) with a similarly confusing; 
result. With Laction Marvel variety the better filled pods gave the better results. . 
In N. Y. State R. 1SS3, j). 206, R. 1S84, p. 236, and R. 1S85, p. 187, occur notes upon i 
experiments in cross-fertilizing peas. 

In 1881 (A'., p. 234) and 1885 {R., p. ISS) tests were made of seeds planted in order 
as found in the pods, in both cases with conflicting results. In R. 1884, a compara- 
tive test of ripe and unripe seed is reported. The time of maturity of the crop 
appeared to be little influenced by the kind of seed. 

The same year (i?. 1SS5, p. 233) a comparison was made of seed from most and least 
productive plants of thirteen varieties. On the average the seed from the least pro- 
ductive plants for some reason gave a larger yield than the others. It was noted 
that in all cases the later maturing plant gave the larger yield. 

Planting seed already sprouted was found in 1884 to secure a gain in earliness of 
about eight days; "iu 1885 a gain of about three days (R. 1S84, p. 188). 

Germiuation tests of seed peas are recorded in Ark. R. 1889, p. 96; Mich.B. 57; N. 
Y. State R. 1883, pp. 60, 70; Ohio R. 1883, p. 177, R. 1885, p. 170; Ore. B. 2; Fa. R. 
1889, p. 164; S. C. R. 1888, p. 82; Vt. R. 1889, p. 108. 

Difl'erent distances and depths of planting were also compared at the New York 
State Station. A distance of 7 inches secured the lull development of the plant, but 
2^ inches gave a better yield. Shallow planting (up to one-quarter inch) produced 
more vigorous plants than deep jilantiug. 

The rooting habit ofthepeawas observedat the same station (fi. 1884, p. 305), and 
the taproot was traced downward to a depth of 39 inches. The branches were gen- 
erally little more than a foot long, growing shoi'ter with increase of depth. A strik- 
ing illustration of the eff"ect of soil on peas is noted iu N. Y. Cornell B. 15. Experi- 
ments with fertilizers on garden peas are recorded in Ga. B. 14 ; Mass. Batch. R. 
1888, p. 43, (eftect of fertilizing ingredients on time of maturing) ; N. Y. State R. 1884, 
p. 236. 

Field peas. — By the term field pea is sometimes meant the Southern cowpea, but 
more often the field varieties of the English pea. The field pea in the latter sense 
has been to some extent investigated as a forage and soiling crop, and pea meal has 
been employed in feediug experiments. The Canada pea is recommended {N. Y. 
State R. 1890, p. 357) as best for forage purposes, and the results of a comparative 
trial are given in which this variety gave considerably larger yields than garden 
peas. At the Minnesota Station {B. 11) several field varieties, includiugCauada, were 
tested. White and blue Canada peas were also sown with oats in difl'erent propor- 
tions, with results indicating that three bushels of peas should be sown to one of 
oats, or, wh(!re the oats stool largely, to two-thirds of a bushel. The advantage of 
this crop in rotation with wheat is presented, and it is believed that the peas will 
pay when machinery is invented for harvesting and threshing them as good as that 
provided for wheat. 

In an eftort in Michigan {B. 68) to find means of improving Jack-pine plains, field 
peas after trial were considered to be full of promise. See also Arlc. R. 1890, p. 130, 
Colo. R. 1889, pp.94, 125, R. 1890, p. 186; Conn. Storrs R. 1891, p. iO (with oats). 

Experiments with fertilizers on field peas are reported in Me. R. 1890, p. 79; Minn. 
R. 1888, p. 143. 

For an analysis of the small pea {Lathy ras saiivus) planted at the Massachusetts 
State Station {R. 1890, pp. 169, 181), 8(3e Appendix, Table III. 



PEA TREE. 241 

For root tubercles on peas niid tlieir relation to the ae(|ui&ition of atmosjtheric 
nitrogen see Lc(ji(»iitiotis jilaiit.s. 

Pea meal. — The composition and dij^estibility of meal from Canada peas is <^iven 
in Ml . ]{. 1SS9, 2). 66. For analysis see Appendix, Tables I and II. Nearly nine-tenths 
of the dry matter was found to be digestible. An analysis of pea meal occurs also in 
Muss. StaU li. 1S91, p. 319. Pea meal was also used in feeding pigs at the Maine 
Station {I!. 1SS9, p. S7). 

Peanut (Araclns hypofjaa) (also called Goober, or Ground pea). — A leguminous 
jilaut, resembling clover, but peculiar in maturing its fruit underground. After the 
llowers fall, the stalk bearing the small ovary elongates and curves downward until 
the ovary is thrust into the ground, where it enlarges and ripens. This habit makes 
an open porous soil most suitable for the growth of peanuts. 

The stations have thus far jnade only a few experiments with this crop. Tenn. B. 
J'o/. /r', ^, contains considerable information regarding the culture and chemical 
composition of peanuts. It costs about 40 cents per bushel to grow peanuts in Ten- 
nessee, and the average price to the producer is about^one dollar. The average croj) 
is from 40 to 60 bushels per acre. The soil used is sandy or gravelly clay, with a 
clay subsoil, and is derived from silicious limestones and sandstones. The land 
should be warm and well drained. Lime, or marl, must be added, if not already 
present in the soil in sufUcient quantity. 

"Two kinds of peanuts are grown in Tennessee, viz, white and red. The white 
variety is produced in much the larger quantity, as they bring about 2.5 cents per 
bushel more than the red. The red nut is so called from the color of the skin of the 
kernel. The white nut has a skin nearly or quite white, but which darkens with 
age. The white nut has a more spreading habit of growth than the red, is said to 
be more jirolilic, and is later in coming to maturity. The red matures better because 
earlier, and yields fewer imperfect pods, called 'puffs' or 'pops.'" 

The land should be prepared for peanuts early in the spring, and thoroughly j)ul- 
verized before planting. Planting should be done the last of April or the tirst of 
May in checked row's 24 to 32 inches apart. "Two peas, carefully hulled out by 
hand, bo as not to break the inner husk, are dropped at the intersection of the rows 
and covered about two inches deep." Weeds must be kept out and the soil must be 
kept loose and tine. " Break the crust as often as it forms with a harrow, and finally 
with double shovels. Cutout the grass about t!\e hills with a hoe, and 'lay by' 
after the ovaries are set in the ground, usually about the tirst of August." Clover, 
turned under, is an excellent fertilizer for peanuts. Unless used for hay the peanut 
vines should be returned to the soil. Barnyard manure should be used with care, 
as it is lik(dy to cause the plants to "run to vine." 

"Peanuts are harvested soon after the first frost by running the point of a plow 
under the vines to cut the roots, and then lilting the vines with the pods out of the 
soil with a fork. When wilted, stack loosely round a pole 7 feet high, using some 
sticks to keep them oft" the ground, and cap off with hay or straw. If stacked in 
large stacks, or too closely, tlioy will heat." After about four weeks the nuts may 
be picked olf the vines and stored where they will be kept drj" and well aired. 
Before otfering the crop for sale it should be screened aud sorted. 

The Biianish variety has been grown at the North Louisiana Station with excellent 
results. It has an erect growth and the nuts hang firmly on the plant. It is thus 
cultivated and harvested without difiiculty. The nuts are smaller than those of the 
common Virginia variety, but are very sweet and abundant. {La. B. 2-2, B. 27, B. S, 
2d ser.) 

(See ^Iso Ala. College B. 3, n. sev.; Colo. B. 1S90, p. 204; Xehr. B. 19; N. C. B. 65.) 

For composition see Appendix, Table III. 

Pea tree {Caragana arborescens). — " A small tree with acacia-like foliage, desirable 
at the North for lawn planting. It is pretty in foliage, floAvei", and when loaded 
with its scarlet pods in antunni. It also makes a fine stock on which to top-work 
the dwarf species of the caragana with weeping habit." {Iowa B. 16.) 

2094— No. 15 IG 



242 PEA WEEVIL. 

Pea weevil (Bruchus insi). — The adult ineect, which greatly resembles the bean 
weevil, is nearly black with some white spots, the largest somewhat resembling a 
capital letter T. The eggs are laid on the pods (one for each pea), and the small 
worm eats its way through the pod and into the pea, where it spends the winter, 
maturing and coming forth about planting time. 

Weevils of peas and beans may be killed by subjecting thei)ea8 or beans as soon 
as gathered to a temperature of 145*^ F. for an hour. If the peas are placed in a 
tight box with a little bisulphide of carbon, the weevils will be killed. Keeping the 
peas in tight boxes or bags for two years, so that none of the weevils escape, will 
also destroy them. Soaking the seed for twenty-four hours before planting is said 
to destroy the weevils. 

(Colo. B. 6; Kavs. B. 19; Ky. B. 40; Mass. Hatch. B. 12; Miss. B. 14; Mo. B. 6; N. C. 
B. 78; OhioE. 1SS8, pjy. 131, 163; Ore. B. 5.) 

Peach (Primus lAmygdalus'] persica). — The peach has l)een widely planted at the 
stations, where its varieties have been tested and the method of its culture and the 
means of protecting it from cold and from its insect and parasitic enemies have been 
studied. 

Varieties. — Tests are reported as follows: Ala. College B. 11, n. ser., B. SO, n. 
ser., B. 1888, p. 5; Ala. Canehrake B. 2, B lS8S,p. 7 ; Ark. B. 1888, p. 56; Cal. B. 
1882, p. 82, E. 1889, pp. 86, 107, 136, 182, B. 1890, pp. 269, 280, 287, 294, 299; Del. B. 
11; Fla. B. 11, B. 14; Ga. B. 11; III. B. 21; Ind. B. 10; La. B. 22, B. 26, and B. 3, 
B. S, B. 17, 2d ser. ; Mass. Hatch B. 4, B. 10, B. 17, B. 1889, p. 31 ; Mich. B. 55, B. 57, 
B. 59, B. 67, B. 80; Miss. B. 1889, p. 38; Mo. B. 10; N. Mex. B. 2; N. Y. State B. 
1882, p. 144, B. 1884, p. 21, B. 1888, pp; 93, 98, E. 1889, p. 340, B. 1890, p. 332, E. 1891, 
p. 493; N. C. B. 72; E. I. B. 7 ; Tcnn. E. 18S8, p. 12, B. Vol. Ill, 5, B. Vol. V, 1; 
Tex. B. 8, B. 16, E. 1889, p. 4.8, E. 1890, p. 50, E. 1891, p. 169; Va. B. 2. 

CoJirosiTiON. — Partial analyses of peaches are given in Mass. E. 1889, p. 302 (also 
in compilations in E. 1890, pp. 301, 305, E. 1891, p. 327) and in Cal. B. 97. See Appen- 
dix, Table III. 

Two i)hysical analyses given in Cal. B. 97 show an average percentage of 93.8 of 
flesh and 6.2 of stones. 

Analyses of healthy and diseased peach wood are given in Conn. State E. 1884, 
p. 93. 

Culture. — General notes on peach culture for Florida may be found in Fla. B. 4, B. 
14. The ends to be secured in pruning peach trees are defined in Ala. College B. 11, n. 
ser. ; N. Y. State E. 1889, p. 338. The tenderness of peach buds in the presence of severe 
cold has led to investigation with a view to their protection. At the Massachusetts 
Hatch Station (B. 10, B. 17) many buds of each of several varieties were examined 
weekly through two winters to learn in what parts of the season, and in what num- 
bers in the different parts, the buds are destroyed. In 18(^2 the buds were largely 
killed before the middle of December, and generally before the temperature had 
reached zero or more than a few degrees below. The number of buds per hundred 
killed up to March 1 is shown for three years. Experiments were made at the sta- 
tion for many years to find some means of protection. Nothing succeeded in saving 
the buds with the trees in an upright position, but it was found that the tree could 
be laid down and lightly covered in winter in such a way as to save a large per- 
centage of the buds and to leave the tree in a thrifty condition when restored to the 
upright. 

At the Kansas Station, likewise, after an unsatisfactory trial of covering in an 
erect position the trees were bent down and covered for the winter with hny, etc., 
with small expense and decidedly gratifying results. In this method the roots are 
are cut on the north and the soiith side so as to secure a lateral development, and 
the side roots arc slightly twisted in bending down the top. A very similar experi- 
ment was made at the Missouri Station {B. 16). Here some of the trees were so cov- 
ered as to admit of opening, and thermometrical observations were taken. It was 
found that the inside temiieratuiro was higher in cold weather and lower in warm 



PEACH-TREE BORER. 243 

woatlier than the outside. No percejitible injurj' was done to the trees or crop by- 
laying down. 

At tho New Jersey Station during Ihe latter lialf of the winter of 1889-'90, in which 
unusual warmth was followed by severe cold, microscopic examinations of peach 
buds were made, as reported with graphic ilhistrations in li. 1S90, j>. 327. The same 
season information was gatliered by circular inquiry respecting the conditions of 
soil, situation, etc., under which the buds are best preserved (i?. 1890, j). 333). 

Manuring. — Experiments with fertilizers upon peach trees are reported in Dei. /?. 
11; Md. B. 1890, p. 114; Miss. R. 1888, p. 47; N. J. B. 1889, p. 133, R. 1890, p. 153, B. 
1891, p. 133. Notes on special fertilizers for peach trees are given in N. J. B. 1883, 
p. 94, special reference being made to Goessmann's and Penhallow's experiments with 
muriate of potash as a cure for yellows. 

Peach aphis. — See Plant lice. 

Peach curl (Taphrina deformans.). — A fungous disease often seriously attacking 
the leaves and young branches of peach, plum, and cherry trees. Its jiresence is 
manifest at the first appearance of the leaves, and as they grow in size they become 
curled and deformed. The treatment recommended is the same as for black knot of 
plums and cherries, N. Y. State B. 54. (See Plum, black knot.) 

Peach rust {Puccinia pnini-spinosw). — A fungous disease which attacks peach 
and plum trees causing their leaves to fall very early in the season. The presence 
of the disease is indicated early in July by spots of yellowish color upon the leaves, 
followed by a dark brown color in the case of the plum. These spots increase in 
size until the whole leaf is killed. The fungus spreads rapidly by means of mtilti- 
tudinous spores. Early and repeated spraying with Bordeaux mixture is advised. 
Any branches showing traces of the disease should be cut away and burned. (Tex. 
B. ISSS, I). 38.) 

Peach, spotting (Cladosporium carpopMluvi). — A fungous disease attacking the 
fruit, on which it may be readily seen in small patches of an eighth of an inch in 
diameter or larger. The fungus is of an olive-brown color, but its early presence is 
concealed by the down of the peach. Its filaments do not enter the peach, but draw 
their nourishment through the skin. By increased growth several of these spots 
may coalesce, forming a conspicuous dark-colored or often black patch. This 
injures the fruit by causing a discoloration of the surface, and by preventing its 
full growth. It is said that the disease hastens decay, and that affected fruit will 
not stand transportation. 

The use of sprays of potassium sulphide, 1 ounce to 4 gallons of water, or copper 
carbonate solutions, is recommended as a preventive measure. (Ind. B. 19.) 

Peach-tree borer (Sannina exitiosa). — An insect infesting the peach, apricot, 
plum, and cherry. The adult is a slender bluish wasp-like insect which may he 
observed flying about the trees in the early summer. The eggs are deposited near 
the ground, and, upon hatching, the young grubs gnaw their way through the bark 
into the sap wood. Their presence will generally be indicated by a gummy exuda- 
tion from holes through the bark. The borer lives a year in the tree and comes 
forth a flying moth. The worm is small, and whitish, with reddish-brown head. 

Various remedies are suggested. Digging the larvfe out with a knife or removing 
the gum and inserting a flexible wire will destroy them. They may be prevented, 
at least partly, by whitewashing or painting the tree for some distance from the 
root and then hilling up the earth for several inches. Paris green should be added 
to the paint or wash. Tying one end of newspapers (or long straw) about the tree 
some distance from the ground, while the other end is extended below ground and 
covered with earth, will keep the moths away from their usual places for deposit- 
ing their eggs. In this case the eggs may be laid at the top of the paper or in the 
crotch of the trees, where they may be found in the fall. 

{Ark. B. 1889, p. 145; Miss. B. 14; N, J. B. 1889, p. S99, B. 1890, p. 497; N. Mex. B, 
S: N. r. State B. 25; N. C. B. 78; Ore. B. 5; W. Va. B. 1890, p. 157.) 



244 PEACH YELLOWS. 

Peach yellows. — A peculiar and obscure disease which is making considerable 
trouble in certain parts of the country. It attacks trees about the time they are 
coming to the age of most prolific bearing to such an extent that in certain portions 
of the peach-growing regions healtliy old trees are unknown. The symptoms of the 
disease are: Yellowish-green color of leaves; small leaves tinged with red; the new 
shoots small, wiry, and clustered, especially when growing upon the trunk or larger 
branches; fruit ripens prematurely, is highly colored, and insipid or bitter to the 
taste. The sickly yellowish-green foliage may be due to injury or lack of nourish- 
ment, but when coupled with the other characters given the presence of the " yel- 
lows " can be considered as certain. It was thought that the use of fertilizers Avould 
prevent the attacks by securing a more healthy and vigorous growth, but after 
extensive field tests this treatment is believed to have no lasting effect. The only 
sure way is to dig out and burn every tree as soon as it is seen to be affected. Young 
trees may be planted, and thus the orchard may be renewed. This plan has been 
followed in Michigan, where, between 1870 and 1880, the disease was very bad. Now 
hardly a case of "yellows" can be found in many of the peach regions. Constant 
attention and prompt action have proved successful, in this case, at least. (Conn, 
State B. Ill; Mass. Hatch B. S; JST. Y. Cornell B. 25.) 

Pear {Fyrus communis). — The study of the pear at the stations has related chiefly 
to its varieties and its parasitic and other enemies. Tests of varieties are reported 
as follows: Ala. College B. SO, E. 1888; p. 5; Ala. Canehral-e B. lSSS,p.7; Ark. B. 
17, B. 1888, p. 56; Cal. B. 1882, p. 81, 83, E. 1889, pp. 86, 108, 136, 184, 188, B. 
1890, pp. 269, 279, 288, 295, 298; Colo. B. 1889, p. 117, B. 1890, pp. 31, 198, 213; Fla. 
B. 14; Ga. B. 11; Ind. B. 10; Iowa B. 3; La. B. 3, B. 8, B. 16, 2d aer.; Me. E. 1889, 
p. 255, E. 1890, p. 140, E. 1891, p. 94; Midi. B. 55, B. 59, B. 67, B. 80; Minn. 
E. 1888, pp. 199, 283, B. 1890, pp. 34, 38; Miss. E. 1889, p. 38; Mo. B. 10; Xer. 
B. 1890, p. SO; N. Mex. B. 2; N. Y. State E. 1882, p. 144, E. 1883, p. 20, E. 

1888, pp. 91, 98; N. C. B. 72; Ohio E. 1882, p. 58, E. 1883, p. 146; Pa. B. 18, 
E. 1888, p. 161; E. I. B. 7; Tertn. B. vol. Ill, 5, B. vol. V, 1, E. 1888, p. 12; Tex. E. 

1889, p. 48, E. 1890, p. 50, B. 1891, p. 169; Vt. E. 1888, p. 119, E. 1889, p. 121. 
Iowa B. 3 contains an account of the introduction of Russian varieties by that 

station with descriptions of several that seemed promising; also notes upon some 
Chinese varieties of which two sorts of snow pear seemed hardy, and had leaves 
which were handsome and always perfect. In Colo. E. ISSS is given a calendar 
embodying observations for two seasons upon the time of leafing and maturing 
leaves for 32 varieties of pears, with descriptive notes. The investigation had 
reference to the hardiness of varieties in the climate of that State. 

Sugar analyses of Bartlett pears at four stages of maturity are given in Mass. E. 
1S89, p. S02, E. 1890, p. 301, E. 1891, p., 327. (See Aiypendix, Table III.) A calculation 
of the fertilizing material removed by a crop of pears is given in Cal. B. 88. 

In Tex. B. 9 is published an extended discussion of pear stocks, illustrated by 
figures. The main question considered is, Which is the best stock for the Le Conte 
and Keiff"er pear trees, the Oriental (i. e., the Le Conte or Keiflfer on its own roots) 
or the French pear seedling! The iuA-estigations of the writer developed the facts 
that where these pears were grafted on the French stock, if set deep enough, they 
put forth roots of their own and throw off the French stock if possible; that 
when set shallow the stock outgrew the scion, making an ugly enlargement, 
and sent out excrescences from the top; and that grafted trees forced to grow only 
on French stocks were far less vigorous and less uniform than those on their own 
roots. Of numerous correspondents of the station only three recommended the use 
of the French stock for these pears, while many stated that they believed the Le 
Conte to be the best stock for European pears. 

At the Maryland Station {E. 1891, p. 422) by making use of a hotbed to start the 
sap, Japan seedling pear stocks were successfully budded about the middle of April. 
Thoy made good growth in the nursery during the summer and were ready to trans- 



PEAT. 245 

plant to the orcliar'.l in the fall. " Thia method is practicable on a large scale, au<l 
it may be that a large and more convenient incubator can be devised to start the sap 
enongh so the bark will rnn, and in which to place stocks when bndded to make 
them take." 

Pear blight {Micrococcus amylovorns). — A disease of bacterial origin which attacks 
pears and ajiples alike. The leaves and young shoots are the parts aflfected. The 
leaves turn yellow and fall off, the young twigs shrivel up and die. If not checked 
soon, the whole tree dies. The usual sprays seem to have no effect upon this disease, 
and about the only eftectual means of treatment is to cut away the diseased parts 
and burn them. The branches should be cut back about a foot from the lowest indi- 
cation of disease and the frequent dijiping of the knife in carbolic acid is recom- 
mended as an extra precaution during the pruning. 

{Colo. B. 18SS, p. 64; Mo. B. 16; N. Y. State B. 92, B. 2, n. aer.; Ft. B. lS90,p- 
142.) 

Pear leaf blight {Entomosporium maculatutn). — A fungous disease, characterized 
by the discoloration and premature dropping of the leaves, and the spotting and 
cracking of the fruit. It attacks the quince as well as the pear. The disease first 
shows itself in the form of small red dots upon the leaves. In their mature form the 
spots are larger and more or less circular, with a light colored center, surrounded 
by a slightly raised dark brown border. As these spots increase they often coalesce, 
involving the whole leaf; at other times the leaf soon turns yellow, and, in either 
case, drops. The tissue of the leaf between the spots turns brown and the leaf falls. 
Not uncommonly the young twigs are attacked, sometimes so seriously as to kill 
the young growth. The infection of the fruit is much the same as on the leaves. 
The fruit is covered with small, red, speck-like pimples, which increase and coalesce, 
giving it a very blotched appearance. It offeu causes the frnit to crack, spoiling 
its appearance and making it more liable to rot. This disease may be prevented in 
great measure by spraying the trees with either ammoniacal carbonate of copper, 
Bordeaux mixture, modified eau celeste, or precipitated carbonate of copper. The 
first application should be when the leaves are about half grown, and two or three 
more applications should be made at intervals of two or three weeks. This need 
cost but a few cents per t.ee, the Bordeaux mixture being a little more expensive 
than the other fungicides. {Conn. State B. Ill, B. 1890, p. 99, B. 1891, p. 150; Bel. 

B. is:) 

Pear scab {Fusicladium pi/rhuim) . — This disease is very similar to apple scab, and 
requires the same preventive treatment (see Apple scab). It causes brownish or 
black scab-like spots on the leaves and fruit, causing the latter to become distorted. 

Pear-tree borer {Sesiajn/ri). — The moth of this species is similar to the peach-tree 
borer and is easily mistaken for a small wasp. It measures about half an inch across 
the wings. The eggs are deposited upon the bark of the trunk or lower limbs, and 
when hatched the grub, a small white worm, eats its way into the sapwood, where 
it remains for about a year. The presence of grnbs is indicated by black wart-like 
swellings. Often several grubs are found in one knot. Dig them out with a knife 
during the winter or brush kerosene over the swellings. {Miss. B. 1891, p. 35.) 

Pear-tree slug. — See Cherry slag. 

Peat.— Origin, form.\tion. — This term is applied to any bog earth of vegetable 
origin, and includes not only the true peats, but bog mud and marsh nmd, as well as 
tbe substance termed muck in some localities, the latter being simply impure or 
Tinripe peats. 

Peat is a result of the partial decomposition of successive growths of plants in 
low places contaiiiing stagnant water. In temperate or cold regions moorlands and 
small shallow depressions filled with impure peat are widely distributed, but deep 
bogs are rare (Johnson) ; in warmer climates, however, peat or muck accumulates 
as a rule in larger beds or bogs. The heavy rains of these regions sweep down the 



246 



PEAT, 



decaying vegetable matter from tlie liigher lauds into the bogs, thus enormously 
increasing the accumulation of such debris, and forming immense muck beds (Fla, 
B. 7). 

Composition. — As can be reiadily judged from its origin and formation, peat is 
composed largely of organic matter containing a considerable percentage of nitrogen, 
and a small jiroportion of mineral matter. Its composition, however, is variable. 
Analyses of eight samples at the Florida Station {B, 14) gave the following results: 

Percentage composition of muck. 



Maximum. 



Minimum. 


Average. 


I'er emit. 


Per cent. 


11.00 


49.00 


11.00 


30.00 


0.30 


20.00 


0.44 


1.11 


0.004 


0.14 


0.01 


0.10 


0.13 


17.00 



Moisture 

Organic matter 

Ash (including sand and dirt) 

Nitrogen 

Potash 

Phosphoric acid 

Insoluble matter 



I'er cent. 

89.00 

68.00 

69.00 

2.88 

0.77 

0.24 

56.00 



Analyses of thirty samples of peat by Prof. Johnson showed a proportion of nitro- 
gen varying from 0.4 to 2.9 — average 1.5. 

Considered as a fertilizer, therefore, peat is richer in nitrogen and poorer in potash 
and phosporic acid than barnyard manure. (For average composition of peat, muck, 
and barnyard manure, see Appendix, Table IV.) 

In peat, freshly dug, the nitrogen is largely in an inert and unavailable form. 
There is also a considerable amount of vegetable acids and iron salts, particularly 
the sulphide, which render the material unfit for immediate application to the soil. 
Weathering or composting with proper materials is necessary to render the nitro- 
gen available and to dissipate the deleterious compounds present. 

The Florida Station (B. 14), after an extensive study of the muck deposits of that 
State, lays down the following basis for judging the value of this material: "Three 
things should be taken into account: (1) the quantity of organic matter (the greater 
the better the muck, other things being equal) ; (2; the kind of plants from which 
the muck has been formed (muck from succulent weeds, grass, and mosses would 
likely contain more nitrogen than that from woody and fibrous substances) ; (3) the 
degree of decomposition (except, perhaps, for purposes of mulching, the more disin- 
tegrated and decayed a muck the better, other things being equal)." 

Uses. — Peat is especially valuable for use in stables. It readily absorbs the liquid 
excrement and prevents loss of ammonia. Prof. .Johnson has shown that swamp 
muck may absorb 1.3 per cent of ammonia, and that it "can absorb and retain nitro- 
gen from manures in some other form than that of annnonia" (Storer). 

Peat is most advantageously utilized in composts with wood ashes, manure, lime, 
etc. Certain kinds of peat composted at the rate of two or three loads of peat to one 
of fresh stable manure will yield a product as efficient, load for load, as pure stable 
manure (Storer). A plan of composting given by Storer is as follows: Lay down a 
bed of peat 6 or 8 feet wide and 1 foot thick, cover with a somewhat thinner layer 
of manure, follow with another layer of peat, and so on until the heap is 3 or 4 feet 
high. The heap should be turned as fermentation progresses. 

The alkalies, potash, soda, ammonia, and lime, and their carbonates promote fermen- 
tation in peat and hasten its disintegration. Tliis fact is often taken advantage of in 
composting. Prof. Jolinson gives the following directions for making alkali composts: 
" With regard to the proportions to be used, no very definite rules can be laid down ; 
but we can safely follow those who have had experience in the matter. Thus, to a 



PECAN. 



247 



colli of muck, which is about 100 bushels, uuiy be added, of unleached wood ashes 
r> bush.'ls or of leached wood aslies 20 bushels, or of peat ashes 20 bushels, or oi 
marl or gas lime 20 bushels. Ten bushels of quicklime, slaked with water or salt 
brine previous to use, is enough for a cord of muck. 

" Instead of using the above-mentioned substances singly, any or all of them may 

be employed together. ^ , • .• 

"The muck should be as fine and free from lumps as possible, and must be inti- 
mately mixed with the other ingredients by shoveling. The mass is then thrown up 
into a compact heap, which may be 4 feet high. 

"When the heap is formed it is well to pour on as much water as the mass will 
absorb (this may be omitted if the muck is already quite moist), and, finally, the 
whole is covered over with a few inches of pure muck, so as to retain moisture and 

heat. 

" If the heap is put up in the spring, it may stand undisturbed for one or two 
months, when it is well to shovel it over and mix thoroughly. It should then be 
built up again, covered with fresh muck, and allowed to stand as before until thor- 
oughly decomposed. 

" In all cases five or six months of summer weather is a sufficient time to fit these 
composts for application to the soil." 

Composting peat with lime slaked in brine has long been practiced as an effective 
means of reducing this substance to a desirable form for application as a fertilizer. 

The following formula and directions are given by Sempers : * 

Peat or muck cords.. 50 

Caustic lime bushels.. 100 

Common salt ^" ^'^ 

Make a brine of the salt, slake the lime in it, and spread immediately over the peat, 
which should be laid down in layers about 6 inches thick. The heap is commonly 
built from 4 to 5 feet high and of any convenient length and width. Fork over at 
intervals.' 

Finely ground carbonate of lime or limestone has been employed in peat composts 
wuth advantage. It destroys hurtful iron salts and promotes nitrification and fer^ 
mentation. 

The composting of muck with finely ground low-grade rock phosphate containing 
a considerable percentage of carbonate of lime has been recommended as likely to 
give good results {Fla. B. 14), since not only is disintegration of the peat secured, 
but an element, phosphoric acid, is added which is deficient in the crude material, 
The fermentation of the peat also renders the insoluble phosphate, to a considerable 
extent, available. 

Composts of peat with guano, droppings of fowls, fish, etc., have been used with 
advantage. 

Since peat is an incomplete fertilizer, being rich in nitrogen and poor in potash 
and phosphoric acid, it is desirable to compost so as to increase the latter elements 
of plant food. Formulas contaiuiug stable manure, kainit, acid phosphate, cotton 
seed, and ashes, which secure this result, are given in Fla. B. 7. (See also Com- 
posts.) 

{Conn. Slate B. 1880, p. 58, B. 1882, p. 63, B. 1889, p. 115; Fla. B. 7, B. 13, B. 14; 
Me. a. 1888, p. 61; Mass. State B. 1891, p. 292, 311; N. H. B. 1889, p. 70; N. Y. State 
B. 1889, p. 56, 256; N. C. B. 1888, p. 53; B. I. B. 11; S. C. B. 1888, p. 140; Tex. B. 13; 
Ft. B. 1888, p. 66, B. 1889, p. 36, B. 1890, p. 30.) 

Tecan (Hicoriaiiecan ICarya oUvwfonnis']). — A valuable nut tree of the hickory 
genus, native in bottom lands from Iowa and Illinois southward. It has been 
planted for trial at several stations. (Cal. B. 188S-'89, pp. 87, 110, 138, 196; Fla. B. 1; 

* Manures : How to Make Them and How to Use Them, p. 68. 



248 PENNSYLVANIA STATION. 

3lich. B. 65, B. 67, B. SO; N.Mcx. B.4,) Onepecnliar form, the "paper-shell" pecau 
of Texas, is noted. 

These trees seemed to suffer somewhat iu the hotter and drier jjarts of California; 
they had lived without protection, so far as the test had gone, at the Michigan South 
Haven Substation. In Florida, where they are also native, they were found to do 
well when transplanted from the woods or grown from the seed. 

Pennsylvania Station, State College. —Organized under act of Congress June 30, 
1887, as a department of Pennsylvania State College. The staff consists of the presi- 
dent of the college, director, vice-director and chemist, botanist, horticulturist, 
agriculturist, superintendent of farm, four assistant chemists, assistant agricul- 
turist, gardener, and clerk and stenographer. The principal lines of work are 
chemistry; analyis of fertilizers; field experiments with fertilizers, field crops, 
vegetables, and fruits; composition of feeding stuffs; feeding experiments; and 
dairying. Up to January 1, 1893, the station had published 4 annual reports and 21 
bulletins. Eeveuue in 1892, $23,000. 

Pepino (Solanum muricatitm).— An illustrated account of this plant and its fruit 
recently appearing in seedsmen's catalogues as a novelty, is given in N. Y. Cornell 
B. 37. It was first described as growing in Peru, but is also known everywhere in the 
highlands of Cen tral America. It is a strong growing herb or half shrub, with fruit the 
size of a large egg, egg-shaped but decidedly pointed, of a warm yellow color, streaked 
and veined with purple. It seldom produces seed; its pulp and skin are like those 
of a Bartlett pear; its taste is luore like that of a muskmelon, but with a peculiar 
delicious acid flavor, which, however, does jiot develop under great heat. 

While the plant does not require much heat, great difficulty has been found in 
making it set fruit in the North. It has been grown with some success in California 
and Florida. The botanical history of the plant is given in the bulletin referred to, 
and information based on station experience and upon authority, largely that of Mr. 
Eisen of California. The station's judgment is : 

"The pepino is an unusually interesting plant, and if it could be made .to set fruit 
more freely in the North, it would be an acquisition for the kitchen garden and for 
market. It is a good ornamental plant. Altogether, it is deserving of a wider rep- 
utation. " 

Peppers (Capsicwm annuum). — Tests of varieties are recorded in Colo. B. lSSS,p. 136; 
E. 1889; pp. 102, 120; B. 1890, p. 47; Md. R. 1889, p. 62; Midi. B. 70; Nehr. B. 6; N. Y. 
State B. 1882, p. 137, B. 1883, p. 192, R. 1884, p. 221, R. 1885, p. 178, B. 1886, p. 
244. In N. Y. State B. 1886, about 49 nominal varieties and duplicates from different 
seedsmen are tabulated and synonyms pointed out. At the New York Cornell Sta- 
tion peppers were used with other plants iu experiments in herbaceous grafting. 
Peppers were found to unite with tomatoes and with eggplants, and also grew on 
alkekengi. 

Germination tests of the seed of peppers are on record in N. Y. State B. 1883, pp. 61, . 
70; Ohio B. 1884, p. 200, B. 1885, pp. 167,176; Ore. B. 2; S. C. B. 1888, p. 77; Ft. B. 
1889, p. 108. 

Pepper tree (Sehinns molle). — A member of the sumach family, introduced into 
California from Peru as an ornamental tree. It grows rapidly in dry soil, and in the 
southern part of the State has attained large dimensions. (Cal. B. 1888-'S9, p. 49.) 

Persimmon (Biospyros spp.).— The Japanese persimmon or kaki {Diospyros laki) 
has been jdanted at several stations soutlnvard. The native persimmon {D.rirgin- 
iana) has been planted at the Khode Island station, being rarely found wild in that 
State. (Cal. B. 1880, p. 67, B. 188S-'89, pp. 87, 110, 186; Fla. B. 14; La. B. 22, and B. 3, 
B. 8, 2d ser. ; N. Mex. B. 2; B. I. B. 7; Tex. B. 8; Va. B. 2.) 

About fifteen varieties have been introduced, but the station lists generally num- 
ber ten or less. 

A partial analysis of the fruit is given iu Cal. Sup. B. 187S-'79,p. 61. A median- 



PHOSPHATES. 



249 



ical analysis showed pulp 88.32 per cent, seeds 1.03, skins 10.65. The water in the 
])ulp formed 82. .'')8 per cent; the total ash of the dried fruit was 2.023 per cent. 

Brief reports on the poor success and the wants of the persimmon in the region of 
the Berkeley station may be found in Cal. R. 18S0, p. 67. The necessity of deep 
culture on account of the long taproot is indicated. The fruit seemed destined to 
he of considerable importance to California. In Fla. B. 14 the more extended cul- 
ture of this fruit is advocated, and some notes are made on its merits and manage- 
ment. The native persimmon is the stock used. 

The Italian persimmon (/>. lotus) is noted in CaJ. IL 1SS2, %). 102. It is said to do 
exceedingly well in the State, to be quite ornamental, and to have an advantage as 
a grafting stock for the Japanese persimmon over the American tree, on account of 
a far better root system. 

Phosphates. — Although the beneficial effect of i)hosphatic manures had been 
known from early times it was not until the announcement of Liebig's theory of 
plant nutrition in 1840 that the true function and value of phosphoric acid as a 
plant food began to be appreciated. His suggestion at this time that the phosphate 
of lime of bones (hitherto considered worthless) could be converted into a valuable 
fertilizer by treatment with sulphuric acid and the carrying of this suggestion into 
practical effect by Sir John Lawes brought into Ijeing the chemical fertilizer and 
phosphate industry, which has now attained enormous proportions. The increased 
demand for phosphates to supply these manufactories stimulated an active search 
for deposits of mineral phosphates to supplement the supply of bone which had 
% heretofore been used almost exclusively. For a time the guano deposits of South 
America and the West Indies supplied this demand, but these beds were practically 
exhausted in 1870, and other sources of supply were sought with the result that 
there have been developed and worked the coprolitic phosphates of England, copro- 
litic phosphates and those commercially known as Bordeaux phosphates in France, 
the Esti'amadura beds of Spain, the Krageroe and Oedegiirden deposits of Norway, 
the Nassau beds of Germany, commercially known as Lahn phosphates, the Navassa, 
Sombrero, Curafoa, and Aruba phosphates of the West Indies, the apatite deposits 
of Canada, and iinally the North Carolina, South Carolina, and Florida deposits of 
the United States. The growth and extent of the phosphate mining industry is in- 
dicated by the following table: 

The icorhVs production of raw phosphates in 1880 and 1890.* 



1890. 



125, 000 
15,000 



To7is. 

England (coprolites) 30,000 

France (Somiue deposits 

France (otlier deposits) 

Belgium (Mous district) 

Belgium (Lii'-go district) 

Germany (Labn pbosphates) 25, 000 

Norway 5, 000 

Canada (apatite) j 7, 500 

South Carolina (land deposits) | 125, 000 

South Carolina (river dei)osits) 02, 000 

Florida 



Spain (Estramadura) 
"West India Islands. . 
Other sources 



Total . 



40, 000 
35, 000 
30, 000 



500, 000 



Tons. 

20, 000 

170, 000 

200, 000 

150, 000 

50,000 

30, 000 

10, 000 

26, 000 

300, 000 

237, 000 

40, 000 



50, 000 
20, 000 



1, 303, 000 



*rroui Millar's Florida, South Carolina, and Canadian Phosphates, pp. 19, 20. 



250 PHOSPHATES. 

The principal sources of pliosplioric acid at the present time in the United States 
are bones, guanos, marls, the phosphate deposits of North Carolina, South Carolina, 
and Florida, the apatites of Canada, and basic slag (commercially known as Thomas 
slag) from iron furnaces. 

Basic slag. — This is a by-product from the manufacture of steel by the basic or 
Thomas process, hence the names basic slag and Thomas slag, under which it is 
sold. 

In this process phosphorus is eliminated from pig iron by means of a basic (rich 
in lime) lining to the Bessemer converters. The slag produced is rich in lime and 
contains from 14 to 20 per cent of phosphoric acid. The annual production in Eng- 
land is about 150,000 tons, in Germany 225,000. Owing to its high percentage of iron 
and aluminum it can not be economically converted into superphosphate, but is put 
on the market in the form of a fine powder. It is prepared for the market in the 
United States to a limited extent and sold under the name of Odorless phosi^hate. 
(N. J. It. 1889, p. 39.) 

South Carolina phosphates. — The discovery of the marl beds in New Jersey in 
the early part of the present century and the beneficial results obtained from the 
use of the marls led to the search for similar deposits in other parts of the country. 
In 1842 Edmund Euffin, in making an agricultural and geological survey of South 
Carolina, located beds of calcareous marl in that State. Analysis showed these 
marls to contain a high percentage of carbonate of lime, and the marling of lands was 
actively engaged in. The unusually beneficial effect resulting from the use of cer- 
tain of these marls found in the vicinity of Charleston, South Carolina, led Dr. C. 
U. Shepard in 1845 to examine them with a view to ascertaining the cause of their 
remarkable fertility. His analysis showed the presence of a considerable j)erceutage 
of phosphate of lime (as high as 9.2 per cent), and to this substance he ascribed their 
fertilizing value. Specimens of nodules had been collected by Prof. F. S. Holmes, in 
1837, scattered over the surface of the rice fields of the Ashley Eiver. These were 
pronounced of little value by both Mr. Rufifln and Prof. Tourney, although the latter 
had found in some specimens as high as 15 to 16 per cent of i)hosphate of lime. Simi- 
lar nodules were afterwards observed in marl beds by Prof. Holmes and others. lu 
1859 Ur. C. U. Shepard called attention to the deiDOsits of these nodules, explaining 
the true cause of their fertilizing value, and predicting rapid development in the 
phosphate industry in South Carolina. It was not, however, until 1867 that actual 
mining commenced. 

"The deposits occur in a strip of country varying in breadth from 10 to 20 miles, 
commencing at Broad River in the southeast, and running 60 miles along the coast 
in a northeasterly direction as far as the head waters of the Wando River." (Millar.) 
Dr. Shepard, jr., in 1880 estimated the area underlaid by phosphates as 240,000 acres, 
only 10,000 of which could be profitably' worked. Since then new deposits have 
been discovered and improvements in mining methods made which have gradually 
increased the available area. The phosphate occurs in the form of irregular nodules, 
varying in size from the smallest particles to pieces weighing several pounds and 
occasionally as high as a ton. The average nodule, however, varies from pea to 
potato size. These are scattered through a stratum varying in thickness from a few 
inches to 5 feet, and bearing an overburden which varies in depth from a few inches 
to 60 feet. Two classes of nodules are miued, the hard, bluish-black river nodules 
and the light-brown porous nodules underlying the land and usually immediately 
overlying marl beds. The average composition from many hundred analyses by Dr. 
Shepard, jr., is as follows: 

Composition of South Carolina phosphates. 

Per cent. 

Phosphoric acid 25 to 28 

(Equivalent to 55-61 per cent tribasic phosphate of lime.) 

Carbonic acid 2.5 5 

(Equivalent to 5-11 per cent carbonate of lime.) 



PHOSPHATES. 



251 



Snlpliiiric acid. 



Lime 



Per cent. 
.0.5 to 2 
. 85 42 



Magnesia traces . . 

Alumina. traces.. 

Sesqui-oxide of iron 



Fluoride. 



Sand and silica * 

Organic matter and combined water - 2 G 

The average phosphates shipped from the mines show 56 to 62 per cent of phos- 
phate of lime, 5 to 10 per cent of carbonate of lime, and 1 to 2 per cent of oxide of 
iron and alumina. Correct estimates as to the extent of these deposits of course 
can not be formed, but according to Millar it may be safely assumed that there is a 
sufficient amount of land rock alone to supply the demands of the market for the 
next fifty years. In 1891 twenty-two companies, representing a capital of $3,000,000 
were engaged in mining South Carolina phosphates. 

Florid.^ phosphates.— -In 1881 J. Francis Le Baron, who was making a Govern- 
ment survey, discovered bars and beds of phosphates in Peace River, Florida. He 
appreciated the extent and true value of the phosphates of South Florida and sub- 
sequently took steps to reap the advantages of his discovery, but his negotiations 
for acquiring land failed, and it was not until the-spring of 1888 that actual mining 
operations were commenced under the direction of the Arcadia Phosphate Company. 

•'The phosphate deposits occur on the western side of the peninsula, and to use 
very wide and general terms may be said to be found in every county from Talla- 
hassee to Charlotte harbor (Millar.) The supply of phosphate is considered practi- 
cally inexhaustible. 

The beds may be conveniently divided into two classes, the pebble deposits of 
south Florida and the rock deposits of north Florida, The former occur in beds 
varying in thickness from a few inches to 30 feet or more with an overburden 
averaging about 8 feet, and consists of pebbles varying in size from the smallest par- 
ticles up to potato size (the average being between one thirty-second of an inch and 
lanches in diameter),buried in a plastic argillaceous matrix containing, accordiugto 
Wyatt, about 15 per cent of phosphoric acid and 13 per cent of oxide of iron and 
alumina. Two classes of pebble are mined, land pebble and that found in the 
rivers. Both are undoubtedly of the same origin, but the composition of the river 
pebble has been altered somewhat since its removal from the original bed. The 
composition of each class as shipped from the mines may be seen from the following 
averages calculated from a large number of analyses by Voelcker, Dyer, Shepard, 
Teschmacher;, and Cannon and Newton. 

Composition of Florida land and river peihle phosphate. 



Laud 
pebble. 



Phosphoric acid • 

Equal to tribasic phosphate of lime 
Oxide of iron and alumina 



Per cent. 
33.16 

72.40 
1.60 



River 
pebble. 



Per cent. 

28.26 

61.69 

1.96 



From twenty to twenty-live companies, representing capital varying in different 
cases from $50,000 to $1,000,000, are engaged in mining pebble phosphate. 

Rock deposits have been discovered in all of the northern counties of Florida from 
Tallahassee to a few miles north of Port Tampa. The phosphates occur in a series 
of pockets and in drifts covered by an overburden of a thickness varying from afew 
inches to many feet, and consists of rough and jagged pieces of phosphate rock, soft 



252 



PHOSPHATES. 



pliospliato, auilpbospliatebowldevs, Avhiuli arciou^b, inognlar masses of roc'k wciLfli- 
iiig from a few pounds to several tons. Ainlyses by Dr. Fr.ant'is Wyatt of 8c\er;il 
bundled carefully selected samples of tliis pbosjjbate gave tbe following results: 

Composition of Florida rock 2)hosph ate. 

[Bowlder phosphate — clean hi i;h -grade rock. Bowl dev.s and d6hris — unselected phosphatic material. 
Sotf. white — soft white )iliiPs])liMte in which no bowlders are found. Unselected — everytluDiJ; that 
was thrown up from the pits. ])Iio8phates and inert and waste matter.] 





Lime. 


Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 


Oxide of 1 lusolu- 
iron and ble sili- 
alumina. ceous. 


Carbonic 
acid. 


Fluoride. 

1 




Per cent. 
42.10 

45.90 
38.20 
41.70 


Per cent. 
34.15 

36.10 
29.70 
32.50 


Per cent. 
6.32 

4.80 
9.42 
8.70 
18.65 


Per cent. 
5.20 

4.05 
13.25 

5.20 
31.00 


Per cent. 
1.80 

1.70 
2.10 
4.80 
3.16 


Per cent. 
1.70 

1.57 
1.49 
1.15 
0.37 


Bowlders very carefully selected (86 


Bowlders and debris (160 analyses). . . 


Unselected, total outcome (76 analyses) 


27.40 


13.80 



In general it may be eaid tbat tbis class as sbipped from tbe mines contains from 
75 to 80 per cent of pbospbate of lime as compared witb 60 to 6.5 in tbe river pebble 
and 65 to 70 per cent in tbe land pebble of Soutb Florida. 

In addition to tbe above deposits beds of gravel rock bave recently been developed 
In Alacbua, Levy, and Marion Counties, and are being worked to some extent. Tbese 
pbospbatcs contain from 75 to 80 percent of pbospbate of lime, but average between 
2 and 3 per cent of oxide of iron and alumina, and require tborongb wasbing and 
cleaning before being put on tbe maiket in order to insure tbeir coming witbin tbe 
guarantied limits of 3 per cent of oxide of iron or alumina nnder wbicb tbese phos- 
pbates are sold. 

Seventeen companies, representing capital ranging from $30,000 to $5,000,000, were 
engaged in mining tbe rock and gravel pbospbates of Nortb Florida in 1891. Tbe 
total product of pbospbate in Florida in 1891 was sometbiug over 200,000 tons. 

North Carolina phosphates. — Coprolite pbospbates (so-called) and animal re- 
mains bad been observed in tbe marl beds of Nortb Carolina as early as 1852, but it 
was not nntil 1883 tbat tbe existence of extensive pbospbate deposits similar to tliose 
of Soutb Carolina was establisbed by investigations under tbe auspices of tbe 
Nortb Carolina Station (R. 1884, p. 44). Tbese explorations covered 125 acres wbicb 
Avere estimated to be capable of yielding 50,800 tons of pbospbate containing pe»- 
centages of pbospbate of lime ranging from 28 to 57 per cent. Tbe area lias since 
been considerably extended and deposits in Pender and New Hanover counties bave 
been worked to some extent {B. 1889, p. 43), but in view of the greater extent and 
superior quality of tbe more accessible beds of Soutb Carolina and Florida it is not 
probable tbat tbese pbospbates will be worked except for home consumption for 
many years to come. 

Canada apatite. — Altbougb not strictly witbin tbe scope of tbis article, a brief 
reference to tbe apatite deposits of Canada seems desirable in tbis connection. These 
deposits are very different from those we have just been discussing. They occur in 
the oldest rock formation (the Laurentian) of tbe earth's crust as a "series of pock- 
ets or beds of various sizes conjiected witb stringers or leads of i)hosphate." Conse- 
quently tbe yield of the beds is very variable. Occasionally enormous pockets are 
found which yield richly for some time and suddenly the vein may dwindle until it 
is worthless for mining purposes. The apatite occurs in the form of very liard 
bluish-green crystals. Analyses of selected samples by Dr. C. Hoffman show tbese 
phosphates to contain from 85 to 90 per cent of phosphate of lime and less than 1 per 



PHOSPHATES. 253 

rent of oxido of iron and alumina. The total shipment of Canada phosphate in 1891 
was 16,000 tons, of which 2,000 tons came to the United States. 

TiiEATMEXT OF RAW PHOSPHATE. — The principal nse of raw phosphate is in the man- 
ufacture of superphosphate or acid phosphate ; that is, the conversion of the insoluble 
phosphate of lime (tri-calcium phosphate) into a soluble form (mouo-caUium phos- 
phate) by treatment with sulphuric acid. Since impurities in the raw phosphate, 
especially any considerable percentage of oxide of iron and alumina (3 per cent or 
more), interferes with the success of this operation, causing after a time a reversion of 
soluble phosphate to tlie insoluble form, a process of grading is practiced at the nuncs 
whereby the crude product is separated into low-grade phosphate, rich in oxide of 
iron and alumina, and liigli-grade jihosphate containing less than 3 per cent of these 
substances. The Ibrmer is ground to an impalpable powder (floats) and sold for 
application to the soil without further treatment. The high-grade phospliates are 
shipped to the manufactories for conversion into superphosphate. The principle 
involved in the i)reparation of superphosphate is briefly explained below. 

If the crude phosphates were pure tri-calcium phosphate each 100 pounds of it 
would require 63.2 pounds of pure sulphuric acid for its complete reduction, but as 
tliese phosphates always contain admixtures of other substances, we must take 
account of these impurities in calculating the amount of acid to be used. For in- 
stance — 

100 pounds of ferric oxide requires 183.8 pounds of pure sulphuric acid. 

100 pounds of alumina requires 288.3 pounds of pure sulphuric acid. 

100 pounds of calcium carbonate requires 98 pounds of pure sulphuric acid. 

100 pounds of magnesium carbonate requires 116.6 pounds of pure sulphuric 
acid. 

100 pounds of calcium fluoride requires 125.6 pounds of jjure suli)huric acid. 
Given the composition of a phosphate, the sulphuric acid required for reduction 
can be readily computed from this table. For exami)le: 

Analysis of phosphate. Sulphuric acid. 

Per ceut. Pounds. 

Ferricoxide 0.48 0. 48 by 183. 8= 0. 88 

Alumina 2.96 2. 96 by 288. 3= 8. 52 

Calcium carbonate 3.41 3. 41 by 98. 0:= 3. 33 

Calcium fluoride 1.86 1. 86 by 125. 6= 2. 37 

Tri-calcium phosphate 86.45 86. 45 by 63.2=54.46 

Total for 100 pounds of rock 69. 56 

Thus, 100 pounds of 86 per cent phosphate, treated with 69 pounds of pure sul- 
phuric acid yields a mixture containing about 64 pouuds of superphosphate and 76 
pounds of gypsum or calcium sulphate, besides various impurities. Of the latter, 
the oxide of iron and alumina arc the most important, since these compounds are 
known to cause a reversion of the soluble phosphate to less soluble forms. (Fla. B. 10.) 
The phosphates of North Carolina described above have been made into super- 
phosphates with good success both as regards amount of acid required (550 to 650 
pounds of 47 per cent acid to 1,000 pounds of rock) and quality of product obtained, 
the latter being used along with high-grade superphosphate in experiments on vari- 
ous crops with highly satisfactory results. {N. C. B. 1SS4, p. 87.) 

Experiments. — The difficult availability of tlie phosphoric acid in iine ground 
phosphate or floats has led to their use in connection with green manures, and in 
composts witli stable manure, cotton seed, and other organic manures, the fermenta- 
tion of which in the soil renders the phosphoric acid more available. This method of 
use was first advocated by Dr. Ravenel, of South Carolina, Prof. Jameison, and 
Baron H. Liebig {N. C. B. 1S85, p. 56), and has been practiced with good success at 
some of the southern stations, noticeably those of Alabama, where experiments in 
composting Avith cotton-seed lueal have been carried on with encouraging results 
fur some time, {Ala, College B, 16, n, ser.) 



254 PHOSPHATES. 

The comparative fertilizing value of the phosphoric acid of raw and treated phos- 
pliatos has been the subject of much inquiry by the stations. While the results have 
often been conflicting and inconclusive the experiments have in general supported 
the accepted belief in the ready availability of the soluble forms and the lasting 
effect of the insoluble phosphates, the only exceptions apparently being the basic 
slag Avhich probably on account of its excess of lime decomposes rapidly in the soil, 
yielding its phosphoric acid readily to plants. 

A brief synopsis of experiments in this line is given below. Three years' experi- 
ments on cotton in Alabama with superphosphate, reduced or reverted phosphate 
(prepared by adding fine-ground phosphate to superjihosphate;, and floats gave 
inconclusive results, but indicated the permanent or cumulative etFect of floats. 
Experiments in adding air-slaked lime to the phosphates in the drill gave inconclu- 
sive results. (Ala. College B. 5, n. ser.). 

Tests on the limestone soils of Pennsylvania of the relative value for corn, oats, 
wheat, and grass, of bone, soluble phosphoric acid, reverted phosphoric acid, and 
insoluble phosphoric acid carried on for six years indicated the general superiority 
of bone and that the value of the others was in inverse ratio to thsir solubility. 
( Fa. B. 1SS8, p. 1S4, R. 1SS9, p. 159). 

Comparisons of like amounts of phosphoric acid in the form of acid phosphate, re- 
duced phosphate, Thomas slag, and floats on corn in South Carolina indicated that 
the cheaper forms are as effective as the more expensive. On cotton the order of 
effectiveness was acid phosphate, reduced phosphate, floats, and slag. In compara- 
tive tests on oats of Thomas slag and floats tlie former proved more effective. (<S'. 
C. E. 1888, p. 151.) 

The New Jersey Station concludes from experiments on wheat with like amounts 
of phosphoric acid, superphosphates prepared from boneblack, bone ash, and South 
Carolina rock that available phosphoric acid is of practically the same value from 
whatever source derived. (N. J. B. 1889, p. 147.) 

Thii Connecticut State Station {R. 1889, p. 203) has given much attention to com- 
parative tests of superphosphates and various insoluble phosphates. Experiments 
with dissolved boneblack, Grand Cayman Island phosphate, Tliomas slag. South 
Carolina phosphate, Bolivian guano, and Mona Island guano on corn, potatoes, and 
buckwheat extending over three years, resulted in showing in general that the soluble 
phosphoric acid was exhausted in from one to two years, while the other forms were 
more lasting. In a three-years' test on corn, Thomas slag and Grand Cayman 
Island phosphate were more effective than dissolved boneblack. In a two-years' 
experiment on potatoes the slag proved about as available as dissolved boneblack. 
{Conn. State B. 1889, p. 208.) 

Experiments have been made by the Vermont Station {R. 1888, p. 89) with floats, 
fine ground boneblack, acid phosphate, and slag on corn, jootatoes, and grass grown 
on light and heavy soil. With corn on light sandy soils tlie soluble phosphates gave 
best results. " On the heavy moist clay ground the insoluble phosphates gave just 
about the same weight of crop as the soluble, but it was noticed that the proportion 
of grain was greater and the corn ripened earlier when soluble jihosphates were used." 
On potatoes almost the reverse was observed, the best result being obtained with 
slag. In box experiments with corn slag proved almost as effective dollar for dollar 
of cost as the soluble forms {B. 15). 

A.ccording to experiments by the Georgia Station {B. 2) the order of effectiveness 
of certain phosphates on cotton is as follows: Acid phosphate, Thomas slag, and 
floats. 

The results of six years' experiments at the Maine Station with mixtures of ground 
bone, dissolved boneblack, and South Carolina rock on oats, peas, and hay may be 
summarized as follows: On sod lands all the phosphates were effective; with oats 
dissolved boneblack yielded on the average the largest crop; and with peas and hay 
little difference was noted {B. 1891, 2- 120). 



PIGS. 265 

lu pot experiments witli ofits at the same station (R. 7<9<W, p. 140) tlie orrler of 
effectiveness of the various phosphates used was as follows: Acid pliosphate, Carib- 
bean Sea <;uano, and floats. 

Comparative tests at the jMassachusetts State Station (/?. ISDl, p. 203) of equal 
numey values of dissolved boueblack, slag, Mona Island guano, ground ajiatite, and 
floats with potatoes in 1890 sliowed the marked superiority of the dissolved bone- 
black; tests with wheat on the same laud in 1891 favored dissolved boneblack as 
regards total yield, although the increased yield was " due in an exceptional de- 
gree to the large production of straw and chaft'." 

{Ala. College B. 4 {1SS4), B. S, B. 14, B. 16, B. 22, n. ser.; Conn. SiateR. 18S9,p. 203; 
Fla. B. 10, B. IS; Ga. B. 2; La. B. 1, n. ser.; Me. B. 12, B. 1SS9, p. 140, B. 1S90, p. 79, 
R. 1S91, p. 126; Md. B. 6; Mass. State R. 1S91, p. 230; N. J. R. lSS9,p. 147; N. C. 
R. lS82,p. 112, R. 1S83, p. 71, R. 1SS4, p. 44, R. 1SS5, p. 80, R. 1889, p. 41; Pa. R. 1888, 
p. 124; S. C. E ISSS, p. 184; Vt. B. 15, R. ISSS, p. 85, R. 1890, p. 20.) 

Phosphoric acid. — See Fertilizers. 

Pliy sails. — Three species of this genus are cultivated for fruit, known under the 
various names of alkekengi, husk tomato, strawberry tomato, winter or ground 
cherry, and Cape gooseberry. The sj)ecies are distinguished, their botanical history 
noted, and information about their adaptations given in N. Y. Cornell B. 37. The 
plant is an herb which boars a berry inclosed in an enlarged and persistent calyx. 
The common strawberry tomato is P. ptthescens, long known in cultivation, but also 
found wild in this country. "The plant is very prolific, and the fruits are consid- 
erably earlier than in other species. When ripe, the fruits fall, and if the season is 
ordinarily dry they will often keep in good condition upon the ground for three or 
four weeks. The fruits will keep nearly all winter if put away in the husks in a dry 
chamber. They are sweet and pleasant, with a little acid, and they are considerably 
used for preserves and sometimes for sauce." An objection to this species is that it 
is of a spreading habit, thus occupying too much ground. 

The second species, P. peruviana, is a stronger grower, somewhat erect, but too 
late in fruiting for a northern latitude. It is sometimes called Cape gooseberry • 
the former, dwarf Cape gooseberry. 

The third, P. eapsicifolia, erroneously called P. ediilis, is an interesting plant 
botanically, but the fruit has a mawkish flavor. 

Five species and varieties of " alkekengi " were grown at the New York State 
Station (R. ISSS, p. 194, R. 18S6, p. 252). See also Nehr. B. 12. 

Piggery. — Descriptions are given as follows: Canada Experimental Farms R.1890, 
p. 57; N. r. State R. 1889, p. 65; Wis. R. 1888, p. 154. 

Pigs. — The work of the stations on pigs consists of tests of breeds and feed- 
ing experiments, chiefly the latter. The subject of pig feeding has been very ex- 
tensively studied by certain of the stations, and their work in this line isnnusuallv 
interesting to the fiirmer from the fact that the experiments are almost exclusively 
of a purely practical nature. The experiments are in themselves simpler than 
those with most other animals, for as a rule only a single question is involved, 
namely, the effect of the food on the cost and rate of gain in live weight. In some 
few cases, however, studies of physiological questions have been included, as the 
eff'ect of difterent food combinations on the relative production of fat and lean pork, 
on the strength of the bones, size of internal organs, etc. No attempt will be made 
to treat the subject of pig feeding exhaustively here, but rather to call attention to 
some of the lines which have been most thoroughly studied. The subject is subdi- 
vided as follows: (1) Skim milk; (2) whey; (3) corn alone and in combination with 
other feeding stuffs; (4) peas; (5) oats; (6) potatoes; (7) coarse and green fodder; 
(8) salt; (9) cooking and steaming food; (10) moistening or soaking food; (11) 
feeding for fat and for lean; (12) nutritive ratio; (13) physiological effects of 
feeding; (14) pigs from mature and immature parents; (15) weight or age as a 



256 



PIGS. 



factor in determining profit; (16) cost of feeding before and after weaning; (17) 
summer treatment, and ( 18) protection. A brief account of tbo tests of breeds is given 
at the end of this article. 

Pigs, SKIM milk as food. — Skim milk as tlie station experiments have shown, 
forms one of the best and most economical bases for a ration for growing pigs. 
Although corn is the food by far the most extensively used for pigs, it produces ex- 
cessively fat pork -when fed alone. Skim milk has the very great advantage of being 
a nitrogenous food. Fed in connection with corn meal it produces a leaner pork, 
usually at a lower cost, Avhich commands a higher price than very fat pork. The 
Massachusetts State Station keeps a pig for every milch cow to drink the skim milk. 

Experiments in which skim milk hits been used have been in progress at the Mass- 
chusetts State Station since 1884 (E. 1SS4, p. 68, B. 1885, p. 33, R. 1887, p. 55, B. 1888, 
p. 55, B. 1889, p. 103). In these experiments two conditions have been considered, (1) a 
large supply of skim milk, and (2) a limited one. In considering the first condition 
the plan has been to mix corn meal with the skim milk in the following proportions : 



Live 

weisbt of 

animal. 


Corn 

meal per 

quart of 

milk. 


Pounds. 

20 to 70 

70 to 130 

130 to 200 


Ounces. 
2 
4 
6 



Where. the supply of skim milk has been limited, the milk has been supplemented 
by the following grain mixtures extended with water: 



Live 

weight of 

animal. 


Grain mixture (parts 
by weight). 


Gluten 
meal. 


Wheat 
bran. 


Corn 
meal. 


Pounds. 
20 to 70 
70 to 130 

130 to 200 


1 
1 


1 
1 

1 


'"l"" 
2 



The aim has been under both conditions to feed rations having the following nutri- 
tive ratios: With pigs weighing from 20 to 70 pounds, 1 : 2.8 to 1:3; with those 
weighing from 70 to 130 pounds, 1 : 3.6 to 1 : 4 ; and with those weighing from 130 to 
200 pounds, 1 : 4.5 to 1 : .5. The pigs were fed all they would eat up clean. 
As a result of these experiments the following statements are made: 
"(1) Begin as early as practicable, with a well-regulated system of feeding. Dur- 
ing the moderate seasrm begin when the animals have reached from 18 to 20 pounds 
in live weight; in the colder seasons, when they weigh from 25 to 30 pounds. 

(2) The food for young pigs during their earlier stages of growth ought to be 
somewhat bulky, to promote the extension of their digestive organs and to make 
them thereafter good eaters. A liberal supply of skim milk or buttermilk, with a 
periodical increase of corn meal, beginning with 2 ounces of corn meal per quart of 
milk, has given us highly satisfactory results. 

(3) Change the character of the diet at certain stages of growth from a rich nitrog- 
enous, diet to that of a wider ratio. * * * Begin, for instance, with 2 ounces of 
corn meal to 1 quart of skim milk ; when the animal has reached from 60 to 70 
pounds, use 4 ounces ])(r quart, and feed 6 ounces of meal per quart after its live 
Avei{;ht aniounts to froni 120 to 130 pounds." 



PIGS. 257 

The Wisconsin Station fonnd (IL /SSS, p. 33) that when sl<ini Tnilk and corn meal 
were each fed ad libititm to separate lots of ])igs, the pigs on skim milk made somc- 
Avhat the larger gain. To produce a poniid of gain, 4 pounds of corn meal or 19 
pounds of skim milli were consnnied. When the two were mixed the indications 
were that "much corn meal should be fed with the skim milk, since the meal 
furnishes largely carbohydrates and the skim milk largely protein." The greatest 
gain for the food eaten occurred when 2 pounds of meal was fed with S-J- pounds of 
skim milk. 

At the Maine Station (R. 1S89, p. 103) when skim milk was substituted for a part of 
the corn meal without clianging the amount of digestible food eaten, the ration was 
more cflficient, but there was a limit to this replacement. For instance, a ration, 
one-third of whose nutrients was furnished by skim milk, proved to be practically 
as efficient as one in which two-thirds of the nutrients were from skim milk. Pigs 
fed all they would eat of a mixture of 1 pound of corn meal and 3 pounds of skim 
milk made an average gain in fifty-five days of 83 pounds, requiring 9.51 pounds of 
skim milk and 3.17 pounds of corn meal per pound of gain ( Wis. B. 1SS8, p. 93). An- 
other trial ( TJ'js. i?. lS8S,p. 96) indicated " that to produce pork rapidly a lai-ge i)ro- 
portion of skim milk to corn meal may be fed, but that such feeding is not the most 
economical, and that a pound or a jjound and a half of skim milk to 1 pound of 
corn meal is as much as can profitably be fed when skim milk is valued at 20 to 25 
cents and corn meal at 75 cents per 100 pounds." Pigs weighing 400 pounds each and 
others weighing 140 pounds were given all they would drink of skim milk, with 
a little corn meal stirred into it, for sixty-three days {Wis.E.lSS9,p, 24), The lighter 
pigs ate mucli less per pound of gain than the mature ones. 

Experiments at the Vermont Station {B. IS) also brought out the value of skim 
milk for growing pigs. It is calculated that with pork at 5i cents per pound, 
dressed weight, there was received for the skim milk fed, on an average, 24 cents 
per 100 jiounds, or 2.13 cents per gallon. 

Other authorities have stated that with proper feeding 200 pounds of skim milk is 
equivalent to a bushel of com. 

The New Hampshire Station {B. 11) compared a mixture of two parts, by weight, 
of skim milk and one part of corn meal with a mixture of equal parts of wheat 
middlings and corn meal for one hundred and thirty-three days. The two rations con- 
tained like amounts of total digestible food, and were fed so as to furnish 0.53 to 0.54 
pound of protein and 3.33 to 3.36 pounds of carbohydrates and fat per 100 pounds, live 
weight, per day. " The rate of gain was unmistakably greater on the skim milk and 
corn meal than on grain alone, while the cost of growth [with skim milk at 25 cents 
per 100 pounds and corn meal at $20 and middlings at $26 per ton] was from 1.2 to 1.19 
cents greater per pound when the food was mixed grain. On grain alone there was 
a loss of more than 1 cent for every pound of gro^iith. * * * With thrifty pigs, 
from 20 to 30 cents per hundred can be realized for skim milk when live hogs sell 
at 4 cents per pound. It must be constantly kept in mind, however, that they 
must be sold by the time they reach 200 to 230 pounds, live weight." The average 
cost of food i)er pound of gain, at the above iiriccs, was 3.6 cents on skim milk and 
corn meal and 5.2 cents on the mixed grain. 

Skim milk vs. bitttcnitilk. — These were compared in two series of experiments at 
the Massachusets State Station (B. 1884, p. 68,, B. 1885, p. 23), feeding corn meal 
with each. The skim milk contained a fifth more solids than the buttermilk; but 
in spite of this in the first trial when they were fed in equal quantities there was 
little if any diiference in the gain in weight, and for the amount of dry matter eaten 
the buttermilk proved most nutritious, for on the buttermilk ration 2.4 pounds and 
on the skim-milk ration 2.9 pounds of dry matter were eaten per pound of dressed 
pork. 

In the second experimeutthetworations were adjusted so as to furnishlikeamounta 
of dry matter instead of like quantities of milk and corn meal. The result was then 
2094— No. 1.J 17 



258 



PIGS. 



better on tlie slvim-milk ration than on the otlier. Witli bntterniilk at 1.37 cents 
and skim milk at 1.8 cents per gallon, tlie bnttermilk was somewhat the cheaper; at 
the same price per gallon the skim milk wonld have been the cheaper. 

The Wisconsin Station (i?. 1SS6, p. 24) compared skim milk Avith bnttermilk, feed- 
ing each in like anionut and mixed with corn meal. The pigs on skim milk made a 
slightly larger gain than the others. With pigs at 5 cents per ponnd and corn meal 
and shorts at $15 per ton, "the skim milk wonld have a value of 35 cents and the 
buttermilk 28 cents per 100 pounds." 

Pigs, whf.y as food. — The Wisconsin Station (7?. 27, B. 1891, p. SS) reports four 
trials in feeding whey. " We were not successful in maintaining pigs on whey alone. 
* * * Added to a corn-meal and shorts mixture it produced a marked saving in 
the grain required for good gains. * ^ * jf corn meal and ghorts are valued at 
$12 per ton, then whey is worth 8 cents per 100 pounds ; at $15 per ton for the corn 
meal and shorts whey would be worth 10 cents per 100 pounds. 

Pigs, corn as food.— Prof. Henry of the Wisconsin Station (/?. .7<?5P, 2^.56) says: 
" Corn is and has been the almost universal food for swine in this section, and so it 
is to Indian corn that we are indebted for the benefits accruing from the hog. No 
other plant furnishes so much available food to the acre or food that is so well rel- 
ished by the hog as corn. '" "^ * Since it is the cheapest food on the list, corn 
very probably may form part of the ration of hogs at all times, but to cause a brood 
sow not only to maintain her own life but to grow the bodies of a litter of young 
from the elements contained in the daily ration of corn is simply out of the question. 
There are not enough -bone and muscle elements in the corn a brood sow can consume 
to sufiice for building up the bodies of her yonng. * * * Intelligently fed, corn 
is all right ; only in its abuse is there any wrong. There need be no less corn fed, but 
more protein food should be given in the shape of clover, blue grass, oats, and other 
grains." The Illinois Station (iJ. 16) found that "in no case did pigs make satisfac- 
tory gains after six or eight weeks feeding on corn alone." A summary of the results 
of sixteen diflerent trials at the station . where pigs were fed exclusi velj' on corn, shows 
that the gain in weight per bushel of shelled corn ranges from 8.66 to 16.81 pounds, 
being over 11 pounds per bushel in ten out of the sixteen trials. As the average of 
four trials at the same station {B, 16), pigs on a "full" ration of corn with pastur- 
age m^de larger gains than either those on a half ration of corn with pasturage, or 
on corn alone, although the rate of gain for the corn eaten was on the whole rather 
better in the case of the pigs having pasturage and a half ration of corn. 

Whole corn vs. ground corn, — A decid<Kl difterence of opinion exists among farmers 
in regard to the relative merits of corn when fed whole and when fed ground (corn 
meal). It should be borne in mind that there is no difference in the composition of 
the two and that any difference there may be in feeding efiect is due to dilference in 
digestibility or palatibility. The question is, does grinding corn for pigs pay finan- 
cially? 

The Maine Station {B. 18S5-S6, p. 59) found in digestion trials that pigs digested a 
larger proportion of the protein, fat, and carbohydrates of corn meal than of whole 
corn. The results were as follows: 

Percentage of nutrients digested from whole corn and corn meal. 



"Whole corn. 
Corn meal . . 



Dry 

matter. 



Per cent. 
82.5 
89.5 



Protein. 



Per cent. 
68.7 
86.1 



Crude 
fiber. 



Percent. 
38.3 
29.4 



Crude 
fat. 



Nitrogen- 

free 
extract. 



Per cent. Per cent. 

45. G j 8,S. 8 

81.7 94.2 



A careful trial at the Maine Station (7>'. 1887, p. 97) failed to reveal any difforonco 
in feeding value, the gain on corn meal being onlj- 2 pounds greater than on whole 



PIGS. 259 

com wlicu tlifi two wero fed inlike. riuantities. Reckoning the whole corn at 64 cents 
per bushel and the corn meal at $1.20 per 100 pounds, the cost ])er pound of gain was 
very slightly larger on corn meal. In a repetition of the experiment {Me. R. 1888, p. 
101) the gain was a little larger on the whole corn. "The results of the two years' 
experiments are certainly favorable to feeding whole corn, for it seems to produce aa 
much gain, pound for pound, as corn meal, and the cost of grinding is at least 
saved." 

In a trial at the Wisconsin Station (R. 1888. p. 92), using jiigs ranging from 175 to 
320 ]>ounds in weight, with the heavy pigs corn meal gave the best results and 
with the lighter pigs whole corn. The conclusion was that grinding would hardly 
pay. 

The inference from an experiment reported by the Missouri Agricultural Ccdlege 
{B. 1) was that corn meal was more effective than whole corn when the two were 
eaten in similar amounts. 

The Alabama Canebrako Station {B. 8) reports a trial with pigs weighing about 
80 pounds, part of which were fed corn meal and the rest whole corn ad libitum, 
which was decidedly favorable to corn meal as far as gain was concerned and 
slightly so from a financial standpoint. " When butchered the meat of those fed 
upon corn meal was whiter and firmer than that of the corn-fed pigs." 

Results at the Kentucky Station {B. 19) were conflicting. In the first trial they 
were practically the same for the com meal and the whole corn lots, the gain in 
weight being 175 pounds for the former and 182 pounds for the latter. In the second 
trial the gain of the corn meal lots was considerably the larger. 

The weight of evidence, then, seems to be against grinding corn for pigs. 

Corn meal va. corn-aiid-cob meal. — The corn cob has a certain feeding value of itself, 
and IS generally believed to be beneficial to digestion when ground with corn. It 
adds a certain amount of ash ingredients to the meal and is often recommended on 
that account. Digestion trials with pigs at the Maine Station {R. 1885-86, p. 62) indi- 
cated corn-and-cob meal to be less digestible than corn meal, but rather more so than 
whole corn kernels. The same station (R. 1887, p. 99) comi)ared a daily ration con- 
taining 4 pounds of corn meal with one containing 5 pounds of corn-and-cob meal 
for eighty-one days. The three pigs in the corn-meal lot gained 136 pounds and the 
three in the corn-and-cob meal lot 129 pounds. 

At the Kentucky Station {B. 19) pigs fed exclusively on corn-and-cob meal wasted 
it badly, and on an average made 1 pound of gain for every 6.1 pound of corn-and- 
cob meal. 

Pigs following cotn-fed steers. — The value of the manure from corn-fed steers for 
pigs has been the subject of a numlier of seiiarate trials at the Wisconsin Station 
(E. 1884, p. 25, R. 1886, p. 62, R. 1888, p. 89). In these trials pigs have been allowed 
to run with steers fed either whole corn or corn meal, the pigs receiving sufidcient 
corn to satisfy them in addition, and the results compared with those of pigs fed 
corn in pens. In the first trial the pigs running with steers required only 3.4 pounds 
of corn per pound of gain, while those kept in pens required over 5 pounds. " Put- 
ting it in another way, a bushel of shelled corn made 11.4 pounds of pork when fed 
alone to hogs, while a bushel fed to hogs running with corn-fed steers made, with 
the help of the droppings of the steers, 17.6 pounds, or over one-half more." In two 
other trials pigs following steers fed shelled corn required less than one-half as 
much additional corn to nuike a pound of gain as pigs fed in a pen by themselves, 
and pigs following steers fed com meal required somewhat less (about 17 per cent) 
than pigs fed by themselves. In a fourth series " the hogs with steers getting corn 
meal lost rather than gained by the association, while the hogs following corn-fed 
steers required very little extra feed in the first trial and none at all in the second 
to cause tiiem to make good gain." 

In similar experiments at the Illinois Station {B. 16), except that no additional 



260 PIGS. 

food was fed to the pigs following cattle, fair gaius were made, although smaller 
ones than by pigs ou pasturage aud a full com ration. 

Corn meal vs. shorts, bran, and middlings. — Corn meal, shorts, and a mixture of 
equal parts of the two by weight were compared at the Wisconsin Station {B. 1885, i^. 
5-5), feeding as much of each ration as was eaten clean. To produce a pound of gain 
there was eaten 5.3 pounds of either the corn meal or shorts, or 3.3 pounds of the 
mixture. The mixture was the cheapest feed, costing 3.3 cents per pound of gain. 
In another trial, counting shorts at 70 cents per 100 pounds and corn at 35 cents jier 
bushel, the cost of pork production on a mixtuie of two parts of ear corn to one of 
shorts was from 4.1 to 4.4 cents per pound, and on ear corn alone 4.6 to 4.8 cents per 
pound. 

In a later trial ( Wis. II. 1890, p. 21), when shorts, bran, and corn meal was com- 
pared with corn meal alone, the lot fed shorts, bran, and corn meal made a far 
more rapid and economical growth, had stronger bones, more ash in their bones, and 
a larger proportion of lean pork. 

The Kansas Station {B. 9 aud Bep. Sec'ij Kans. State Bd. of Agriculture, 1889) com- 
pared cooked corn meal with a mixture of cooked shorts and bran in two experi- 
ments. In the first trial, with mature hogs, the corn-fed lot ate the most and made 
the greatest gain, but required more food to make a pound of gain than the lot fed 
shorts and bran ; but in the second trial, where young i>igs were used (68 pounds), 
the result was reversed. 

In a single trial at the Vermont Station (7?. 1S90, p. 114), " in every case corn meal 
gave better results than wheat middlings as food for young growing pigs." 

This result was reversed at the Missouri Agricultural College {B. 10), where 94 
pounds of "ship stuft'" gave the same gain as 100 pounds of corn meal. This has 
been the continuous result for six years. 

As between wheat bran and middlings, the Maine Station (i?. 1890, p. 69) reports 
that in one experiment with pigs weighing about 200 pounds "the growth from the 
middlings ration was over twice that from the bran ration." 

Corn meal vs. barley meal. — In two comparisons of these feeds at the Wisconsin Sta- 
tion (j^. 1890, p. 53), in one of which they were each fed alone and in the other with 
skim milk, a little more barley meal (about 8 per cent) was required i)er poxind of gain 
than of corn meal. The results at the Massachusetts State Station {B. 1889, p. 112) 
Ijointed in the same direction. More recently, in experiments at the Minnesota Sta- 
tion( B. 22), 100 pounds of barley meal was found to be equivalent to 119.5 pounds 
of corn meal when each was fed as the entire ration ; when each was fed with shorts 
or oil meal the barley meal was found fully equal to corn meal. Other comparisons 
at the same station were less decisive. 

Corn meal vs. rice meal or rice Iran. — At the Vermont. Station (7?. 1890, pp. 114, 125) 
corn meal gave better results than either rice meal or rice bran, producing on the 
average about a quarter more gain in live weight with the same amount of food. 

Corn meal vs. cotton-seed meal. — The Texas Station {B. 21) compared shelled corn 
with cotton-seed meal and cotton seed. The lot receiving corn alone made the largest 
and cheapest gain in live weight, and the lot receiving boiled cotton seed the next 
best. In the first trial ten out of twenty and in the second trial seven out of fifteen 
pigs died within ten weeks after beginning to feed the cotton seed or cotton-seed 
meal. 

At the Kentucky Station {B. 19) " cotton-seed meal could not be fed profitably to 
hogs either for growth or fat." 

Corn meal vs. sorghum seed meal. — Four trials at the Wisconsin Station {B. 1883, p. 
27) indicated sorghum-seed meal to be a little more than half as valuable as corn 
meal. 

Corn meal alone and mixed with various feeds. — Several experiments have been re- 
ported which show the good effects of adding some nitrogenous food to corn meal, 
especially for young growing pigs. Thus at the Maine Station {B. 1889, p. 101) " a 



PIGS. 261 

mixture of pea meal and corn meal or of gluten meal and corn meal proved to be 
much more efficient than corn meal alone in feedin<y animals already well grown and 
quite fat." Likewise at tlio Virginia Station (/>'. lU) a mixture of 10 iiarts of corn 
meal, 4 of bran, and 1 of beef scrap gave a larger and more economical gain than 
corn meal alone. Kesults at the Massachusetts Station {B. lS92,p. 92) are favorable 
to a mixture of corn meal, wheat bran, and gluten meal, changed to give a less 
nitrogenous ration as the pigs increased in weight. {Ky. B. 19; Mass. State B. 1883, 
]). 40; N. Y. State B. 22, n. ser.; Wis. B. ISSS, p. 100.) 

Effect of adding ashes, bone meal, etc. , to corn. — As already mentioned, corn is defi- 
cient in asb or bone-making constituents, so that pigs fed exclusively upon it have 
weak or brittle bones. The AVisconsin Station {B. 25, B. 1889, p. 15, B. 1890, p. S3) 
reports three trials of feeding hard-wood ashes or bone meal with corn when the 
diet was corn alone. " The eflect of the bone meal and ashes was to save about 130 
])ounds of corn, or 28 per cent of the total amount fed in producing 100 pounds of 
gain, live weight. By feeding the bone meal we doubled the strength of the thigh 
bones; ashes nearly doubled the strength of the bones. There was about 50 jier 
cent more ash In the bones of the hogs receiving bone meal and hard-wood ashes 
than in the others. 

"A careful examination revealed no difierence in the proportion of lean to fat meat 
in the several carcasses. * * * These experiments point to the great value of 
hard- wood ashes for hog feeding, and show that they should be regularly fed. Bone 
meal seems to build up somewhat stronger bones than ashes, but ashes do the work 
Avell enough and usually cost nothing with the farmer. Where they can not be 
obtained, bone meal is strongly recommended." 

Hard well water containing 40.6 grains of solids per gallon showed no advantage 
over rain water w^ith 6.44 grains per gallon ( Wis. B. 1889, p. 13). In 1888 the sta- 
tion showed the effect of skim milk and shorts {B. 1888, p. 105). "Where the most 
skim milk was fed the bones were the strongest. Shorts made a strong bone, but not 
quite equal to that produced by skim milk." 

Pigs, peas as food. — Successful and encouraging results from the useof peas with 
other grains, as barley, oats, middlings, have been reported by the Utah Station {B. 
1891, p. 20) and Ontario Agricultural College and Experimental Farm {B. 1890). 

At the Maine Station {B. 1889, p. 85) " a mixture of pea meal and corn meal or ot 
gluten meal and corn meal proved to be mxich more efficient than corn meal alone in 
feeding animals already well grown and quite fat." 

Prof. Henry says ( Wis. B. 1889, p. 40) : ''Where peas can be grown they are admi- 
rable protein food and should make a choice quality of pork. Peas can be sowed 
broadcast in early spring, and when ripening can be fed down by hogs at no expeiise 
for gathering the crop " 

Pigs, oats as food. — In comparison of whole and ground oats at the Wisconsin Sta- 
tion {B. 1889, p. 20) the ground oats gave the better results for food eaten. 

Ground oats fed to sows with sucking pigs gave unsatisfactory results with oats 
at $18 per ton ( Wis. B. 1890, p. 52). 

Pigs, potatoes as food. — The Wisconsin Station reported {B. 1890, p. 59) a trial in 
which potatoes were fed alone and with corn meal and shorts. The cooked potatoes 
were better relished when quite dry. " It required nearly 4^ pounds of potatoes to 
take the place of one pound of corn meal. * * * It appears that the dry matter 
of corn meal was superior to an equal amount in potatoes. The trial with shorts 
and potatoes shows that shorts did not give quite as good results with the potatoes 
as did corn meal." 

As the result of a trial at Kansas Station {B. 9) it is stated that potatoes fed with 
corn "were of undoubted value, considered either as an appetizer or true food." 
The potatoes and corn were cooked togetlier, and were better relished so than raw. 

Pigs, coarse and green fodder— .5(7a//e rs. roots. — A trial of feeding corn silage 
to pigs at the Wisconsin Station (B. 1888, p. 86) resulted unsatisfactorily. The 



262 PIGS. 

rcsult.s at the New York .Stntc Station {U. lSf)0, j). HI, B. ^2, v. ser.) with silage made 
from corn rij»c euoiijfh to cut tor huslvin^i' "show that with sihigerated8oh>was$l per 
ton the gross cost for jirodiictiou of pork was considerably more than its market 
value when the proportion of silage was about 70 per cent of the ration." When 
corn took the place of part of the silage, the silage forming an average of 44 j)ercent 
of tlie total food, the gross cost of pork was about the same as where no silage Avas 
fed. "The silage was never all swallowed even when fed in very small quantities, 
although after the grain had been eaten out the remainder was chewed." 

The Ontario Agricultural College Station (i>. 64, It. 1890) has reported two 
trials in which silage has been compared with turnips, feeding a grain ration in con- 
nection with each. The turnips served rather better than the silage, but neitluu- 
gave very satisfactory results. 

The New York State Station (B. SS, ti. ser. ) reports that mangel-wurzels were eaten 
without Avaste and at .$2 a ton usually gave a protit. 

Clover, alfalfa, oat, and pea forafje. — In two trials at New York State Station ( 7i. ;?5, 
n. sei'.) in which green cloA^er formed the principal part of thediet, the gain made Avas 
\ery small. Oat and pea forage gave better results, but at the current prices 
" would only be profitable with the forage at about $2 per ton." (N. Y. State B. 28, 
n. ser.) 

The Utah Station reports (i?. 1891, p. 20) "alfalfa during winter in the dry state 
and in summer in the green state was economically added to wheat. Peas ])roved a 
good pork producer. Coarse foods, as heretofore, when fed to young pigs produced 
slow growth. 

Prickly comfrey. — Two trials of this at New York State Station (B. 22, n. ser., B. 
28, n. ser.) proved unsatisfactory, as the pigs refused to eat enough of it to maintain 
their Aveight. 

Soryhitm. — The gain of pigs fed largely on sorghum with a small grain ration AA'as 
profitable Avhen salt was fed, with sorghum rated at $2 per ton (N. T. Stale B. 22, «. 
ser.). 

Pigs, salting.— The New York State Station {B.22, n. ser., B. 28, n. ser.) reports 
a larger gain with than without salt when the pigs were fed largely on coarse foods. 
"While feeding clover, corn silage, sorghum, etc., better results have generally 
attended the ration to which salt has been added, but whenever mangel-wurzels 
haA'e been fed, the pigs haA^ng salt haAC generally made much poorer gains." 

Pigs, cooking and steaming food. — Cooking or steaming the food very naturally 
suggests itself as a means of improving the ordinary method of feeding pigs. The 
jirocess has been widely recommended and practiced, but the experience of the exper- 
iment stations has failed to justify it, as the following summary Avill sIioav. At the 
Michigan Agricultural College {B. 4) two lots of Poland China and Essex pigs were 
fed two parts of corn and one part of oats ground together, the feed being stirred up 
with boiling water for one lot, and with cold water for the other. The amount o*f 
food eaten per pound of gain Avas 4.62 pounds of cooked and 4.7 jiounds of uncooked 
food, a difference entirely too small to be counted in favor of the cooking. At the Kan- 
sas Agricultural College (i?. 1885-86) Prof. Sheltou compared cooked Avith uncooked 
shelled corn. The corn was cooked by steam until it could easily be crushed between 
the fingers. The amount eaten per ])Ound of gain was 7.5 pounds of cooked and 6.8 
pounds of raw corn; the aAerage gain per pig Avas 104 pounds for the lot fed cooked 
and 151 pounds for the lot fed raw corn. "The figures given need but little com- 
ment. They show as conclusively as figures can shoAv anything that the cooked 
corn was less useful than the raw grain, the dift'ereuce in favor of the raw corn 
amounting to one-fifth." 

The Iowa Agricultural College (Cohurn's Swine Husbandry, p. 134) compared cooked 
whole corn and corn meal with the same uncooked for a period of four months dur- 
ing summer, one lot being fed each food. The gains Avere as follows: On dry corn, 
195 pounds; on cooked corn, 162 pounds; on dry corn meal, 202 pounds; ou cooked 
corn meal, 142 pounds. The gain was 13 pounds per bushel on dry corn, as com- 



PIGS. 263 

])arecl witli 10.8 pounds on the same cooked, and .13.46 pounds per busliel on dry 
meal as compared with 9AG pounds on cooked meal. It is evident that tlie resnlt.s 
favor the raw food. 

Cooked and uncooked corn meal were compared at the Maine Agricultural College 
(li. 1S7S, p. 4S) each year for nine years. Without an exception the raw meal gave 
better results than the cooked meal. The uniformity of this result entitles it to 
nnu'li weight. 

I^ater the same tstation (/>'. 1SS7, p. 100) compared cooked and raw potatoes fed in 
like amount with corn meal and milk. Some of the pigs did not eat the raw pota- 
toes at all readily. In forty-four days the gain for two pigs was 60 pounds on raw 
and 67 pounds on cooked potatoes, indicating "that the value of potatoes is not 
materially increased by boiling." 

The Wisconsin Station {B. 1885, p. 36, B. 1886, p. 67) reports ten trials in which 
corn meal, corn meal and shorts, whole corn and shorts, and barley meal were each 
fed raw and cooked. "The results of the trials with each and every one of the sev- 
eral food articles used are against cooking." The result was especially marked in 
case of corn and corn meal, alone or with shorts. 

I?aw and cooked peas were compared in two experiments at the Ontario Agricul- 
tural College (7i'. 1876, p. 18). In the tirst trial there was eaten per 100 pounds of 
gain in live w^eight, on an average, 484 pounds of raw or 519 pounds of cooked peas, 
and in the second trial 360 pounds of raw or 475 pounds of cooked peas. 

The inference from these twenty-four separate trials is that there is no advantage, 
if not a jjositive loss, in cooking food for fattening pigs. In partial explanation of 
this it may be stated that the New York State Station {B. 1885, p. 320) found the 
nitrogenous materials in cooked corn and corn meal to be less completely digested 
than in the raw state. Further than this, the Wisconsin Station {B. 1886, p. 82) 
found that as a rule pigs were inclined to eat less heartily of cooked than of raw 
food ; and that they ate the ration of moist cooked food much more rapidly than the 
same food raw. W^ith barley meal four times as long, and with corn meal over twice 
as long was taken to eat the dry as the cooked food. In eating slowly the food is 
much more thoroughly mixed with the saliva, which materially aids digestion. 

Pigs, moistknixg or soaking food. — Two trials at the Wisconsin Station {B. 
1888, p. 94) of feeding a mixture of corn meal and shorts, dry and moistened with 
water, both resulted favorably to the wet food. The pigs ate more of the wet food, 
made larger total gains on it, and larger gaius for the food eaten, than when the 
same was fed dry. In two trials at the Illinois Station {B. 16) in which whole corn 
was fed as the exclusive food either dry or soaked in water, the pigs on soaked corn 
ate more and gained more than those on dry corn. In one trial they gained more 
and in the other less in proportion to the food eaten than those fed dry corn, although 
the difterences were not large in either case. 

Pigs, feeding for fat and for lean. — Experiments by Prof. Sanborn at the 
Missouri Agricultural College in 18«4, 1885, and 1886 {Buls. 9, 10, 14, and 19) strongly 
indicated that the character of the food influenced the character of the pork pro- 
duced, and that such nitrogenous foods as shorts, middlings, and dried blood, as 
compared with corn meal fed alone, tended to increase the proportion of lean pork 
to fat. The matter was taken up by Prof. Henry, of Wisconsin, in 1886, and by 
several others later. Reports of experiments in this line at the Wisconsin Station 
are given in B. 1886, p. 86, B. 1888, p. 96, B. 1890, p. 21, being usually accompanied by 
plates showing the relative proportion of fat and lean in different cuts of the car- 
casses. Prof. Henry assumes that the hog by long-continued excessive feeding on 
corn has become abnormally fat, and that by adequate feeding it can be brought 
back to its normal condition, having a good muscular development. This, however, 
he states, holds true " only while the animal is young and growing, and that the age 
and nature limits the amount of muscle, while the fat of the body may go on increas- 
ing after maturity is reached." 



2G4 PIGS. 

His experiments all corroborate Prof. Sauboru's work. Pigs fed sliorts, bran, 
skim milk, or dried blood j)rodnced a larger proportion of lean pork than those fed 
corn alone. In one trial, where the water in the flesh was determined ,it was found 
that pigs fed the more nitrogenous food contained a larger percentage of water-free 
meat in their bodies than those fed corn, showing that the increase in lean was real 
as well as apparent. 

In discussing his four-years' experiment Prof. Henry says: "We feel warranted in 
maintaining that the kijid of food sujiplied to young growing pigs has a very marked 
effect upon the animal carcass ; that foods rich in protein tend to build up strong 
muscular frames and large individuals, with ample blood and fully developed 
internal organs; that excessive corn feeding with pigs, even after they have ob- ] 
tained a good start, tends to dwarf the animal in size and prematurely fatten it; 
that, owing to the larger amount of ash contained, and perhaps for other causes, 
pigs receiving the usual nitrogenous foods have stronger bones than those fed on 
corn; and that the bones of pigs fed on corn contain the least mineral matter. 
* * " After the pigs have reached the age of 7 or 8 months there is far less neces- 
sity for nitrogenous foods, and the cheapest gains can be made with corn." 

Prof. Shelton, of the Kausaa Station, has rej^orted {Quarterly Eeport State Board of 
Agriculture, 1SS9, Eans. B. 9) two experiments concerning the effect of rations of 
corn and of shorts and bran on the composition of the carcass. The first was with 
mature pigs, and failed to show any material difference between the efl^ects of the 
two foods. In the second, with young pigs, in the case of the lot fed shorts and 
bran, tbere was a larger proportion of lean to fat, and a larger actual amount of 
lean pork; the lungs, intestinal fat, and leaf lard weighed less; the blood, liver, 
kidneys, uterus, stomach, and tenderloin weighed more; the percentage of dry 
matter in the lean meat, as well as in the fat, was less, and the bones were stronger. 

These results agree with those at Missouri and Wisconsin. Th'S indications of a 
preliminary trial at New York Cornell Station {B. 6) were that a ration of corn, 
cotton-seed meal, and wheat bran might increase the lean meat in mature animals. 

A trial at Virginia Station {B.IO), on the other hand, showed "not the slightest 
difference in the proportion of fat and lean meat in pigs fed corn alone and corn 
meal, beef scraps, and bran." The pigs averaged about 115 pounds each in weight 
at the beginning of the trial. 

Here the matter rests. The weight of evidence would seem to favor the view that 
the proportion of lean pork can be increased within certain limits by feeding a more 
nitrogenous food than corn or corn meal. 

Pigs, nutritive ratio of food. — By nutritive ratio is meant, as exiilained under 
Feeding farm animals, the relation between the digestible nitrogenous and the digesti- 
ble non-nitrogenous constituents (fat, carbohydrates, cellulose) of the ration, taking 
the nitrogenous constituents as 1. In general, experience has shown that the nutri- 
tive ratio of food for young pigs should be relatively narrow, widening as they get 
their growth. The Massachusetts State Station {R. 1800, p. 91) has used the follow- 
ing ratios : For pigs weighing from 20 to 70 pounds a nutritive ratio of 1 : 2.8 to 1 : 3 ; 
from 70 to 130 pounds,-l: 3.6 to 1: 4; from 130 to 200 pounds, 1: 4.5 to 1: 5. The 
comparisons of corn alone (carbonaceous or wide rati») with admixtures of more 
nitrogenous foods, as mentioned above, have pointed out the manifold advantage of 
the more nitrogenous ration, i. e., the narrower rations. 

The Maine Station {li. 1SS9, p. 85) reports : " In six feeding periods where the 
rations compared contained practically the same digestible material, 2,643 pounds 
of digestible food with a nutritive ratio ranging from 1: 5.2 to 1: 6.1, produced 890 
pounds of growth, while 2,651 pounds of digestible food with a nutritive ratio bear- 
ing from 1: 8.9 to 1: 9.4 produced 617 pounds of growth; it took nearly one-half 
more food to produce a pound of growth with one set of rations than with the other. 

"A ratio of 1 : 6 was compared with one of 1 : 3.6, and one of 1 : 5.6 was compared 
with another of 1: 4.4, the resulting growth being practically the same." 



PIGS. 



265 



Puis, rUVSIOLOLilCAL EKFKCT.S OK FKEDINO. — Foi' offcct of I'ood Oil pi'OportioU ol' lilti 

anil lean pork see Feeding for fat and for lean. 

For crt'cct of food on strength of bones sec Corn meal for pigs, and Effect of adding 
wood anil e.'i, hone meaJ, etc. 

Further literature is given as follows: Eft'ect of food ou the comiiosition of the 
carcass and on the size of internal organs : Eans. B. 9; Wis. li. ISSS, pp. 13, 100; 11. 
18S9, pp. G, IS; It. 1S90, p. 31. 

Modern feeding of pigs in its influence upon the formation of the skull and denti- 
tion: Minn. B. 7. 

Pigs FROM M.vTiKE ANP IMMATURE PA HENT.s.— Two trials at the Kansas Station 
{R. 1SS9, p. 79) were contradictory. " In the trial of 1888 pigs from mature parents 
were the most profitable; in the trial of 1889 there was little difference between the 
two litters." 

Pigs, weight ou age as a factor in determining profit. — One important result 
of systematic experiments in pig-feeding has been to show that the amount of food 
required to produce a pound of gain in live weight increases as the pigs advance in 
■weight, and that beyond a certain weight the feeding becomes nnproiitable. It has 
been repeatedly shown that there is no profit in growing heavy hogs. The profit 
comes from fattening the pigs as rapidly as possible and selling them for pork when 
they weigh 175 to 200 pounds. Prof. Goessniann says, as a result of his long study of 
the question. " To go beyond 175 to 180 pounds is only advisable when exceptionally 
high market pi'ices for dressed pork can bo secured. The quality of the meat is also 
apt to be iiuiiaired by an increased deposition of fiit. The power of assimilatin"- food 
and converting it in an economical way into au increase of live weight decreases with 
the progress of age." {Mass. Slate R. 18S9, p. 103.) Prof. Cooke, of the Vermont Sta- 
tion {B. IS), says "Pig-feeding is profitable even at the low price of 5J cents per 
pound, dressed weight, provided the pig is sold at an early age, i. c, by the time it 
reaches a live weight of 180 pounds or soon after. Grain can be fed to young pigs 
■with profit; in feeding it to pigs w-oighing over 200 pounds there is a loss." 

The cost of growth at different stages is well illustrated by Prof. Cooke in the dis- 
cussion of an experiment made in 1890 ( Ft. E. IS90, p. 120). 

Gain and cost of gain at different stages of growth. 





Avorage 
■weight 

at end of 
period. 


Average 

cost of 

food per 

pound of 

gain. 


Selling 
price of 
pork per 

pound 

(live 

weigbt). 


Average 
profit per 
pound of 
g.ain (live 
weight). 


Period I 

Period II 


Pounds. 

51 

10.3 

100 

202 


Cents. 
2.47 
3.70 
4.89 
5.82 


Cents. 
5 
5 
5 
5 


Cents. 
2.53 
1.30 
0.11 

*0.82 


Period III 


Period IV 





Loss. 



The cost is based ou corn meal, gluten meal, and wheat middlings at .$26 and bran 
at $24 per ton, and skim milk at 15 cents per hundred pounds. " On the average the 
6 pigs required during the first period 159 pounds of dry matter in the food to make 
a pound of gi-owth, and this amount increased steadily as the pigs increased in live 
weight until, during the last period, when they weighed about 200 pounds apiece, it 
required 3.96 pounds of dry matter in the food to produce a pound of growth. The 
pigs ceased to yield a profit, at the market prices then ruling, after they reached a 
live weight of about 180 pounds But it was found profitable then to feed them 
heavily for fifteen days on corn meal to 'finish them oft' for the market," 



266 PIGS. 

The Massacliusetts State Station (A*. JSSo, p. 2S) gives tables equally striking. 

The New. Hampshire Station {B. 11) says, in iliseussing an experiment, " The cost! 
of growth and the amount of food required to produce 100 pounds of growth increase 
as the jiigs grow older, and it would have been much more profitable to have sold 
tliem when averaging 175 pounds each tlian when averaging 240 pounds." 

The Maine Station {II. 1890, -p. 7-^) states that "the ratio of food to growth was 
very different during the early part of the experiment from what it was the latter ij 
part. In Period I, including approximately the first one hundred days of the experi- 
ment, not far from 2 pounds of digestible food produced 1 poiind of growth, while 
during the last fifty days or thereabouts the ratio w as 4 pounds of digestible food to i 
1 pound of growth. The ratio of the second period stands between those of first 
and tliird." 

Pigs, cost op feeding before and after weaning. — The Wisconsin Station 
(Jl. 1890, p. 43) rejiorts two series of trials on this subject. The teachingof these trials 
is that it pays to feed sows when suckling pigs so heavily that even the dams will 
gain in weight, for the cost of the gain made by the pigs and their dam is then 
cheaper than the gain of the same pigs when grown. 

Averaging the trials for the two years we have $2.87 as the cost of jiroducing 100 
pounds of gain with pigs before they are weaned, and $2.75 per 100 pounds gain as 
tlie cost of food for pigs immediately after weaning, a difference of $0.12 per 100 
pounds' gam. » 

Pigs, summkh treatment. — Eegarding the question, " is it profitable to feed 
l)igs well in summer or may they be allowed to run with little or no care and yet 
without much loss?" the Maryland Station {B. 12) reports two trials. The results 
of these trials for two years indicate that' for fall or winter pigs, which are to be 
killed when about a year old, it is more profitable to let them run in pasture or 
woodland during the warm months and shift for themselves until within eight or 
ten weeks of killing time than it is to feed them in confinement during the summer." 

Pigs, protection. — Goessmann states {Mass. State IL 1889, p. 103) that it pays to 
protect pigs against the extremes of the season. Feeding in the moderate season is 
more profitable than during very cold weather. 

Pigs, breeds. — A number of trials have been reported by the stations on the rela- 
tive pork-producing qualities of different breeds of pigs. As a rule, however, they 
have been witli too small a number of pigs to furnish more than indications. The 
question of the best breed has not been settled. The Maine Station {R. 1890, p. 75) 
compared the gains of Berksliire, Chester Whites, Cheshires, Poland Chinas, and 
Yorkshires. " In general no striking differences are observed in tlie rate of growth. 
Or in the relation of the amount of food to growth, with these several breeds of 
swine. The daily rate of growth of our animals was, Cheshires, 1.23 pounds ; York- 
shires, 1.14 pounds; Chester Whites, 1.08 pounds; Poland Chinas, 1.01 pounds; Bork- 
shii'es, 1 pound. * * * Although the Berkshire pigs made the smallest gain they 
required the least food for each pound of growth, and the Cheshires making the 
largest gain, consumed the most food for eaoh pound of increase of weight." 

At the Michigan Agricultural College {B. 4) Poland China and Essex pigs were 
compared, with the result that the Poland Chinas made larger and more rapid gains 
than the Essex. In a later experiment (7?. 60) Duroc- Jerseys, Berkshires, and Po- 
land Chinas were compared in two separate trials (1888 and 1889). The Duroc-Jer- 
seys made the largest gains both years. The Poland Chinas made the next largest 
gain in 1888, but the smallest ga: n in 1889. The cost of food per pound of gain was 
4.67 and 4.65 cents for the Duroc-Jerseys, and 3.97 and 5.22 cents for the Berkshires, 
and 4.41 and 5.87 cents for the Poland Chinas. The results in this respect are so 
irregular as to lead to no definite conclusion. Berkshires, Chester Whites, and York- 
shires were compared at the Vermont Station {B. 18). The results of the' compari- 
son "showed but little difference, whatever difl'ereuce there was being iu favor of 
the Chester Whites." In another trial at the same station {B. 1890, p. 114) theChes- 



riNE TREES. 



267 



ter Whites jrrew the fastest, but tlic.v and the Poland Cliinas ato the most iuod, so 
that the cost of food per i)ound of gain was slightly nioie than in the case of large 

Yorkshires. 

Ineidentatly, the Massaeliusi;tts State Station (/.'. ISOO, p. lor,) noticed that the 
cost of food per pound of gain was a little smaller for the Chester Whites than for 
the Yorkshires. {La. U.S. :?d ser.; Minn. B. 14; (hiUtrin A(il. Col. and Expt. Farms 
It. isoo.) 

Pigs, mange. —A disease caused by an animal parasite, Sarcoptcs suis. The disease 
is trantmitted by coutact. Blotches or small pustules appear on different parts of 
the body, and the hog scratches frequently. For treatment, wash the skin, and 
apply daily a mixture of one part of sulphur, one part of carbonate of potash, and 
eight parts of oil. Sulphur may be given in the feed. {La. B. 10, 2d ser.) 
Pigweed. — See Weeds. 

Pineapple (JnaHCSsaiu'a).— Information regarding the culture of pineapples and 
their adaptability to portions of Florida is given in Fla. B. 14. 

Pine trees (Z^ioHsspp.).— Several kinds of pines, native and foreign, have been 
considered at the stations with a view to their foiestry or ornamental value. In 
Mich. B. 32 (being the report of a forestry convention) statistics are given with ref- 
erence to the amoupt of white and red pine {P. sirohus and P. resinosa) still remain- 
ing in the country, together with other in formation. In lou-a B. 16, both red and 
white pines are recommended for planting near home. The white pine is character- 
ized by the Minnesota Station {B. 24) as " one of the most valuable and beautiful 
native evergreen trees we have." It is regarded as long lived, hardy, and of rapid 
growth in almost any soil or situation in the State when once established, except in 
the extreme western part, where it is unreliable. The red pine is said to rival the 
white for ornamental planting. The Scotch pine is recommended as a pioneer tree, 
butfor permanent planting meets the objection that in that climate it appears to 
mature in about 20 years and then begins to look scrawny and bare. 

The Austrian pine (P. nigricans, P. austrica) was open to the same objection as the 
Scotch, beside being much less hardy. The heavy-wooded or bull pine (P. 2}onde- 
rosa) is spoken of hopefully for the western prairies of the State. " It is the only 
pine found growing in the extremely dry climate of northwestern Nebraska and 
among the foot hills, where it is often found growing alone in exposed places." The 
dwarf Mugho pine (P. muglrus)\s noted as a very hardy and long-lived dwarf pine, 
seldom growing over 6 feet high ; shrub-like in habit; very thick and bushy ; desir- 
able for ornamental planting and making a good wind-break. Fuller data concerning 
the P. pouderosa (also called yellow pine) are given in NeJ)r. B. 18. 

Various notes on the Scotch and white pines as tested in that State occur in S. 
Dal-. B. 15, B. 20, B. 23, B. 29, R. ISSS, p. 25. " The hardiest of the evergreens seems 
to be the Scotch pine, and it is also the most rapid grower, at least while young ; " on 
a gravelly knoll, however, a plantation was badly killed by a very dry autumn and 
oiien winter. Kans. B. 10 is devoted to conifers considered with reference to litness 
for ornamental planting in that State, and several pines are described in detail. 
'' Next to the native red cedar, the conifers most certain to succeed in this locality 
are the Scotch and the Austrian pine," and between these it is found hard to decide. 
They are practically equal in hardiness; the chief objection to the Austrian pine is 
that it is too heavy and formal for most small gardens, its foliage in the winter as- 
suming a hue the darkest of any evergreen except the red cedar; " in this regard, if 
any, the Scotch pine, which is brighter in color and in habit, has the advantage. 
These species are discussed with a good deal of fullness, as also the Table Mountain 
pin« (P. puugens), the dwarf mountain pine (P. muf/hus and its var. j9M»ii?io), the 
pitch pine (P. rigida), the Southern yellow pine (P. mitis), and the white pine. 

The hardiness of the white pine is questioned on account of its not infrequently 
dying after reaching the height of 10 or 15 feet, the leaves turning red, at first in 



268 PISTA.CIA TREES. 

clusters, then thronglioixt. The Table Mountain i)ine was hardy enough, but rather 
too picturesquely irregular ibr small grounds. The dwarf mountain jjines were con- 
sidered desirable in their sphere ; the pitch pine is one of tlje least attractive of 
pines, but aftbrds variety j the Southern yellow pine had done well, but as far as' 
experience had gone did not seem to equal the Scotcli and Austrian for general use- 
fulness. Ga. B. 2 and B. 3 contain investigations of the fuel value of yellow pine 
{P. miils) and Georgia pine {P. palusiris). Full ash analyses of the wood are given 
also in case of the latter of the bark. For partial analyses see Appendix, Table V. 
Fla. B. 12 contains analyses with regard to fertilizing ingredients of pine straw, 
bur and bark, for which see Appendix, Table V. 

Pistacia trees (Pistacia spp.). — Two species have been tested in California (7?. 
18S5-'S6,p. 117). 

"The Pistacia vera, or pistachio-nut tree, is a small tree of spreading habit of 
growth. The nut is known also as green almond, owing to the kernel having this 
exceptional color. They are eaten raw or roasted, while large quantities are used 
in candies. Our own experience, as well as the experience of others, shows this tree 
to be a very slow grower, although thriving better in the hotter part of the State." 
The largest plants observed, though several years old, were but 6 or 8 feet high. 

The Pistacia terebinthus (the terebinth tree of the Orient) is a small tree of much 
quicker growth than the P. vera. It is a native of the Mediterranean region, yielding 
the fragrant Chio or Cyprian turpentine, which exudes from the tree. The tree has 
proved quite hardy in Berkeley, where in the garden of economic plants a large bush 
matured fruit. Owing to want of proper fertilization (of the flowers) the fruit 
dropped off early and no germ was found. The tree seems far better adapted to our 
climate than the P. vera." 

Plane tree (Platanus spp.). — See Sycamore. 

Plantain. — See Weeds. 

Plant lice (Aphidlda).— This name is applied to numerous species of minute bugs 
infecting the leaves and tender parts of many plants. Some of the more common 
species are the apple aphis (Aphis mali), cherry aphis {Mycns cerasi), black peach 
aphis {Aplils perslca'-niger), peach louse {Myziis persicw), grain louse {Slphonophora 
aveme), cm-rant plant louse (Myzus rubi), strawberry root louse (Aphis forbcsi), cab- 
bage aphis (Ajjhis hrassicw), willow grovelouse (Melanoxavthus sallcti), and woolly 
plant louse (Aphis lanigera). 

They are all similar in size, being less than one-tenth of an inch long. Most of 
them are of a light-green color and for most of the season nearly all of them are 
wingless. They infest the leaves, stem, and roots of various trees and by sucking 
the sap do considerable injury. Their presence is the cause of numerous leaf galls 
and bent leaves, in the angles of which plant lice are secreted. The woolly plant 
lice, from their abundance, give a white color to the leaf or bark to which they are 
attached. 

Toward autumn the eggs of plant lice are laid in protected crevices, by which they 
are carried over the winter. There are countless broods during the season and the 
progeny of a single individual in the course o'f a season if undisturbed would amount 
to millions. Happily there are numerous enemies to prevent their rapid spread. 
Among these are the lady-bird beetles, lace-wing flies, and syrphus flies. Where 
these do not hold the plant lice in check several well-known remedies will do so. 
The best of these is the kerosene emulsion sprayed over the plants. Strong soap 
suds, tobacco decoction, whale-oil soap, hot water, and arsenites are all good if 
thoroughly used. Cold water if sprayed forcibly will drive them from plants and 
if powdered tobacco be then dusted over the plants the lice will be kept away. 
White hellebore and pyrethrura (dry or in solution) may also be used. 

(Arh. 11. 1SS9, p. 145, R. 1S90, p. 70; Colo. B. G; Del. B. 12; Ind. B. 25; Ky. B. 21, 
B. 1889, pp. 8 121; Me. R. ISSS, p. 170; Mass. Hatch. B. 19; Mich. B. 50, B. 51; 



PLUM. 269 

I Nebr. B. 14; Nev. B. 11; N. J. B. 72, B. S6, R. 1800, pp. 4S4, 493, 407, 507; N. Afex. B. 
S, B. 3; N. Y. State B. 35, n. ser.; K. C. B. 78; Ohio B. 1888, p. 157, B. Vol. II, 6, B. 
Vol. in, 4, and 11, B. Vol. IV, 2; Ore. B. 3, B. 5, B. IS; S. Dak. B. 13, B. 22; Vt. B. 
1880, p. 157; W. Va. B. 1890, p. 157; Wyo. B. 2.) 

Plaster. — See Fertilizers. 

Plowing. — See also Sabsoiling. At the Wisconsin Station {R.lSOl, p. 101) plowed 
ground retained more water than nuplowed, the difll'erence amount iuy to 1.75 inches 
of rainfall. 

At the Missouri and Uta'i Stations tests of the draft in plowing wore made with a 
self-registering dynamometer. A deflection of the trace from a straight line between 
shoulder and doubletree gave a large increase of draft. 

A truck or wheel under the end of the plow beam caused a saving of 14 per cent of 
the draft. Colters of every kind increased the draft. In a heavy loam or clay soil 
a furrow 7 inches by 14 inches required about three-horse power, or 450 pounds, to 
turn it. 

Until the normal capacity of the plow was reached the draft, per unit of soil turned, 
decreased with width and depth of furrow. 

Lengthening the hitch did not increase the draft. A share sharpened by a black- 
smith drew liarder than a dull one, which in turn drew harder than a sharp ne\v- 
share. A share perfectly straight on bottom and laud side Avas drawn as easily as 
the usual form. When a sulky plow was forced to take land by adjusting the pole 
there was a loss of draft. The dra ft of walking and riding plows was not materially 
difiterent. 

A comparison at the Missouri Station (B. 14) of broad and narrow lap furrow 
plowing, ordinary plowing, and no plowing for corn were inconclusive. As between 
deep and shallow plowing, the results favored the latter. {Mo. College B. 13, B. 33, 
and Mo. B. 14; Utah B. 2.) 

Plo"WS. — See Dynamometer tests of farm implements. 

Plum (Pniniis spp.). — This fruit has been studied at many stations, with reference 
te varieties, methods of culture, and insect and fungus pests. 

Varieties. — Tests are noted in Ala. College B. 11, n. ser. ; Ark. B. 17, B. 1888, p. 57, 
E. 1890, p. 46; Cal. li. 1882, p. 83, B. 1889, pp. 86, 108, 137, 183; Colo. B. 1888, pp.83, 
199, li. 1890, p. 117; Fla. B. 14; Ga. B. 11; III. B. 21; Ind. B. 10; La. B. 22, B. 26, 
B. 3, 2d ser., B. 8, 2d ser.; Me. B. 1889, p. 255, B. 1890, p. 140; Mass. Batch B. 4; 
Mich. B. 55, B. 59, B. 67, B. 80; Minn. B. 5, B. 10, B. 1888, p. 284, li. 1890, p. 37; Mo. 
College B. 26, Mo. B. 10; Nev. B. 1890, p. SO; N. Y. State B. 1889, pp. 351, 356, B. 
1890, p. 346; X. C. B. 72; N. Dak. B. 2; Pa. B. 18, B. 1888, p. 161; R. I. B. 7; S. 
Dak. B. 26; Tenn. B. vol. Ill, 5, B. vol. V, 1, B. 1888, p. 12; Tex. B. 8, B. 16; Vt. B. 
1889, p. 157, B. 1890, p. 141; Va. B. 2. 

In Midi. B. 80 the 81 varieties grown at the South Haven Substation are assigned 
to: PruJiHS domes/icft (the source of the ordinary European varieties), 42; P. ameri- 
cana, 14; P. oHenialis, 10; P. chicasa, 3; P. myroholan, 1; undetermined, 11. 

N. Y. Cornell B. 38 is a monograph by Prof. Bailey upon native plums and cher- 
Hes, containing a classification of species and derived varieties, with full descrip- 
tions and several figures. The varieties are divided into the Americana group {P. 
americana), 45 varieties; the wild-goose group (P. hortalana), 17 varieties; the Miner 
group, 10 anomalous varieties intermediate between P. hortalana and P. americana ; 
the Chickasaw group P. augastifolia (P. Chicasa), 18 varieties; the INIarianna group, 
with which is associated the De Caradeuc and doubtfully the Hattie, which are 
believed to be mj^robalan or a hybrid between it and some American species; and 
the beach pliun {P. maritima); besides these, hybrids and unclassified varieties. 
The relative merits of varieties are also considered, and the valuations of many 
varieties by eight growers in widely separated localities are presented in a table. 
Tables are also given obtained from a Maryland grower, showing dates of flowering 



270 PLUM, BLACK KNOT. 

aud of ripening for leading varieties, also their succession, on the Chesapealie 
peninsula. 

Notes on native plums may also be found in Minn. B. 5 and S. Dale. B. 26. The Rol- 
liugstone plum is described with figures of sections (Minn. B. 10). Several varieties • 
of Japan plums have been grown with success at the southern stations. Of these 
the Kelsey is praised in Fla. B. 14, and this and the Botan are favorably reported 
in La. B. 26. Japan plums are noted as having done well at the California stations 
(B. 1SS9, p. 1S4). In the literature of the same station prunes, i. e., plums suitable 
for drying, are separately listed. loiva B. 10 notes also that that State has at least 
two valuable varieties of prunes. 

Composition. — An estimate of the fertilizing ingredients withdrawn from the soil 
by a croj) of plums may be found in Cal. B. S8. The results of an investigatioji 
of both the physical and the chemical composition of prunes are reported in Cal B. 
97. The ratio of flesh and stones aud of juice in flesh are shown, and proximate and 
ash analyses for 12 samples given. For specimen analyses see Airpendix, Table III. 
On the average the flesh amounted in weight to about 17 times the pits; and in the 
most juicy sample the flesh contained 87 per cent of juice. 

In Iowa B. 9 occurs a table showing the moisture percentages of six samples of 
green plums. In Mass. E. 1891, p. 296, analyses are given of two samples of plum- 
wood, healthy and diseased with black knot, from the same tree. 

Gkaftixg. — Stocks for grafting plums have been the object of investigation, re- 
ported in one case in loum B. 10. The myrobalan or cherry plum, extensively used in 
the East and West, had not been found hardy enough for the West. The black Damas 
and St. Julian had also proved worthless. Two varieties of the P. Jmer/crtHrt are 
noted, one with small terminal branches, etc., and almost worthless small red fruit, 
the pits of which furnish poor stocks; and the typical form from which the fine cul- 
tivated varieties come, which is a " vigorous grower and the best stock obtainable 
for western use for the native and foreign varieties." 

A general discussion of stocks is given in N. Y. Cornell B. 38. Reasons given by a 
Texas grower for preferring Marianna to peach stocks are quoted at some length. 

At the Alabama Station the wild-goose plum was gralted on twelve stocks each 
of jieach, seedling plum, and plum cuttings to compare Avith respect to longevity. 
After seven seasons, of those grafted on peach eight were living and healthy, on seed- 
lings three, on cuttings one. See also Cal. R. 1889, p. 108. 

The necessity of so i)lanting plums that comparatively impotent varieties will be 
pollenized by others is considered in N. Y. Cornell B. 38. The usages advocated by 
different planters are noted. 

Plum, black knot {Plowrightia morbosa). — This fungous disease, of native origin, 
attacks plums and cherries, both cultivated and wild, aud is perhaps the worst 
enemy of these fruits. When mature, the black knot appears as a rough wart-like 
excrescence from the bark of twigs and branches and sometimes along the trunk 
itself. 

The fungus grows just within tlie bark in the green layer, where its filaments 
may spread for sometime without an external manifestation of its presence. The 
first outward sign of the disease is a slight swelling under the bark either in the 
fall or during the growing season. The swelling increases until the bark is rup- 
tured, and over the surface thus exposed the fungus rapidly sends threads for the 
formation of spores, giving it a velvet-like appearance. Other spores are formed, 
any of which, falling upon a suitable host, will spread the disease. The knot finally 
becomes black and more or less raised into small rounded divisions, each of which 
contains myriads of " winter" spores. These are matured late in the winter or early 
spring to extend the siiread of the disease. The filaments of the fungus live froiu 
year to year in a tree once infected, the spores serving to spread it to new hosts 
and more rapidly over the old ones. Where the galls are few in number they may 
be thoroughly washed with kerosene, turpeutiue, copperas, sulphate of copper, and 



PLUM CURCULIO. 271 

I 

'other solutions with cousiderablo effect, but wheu at all numerous they should he 

I cut out in the fall and the cut places painted with some preparation to protect the 

iwood. In all cases burn the portions cut away. The trees should be sprayed after 

the lall of the Howers with Bordeaux mixture, and two or three applications should 

ibe made duriui^ the season. While these means will aid in keeping the black knot 

iin cheek, they will not avail much unless applied on wide areas, and all the wild 

jplum and cherry trees in the neighborhood of orchards are rigidly destroyed, for 

'the sjiores are often carried long distances by the wind. The addition of two ounces 

ol' I'aris green to the formula for the Bordeaux mixture will aid in keeping off the 

curculio. 

iConn. State B. Ill; Mass. State R 1890, p. 300; N. J. B. 7S, li. 1800, p. 364; N. Y. 
siafr B. 40, n. ser., B. 1890, p. 339; X. C. B. 76; Pa. B. 13, B. 1800, p. 166; Tenn. B. 
vol. IV, 1; Vt. B. 1890, p. 141.) 

Plum, brown rot (MoniUa fructigena).—A fungous disease, attacking plums, cher- 
ries, apricots, peaches, and sometimes apples and pears. It is found as a spot dis- 
ease on the leaves, and by the spreading and coalescence of spots will often involve 
a considerable portion of thfe leaf, causing its death. But it is usually most abun- 
dant and injurious on the fruit, especially of the plum and cherry. On the fruit it 
appearsas a brownish, circular spot upon one side. This enlarges rapidly and soon 
the entire fruit becomes browu, shrunkeu, and soft. Finally it attacks the stalk to 
which the fruit is attached, and the fruit falls to the ground or, drying up, remains 
until the following spring, ready to spread the infection as soon as the host is pro- 
vided. It is known that the spores in their development can force their filaments 
through the unbroken skin of the fruit where continued moisture is present. This 
condition is offered when the fruits are so abundant as to touch, thus preventing 
their drying off at the points of contact. 

All diseased leaves and fruits should be burned, especially the old dried fruits, as 
it is largely through these that the disease is carried through the winter. Spraying 
with Bordeaux mixture, aramoniacal copper carbonate, or solution of sulphide of 
potassium (one-half ounce to a gallon of water) will be found beneficial if begun 
early enough. Washing the trees before blooming with 4 pounds of copperas in 6 
oallons of water helps to destroy the spores. {Conn. Slate B. Ill; Kij. B. 1889, p. 
31; Mass. State B. 1890, p. 213; Mich. B. 83; N. J. B. 1891, p. 305; N. C. B. 76.) 

Plum curculio {Conotrachelus nemiphar). — The adult is one of the snout beetles 
and is about one-fifth of an inch in length, of a grayish-brown or black color. It 
winters under rubbish and comes out in the spring as soon as the fruit is set, or 
earlier. It eats leaves, buds, and fruit. The female punctures the skin of the fruit 
with her snout, making a hole about a sixteenth of an inch deep. In this she depos- 
its an egg, and in front of the hole cuts a crescent-shaped mark through the skin 
and thus prevents the crushing of the young larva by the growing fruit. The egg 
hatches in three to five (or more) days, and the small white worm eats its way about 
in the plum. The total number of eggs laid by one individual is fifty to one hun- 
dred, four or five per day. The presence of the curculio causes the fruit to secrete 
a kind of gum Avhich escapes from the opening in which the egg was laid. The fruit 
usually falls about the time the grub is full grown, and it seeks the ground in which 
it burrows, to emerge in about a month transformed into a beetle. The curculio 
attacks other fruits, as the apple, peach, cherry, and nectarine, but prefers the plum. 
It is more partial to some varieties than to others. Spraying the trees with a 
solution of Paris green (1 pound to 100 gallons of water) or with Bordeaux mixture, 
to which 2 ounces of Paris green is added, will kill many of the adult beetles. Spray 
before the flowers appear and ten days after. Jarring the trees will cause the bee- 
tles to fall to the ground, feigning death. If a sheet be spread on the ground and 
the tree strongly jarred many may be caught. This must be done early in the morn- 
ing or late in the evening. By placing chips about the tree under which the curcu- 



272 PLUM, SHOT-HOLE FUNGUS. " 

lios collect, many may be canglit aud killed. Throwiug- them into water to which 
a little kerosene has been added is the easiest way of killing them when canght. 

(fnd. B. 25, B. 33; loica B. 5, B. 9; Ky. B. 40; Mass. Hatch. B. 10, B. 12; Mich. 
B. 66, B. 1889, p. 2G0, (B. 53), Miss. B. 14; N. J. B. 86, B. 1880, p. 296, N. Y. Cornell ■ 
B. 3; N. Y. State B. 35, n. set:; N. C. B. 78; Ohio B. Vol. II, 1 and 6, Vol. Ill, 4 and 
11, Vol. IV, 2, B. 1888, p. 146; B. I. B. 15; W. Va. R. 1890, p. 151. 

Plum, shot-hole fungus (Septoria cerasina). — A disease due to a fungus which 
causes small round holes in the leaves of plum, peach, and cherry trees. Rather 
early in the season numerous spots appear on the leaves. The tissue lying between 
these si)ots dries up and finally falls out, leaving a clean-cut hole. The spread of 
the disease so weakens the leaves that they drop from the tree, leaving it bare early 
in the season. Of course the fruit is injuriously affected by such processes. 

A spray of Bordeaux mixture applied just after the fall of the flowers and repeated 
every two weeks for three or four applications will be beneficial. {Ohio B. Vol. IF, 
9.) 

Poland China pigs, — See Pigs, heeds. 

Pomegranate {Punica granatiim). — Tests of this fruit have been begun at several 
stations (Cat. B. 188S-'89,pp. 110, 197; La. B. 3, 2d set:; N. Mex. B. 2; Tex. B. 8). 

Pop corn (Zea mays var.). — See also Corn. Variety tests of pop corn are reported 
in III. B. 13; Nehr. B. 12, B. 19; N. Y. Cornell B. 16; N. Y. State R. 1883, p. GO, R, 
1884, p. 183; Vt. R. 1889, p. 134. In N. Y. State R. 1883 three types are recognized, 
viz, pop corn proper, resembling flint but smaller; pearl pop corn with rounded ker- 
nels, aud rice pop corn with pointed kernels. A " golden pop" with extremely small 
ears approaching the rice type is also noted. Data are given of the growth of many 
varieties planted aud a description of the crop, which was very much mixed. In 
N. Y. State R. 1884, 10 typical varieties, classified according to size aud form of ear- 
stalk, color of cob, etc., are described. In III. B. 13, 14 varieties are fully de- 
scribed. Two general classes are recognized, viz, rice corn with pointed kernels and 
the varieties with rounded or flattened kernels, including that known as pearl corn. 

Analyses of pop corn stalks and ears, considered as a feeding stuff, are recorded in 
Ga. B. 12; N. Y. Cornell B. 16. (See Appendix, Table I.) 

Poplar trees (Popiilus spp.) — Besides the native P. monilifera, the Cottonwood 
(which see), several Europcau, especially Russian, poplars have been j)ut on trial 
in the northern prairie States, where hardy and rapid-growing trees are much needed. 

An illustrated description of twelve species and varieties is presented in Minn. B. 
9, and several of these are further noted in B. 24. Notes on various poplars iilanted 
at the South Dakota Station may be found in B. 12, B. 15, B. 20, B. 23, B. 29, R. 1888, 
pp. 25, 27. 

Brief notes on several si)ecies occur in an Iowa bulletin of 1885, and a short list 
with record of growth is given in Colo. R. 1889, p. 24. 

The silver or white poplar is represented by the Minnesota Station as having a 
valuable wood and as desirable as a forest tree, though its sprouting from the roots 
makes it objectionable as a lawn or street tree. Difl'erent forms of Lombardy pop- 
lar are described, but not recommended for extensive planting. Of the Russian pop- 
lars, the P. certineiisis is the most highly esteemed both here and at the South Dakota 
Station. It is a fast-growing, hardy tree of erect habit, having broadly oval, pointed 
leaves, which are thick and leathery. 

Its foliage and that of others of the class is regarded as more healthy than that of 
the Cottonwood, though according to S. Dale. B. 23 it is subject to the attacks of the 
Cottonwood leaf beetle. 

P. alba, var. holleana, is praised for ornamental planting. It has the upright aud 
close habit of the Lombardy poplar, but promises to be long-lived, is perfectly hardy, 
and does not sucker. Its foliage is silvered like that of the white poplar, but is 
somewhat differently cut. Other species more or less approved in Minn. B. 24 are: 



POTASH. 273 

p. petrousTii, which appeared, as there received, to be identical with the certinenaia; 
P. balsamifera var. lauHfolia, laurel-leafed poplar, a little slower grower than P. 
certinensis, with thick healthy foliage, white on the under side, distinct and desir- 
able; var. Siberica pyramidaUs of the same; P. ivohsky, a po])lar of peculiar aspect, 
resembling a cherry tree in foliage; P. heiuUfolia, birch-leafed poplar, not of special 
value, but suitable to give variety to timber borders. 

Successful experiments in growing Kussian poplars from hard-wood cuttings are 
reported in Minn. B. lSSS,p. 223 {B. 5), B. 9. The method followed is described and 
directions for planting are given. A similar effort at the South Dakota Station was 
successful save for the interference of cutworms (/?. lSS9,p.35). At the same station 
(i' id.) scions of white poplar and var. bolleana were grafted upon cottonwood 
stocks, with results as noted under Cottonwood. 

Potash. — See also Fertilizers. All plants require potash. Clay soils are frequently 
supiilied with this element in sufficient quantity, while sandy soils are more apt 
to be deficient in this respect. 

The chief sources of the potash of commercial fertilizers are ashes and various 
potash salts mined in Germany. These are carnallite, a raw product not offered in 
the American market; kieserite and sylvmite, not in general use in America; kainit, 
which consists of the sulphates and chlorides of potassium, sodium, and magnesium, 
and which is widely used; sulphate of potash and magnesia (double manure salt); 
sulphate of potash, nearly twice as rich in potash as the preceding; muriate of pot- 
ash, the most soluble of the potash salts ; and calcined potash, less concentrated than 
the two preceding salts. For composition of above salts see Appendix, Table IV. 

Kainit renders the soil more compact and retentive of moisture. Kainit and other 
crude salts, also the concentrated salts that contain chlorides, should not be applied 
to tobacco, since the chlorine injures the burning quality. The sulphates are pre- 
ferred for tobacco, potatoes, and sugar beets. 

Potassic fertilizers were profitable on Irish potatoes in Kentucky and in Massa- 
chusetts, giving in the latter State an average increase of 41.5 bushels per acre. 
(Mass. Hatch. B. IS.) In New Jersey (B. SO) muriate of potash proved very slightly 
better for potatoes than sulphate of potash and kainit; at the Massachusetts State 
Station (E. ISSS, p. 123) the sulphate gave slightly the best result. 

In New Jersey potash proved highly profitable on sweet potatoes and on sorghum, 
increasing the total weight of sorghum and the product of sugar. 

In Kentucky the chloride and sulphate of potash were equally effective on hemp; 
160 pounds of either, with nitrogen, proved sufficient {Ey. B. 27). 

On corn in New Jersey and in New England, potash has generally given excellent 
results. One experiment in New Jersey showed an increase of 30 bushels per acre. 
In others both stover and grain were increased, the former more notably than the 
gram. In Massachusetts many experiments gave an average increase of 11.3 bushels 
of corn and 1,308 pounds of stover, due to potash fertilization {Mass. Hatch. B. 14). 
In Kentucky potash was profitable on corn, and its beneficial results extended to 
the crop of succeeding years {Ky. B. 17, B. 26). 

Eighty experiments on corn conducted under Prof. Atwater's direction during 
1878-'81 resulted in a marked increase due to potash in 12 cases; a more or less 
marked increase in 24 cases ; and no gain in 44 instances. ( Conn. Storrs B. ISSS, p. 92). 
In South Carolina, on corn potash gave little or no increase {B. ISSS, p. 15S, 165). 

At the New York State Station {B. ISSS, p. 34S) a potassic fertilizer on oats pro- 
duced no effect. In South Carolina potash on grain proved unprofitable {B. ISSS, p. 
15S). 

Potash was needed by tobacco in Kentucky (B. 2S). (See Tobacco.) On sugar 
cane in Louisiana it was unprofitable (La. B. 20). 

At tiin North Louisiana Station (B. 16, n. ser.) the yield of cotton was not mate- 
rially changed by any form of potash. In South Carolina potash was less needed 
by cotton than were phosphoric acid and nitrogen (B. ISSS, p, 246). On the yellow 

2094— No, 15 18 



274 POTASSIUM SULPHIDE. 

loam lands of Mississippi potash is demanded by the cottou plant (B. 24). At the 
Alabama College Station {B. 36, B, 41) kainit checked the yellow leaf blight of cot- 
ton. 

For the effect of potassic fertilizers on injnrions insects see Fertilizers. 

{Conn. StateR.lS89,p. 226; Ind. B. S3; Mass. Hatch. B. 9, Special B., May, 1890, B. 
13; Me. B. 1888, p. 29; N. Y. Cornell B. 33; N. J. B. 54, B. ISSS, p. 44; Ohio B. Vol. II 
5; rt. B. 15.) 

Potassium sulphide. — See Fungicides. 

Potato (Solanmn iiiherosum). — The useful product of this plant is the underground 
tubers, which are thickened stems, having their cells mostly filled with starch as a 
reserve food for the new plant. The " eyes " are compound buds, each of whichmay 
produce one or more stalks. The skin is formed of a layer of delicate cork cells, 
some of which are loosely arranged so as to permit the passage of air. The fibrous 
framework and the pith of the stalk are continued into the tuber. 

An illustrated descrii)tion of the structure of the potato tuber was published in 
Ind. B. 15. 

Varieties. — Tests of varieties have been reported from stations in Alabama (Col- 
lege and Canebrake), Arkansas, Colorado, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Indiana, Iowa, 
Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts (Hatch), Michigan, 
Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Nebraska, Nevada, New York (State), Ohio, Oregon, 
Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Dakota, Tennessee, Utah, Vermont, and Wiscon- 
sin. Among the varieties which have been most productive in different localities 
are the following : 

Alexander. Early Maine. New Giant. 

American Giant. Early Ohio. New Queen. 

Beauty of Hebron. Early Oxford. Polaris. 

Bliss's Triumph. Early Puritan. Eed Elephant. 

Burbank. Early Eose. Eural Blush. 

Bnrbauk Seedling. Early Sunrise. Eural New Yorker No. 2. 

Chicago Market. Empire State. Seneca Beauty. 

Dakota Eed. Governor Eusk. Suowflake. 

Delaware. Grange. Summit. 

Dictator. Green Mountain. Thorburn. 

Early King. Howe Premium. White Elephant. 

Experiments with reference to the improvement of wild varieties of potatoes have 
been made at several stations {N. Y. State B. 1885, p. 216, E. 1886, p. 147; Pa. B. 7, 
R. 1886, p. 284). The Michigan Station (B. 70) reports that after several years' trial 
the wild Mexican variety has gradually increased in size and yield, but is too coarse 
to be valuable. Solanum jamesii has shown no increase in size. 

{Ala. College B. 7 {1889); Ala. Canehralce B. 6; Ark. B. 1888, p. 59, B. 1889, p. 27; 
Colo. B. 4, B. 7, B. 1889, p. 104,11. 1890, p. 194; Del. B. 1890, p. 106; Fla. B. 11; Ga. 
B. 8, B. 17; Ind. B. 18, B. 31, B. 34, B. 38; Iowa B. 16; Kans. B. 1888, p. 226, R. 1889, 
p. 168; Ky. B. 9, B. 16, B. 22, B. 37; La. B. 11, 2d ser., B. 16, 2dser., B. 27, 2dser., B. 
4, 2d ser.; Me. B. 18 {1887), R. 1888, p. 123, R. 1889, p. 146; Md. R. 1888, p. 59, R. 1889, 
p. 51, R. 1890, p. 108; Mass. Hatch B. 7; Mich. B. 13, B. 34, B. 46, B. 57, B. 60, B. 70, 
B. 85; Minn. B. 1, B. 5, R. 1888, pp. 82, 230; Mo. B. 10, B. 13, B. 16; Nehr. B. 6, R. 
12, B. 19; Nev. B. 14, R. 1890; N. Y. State B. 69 {1883), B. 11, n. ser., B. 13, n. ser., R. 
1884, p. 293, R. 1885, p. 194, R. 1886, p. 140, R. 1887, p. 76, R. 1888, p. 158, R. 1891, p. 480 ; 
Ohio B. vol. Ill, 1, R. 1888, p. 116; Ore. B. 4, B. 11; Pa. B. 6, B. 10, R. 1888, p. 41, R. 1889, 
p. 28, It. 1890, p. 152; R. I. B. 5 {R. 1889, p. 97), R. 1890, p. 122; S. Dal;. B. 2, R. 1890, p. 
14; Tenn. B., vol. Ill, 1 ; Utah B. 14; Ft. R. 1889, p. 117, R. 1890, p. 163 ; Fa. B. 6, B.'S, 
B. 11; Wis. B. 9, B. 11, B. 13, B. 17, B. 22, R. 1890, pp. 205, 268, R. 1891, p. 135.) 

Composition.— See Appendix, Tables I and II. Among recent determiatinons of 
the starch content of potatoes are the following: 

At C'Oloiiulo ytation (B, 7) 126 uamecj varieties averaged XT.lTper pent and Qieeed-r 



POTATO. 275 

ling varieties 18.85 per cent; at Massaclinsetts Hatch Station (7?. 75) potatoes grown 
with different fertilizers averaged 1G.02 per cent, but muriate of potash reduced 
the starch content; at Nevada Station (7i. 14) the starch in 52 varieties varied from 
12.32 to 23.03 and was over 15 per cent in 37 varieties; at Utah Station {B. 5) a 
relatively large starch content was found. The New Jersey Station {B. 80, B. P, 
li. 1S90, p. 120, R. lS91,p. 121) reports experiments with different fertilizers, in which 
the fertilizers, particularly potash, seemed to reduce the starch content. Sulphate 
of potash had the least effect. The Iowa Station {B. 12) found a relatively large 
amount of albuminoids in the " seed" ends. 

Skkd. — Experiments in planting large and small whole tuljers and cuttings of vari- 
ous sizes have been made at more than twenty stations in different jiarts of the 
country. In some cases these experiments have been continued several years. 
While there has been great variety in the details of the results, there have been only 
a few instances in which the total yield did not increase with the amount of seed 
used. Whole tubers have given larger yields than cuttings and large tubers than 
small. The marketable product has increased with the size of the cutting or tuber, 
but at a smaller rate than the total yield. The largest portion of this gain has been 
iu small potatoes. In most cases the net gain of merchantable product over seed has 
not been sufficient to make the planting of whole tubers prolitable. The vines from 
whole tubers grow more vigorously and the crop has a tendency to mature earlier 
than that from cuttings. In ordinary practice it will usually give the best results 
to plant good-sized, well matured, and healthy potatoes, cut to two or three eyes. 

{AU. College B. 31; Colo. B. 4, B. 7 ; hid. B. 31, B. 34, B. 3S; Ky. B. 9, B. 16, B 22; 
La. B. 4, 2d ser., B. 16, 2d ser.; Md. li. lSSS,p. 59, R. lSS9,p. 51, R. lS90,p.l08; Mass 
Slate R. lSS4,p. 87, R. 1886, p. 82, R. 1887, p. 141; Mich. B. 13, B. 34, B. 46, B. 85; Minn 
B. 1; Mo. College B. 12; N. Y. State R. 1883, R, 1884, p. 68, R, 1885, p. '47; R. 1886, p 
149, R. 1887, p. 86, R. 1888, p. 158, R. 1889, p. 223, R. 1890, p. 372; N. Y. Cornell R 
1879, R. 1880, R. 1883, R. 1885; Ohio B. vol. Ill, 1, R. 1882, p. 53, R. 1883, p. 92, R. 1884, 
p. 91, R. 1885, p. 70, R. 1886, p. 154; Ore. B. 11; Fa. R. 1886, p. 131; R. I. B. 5 (R. 
1889, p. 97), R. 1890, p. 109; Tenn. B. vol. Ill, 1; Utah B. 5, B. 14; Vt. B. 13, R. 1888, 
p. 97; Va. B. 8; W. Va. B. 20; Wis. B. 22, R. 1883, p. 21, R. 1890, pp. 205, 268, R. 1891, 
p. 135. ) 

Experiments and observations on the relation of the number of eyes on the seed 
tuber to the product, at the Indiana Station {B.42), indicated that the weight of the 
cutting is more important than the number of eyes, i. e., the heavier the piece the 
larger the yield. 

In 1882 it was shown at the New York State Station (/?. IS) that single eyes cut 
deep would give larger yields than if cut shallow. 

In experiments in which the "seed" ends of tubers have been compared with the 
"stem" ends for seed the results as a rule have favored the seed ends. {Colo. B. 4; 
Ind. B. 38; Md.R. 1888, p. 59; Mich. B. 85; Minn. R. 1888, p. 82; Mo. B. 12; N. Y. 
State B. 28 {1883), B. 64 {1883), R. 1884, p. 68; Utah B. 14. ) The practice of cutting 
off" the seed ends before planting is not to be recommended (^V. Y. State R. 1888, p. 
168, R. 1889, p. 223; Wis. B. 22, R. 1891, p. 135). 

Several experiments have indicated that drying the pieces of seed ])otatoes for a 
few days between cutting and planting may somewhat increase the yield {Md. R. 
1888, p. 59; N. Y. State R. 1886, p. 151, R. 1887, p. 87; Ohio R. 1888, p. 116). 

Di])ping the cut surfaces of seed potatoes in plaster had no good effect on the 
yield (Tr?s. B. 22). 

Potatoes grown iu Maryland and Vermont were planted at the stations in both 
these States in 1889 and 1890. The largest yields at both stations were produced 
by the Vermont seed. Seed from Michigan, Wisconsin, and Vermont planted at the 
Missouri Station produced larger yields than the home-grown seed, but there were 
important differences in the yields from the seed grown in the several Northern 

States, At tbe C!oJoi:a(Jo St»tiott tbe results from Jiaetern aud Westera seed were 



276 POTATO. 

about alike. Tests at the New York Cornell Station led. to the concltision that care- 
ful selection of the stock to be used for seed is of more importance than changes in 
latitude. {Colo. B. 7; Md. E. 1SS9, p. 56, R. 1S90, p. 108; Mo. B. 15; N. Y. Cornell B. 
25; Ft. B. 1889, p. 143, B. 1890, p. 181.) 

A series of experiments at the New York State Station indicated that seed pota- 
toes selected from the most productive hills gave relatively larger yields. {N. Y. 
State B. 108, B. 109, B. 1885, p. 204, B. 1887, p. 82.) 

The Kansas Station (B. 19) reports an experiment indicating that where two crops 
of potatoes are grown the same season seed potatoes selected from the second crop 
produce more and larger tubers, but that there is no gain in earliness. 

Culture. — The experiments in the culture of potatoes thus far made by the sta- 
tions have been so conflicting in their results as to indicate that more depends on 
the climate, soil, and other conditions under which the crop is grown than on the 
particular method of culture employed. 

At the Michigan Station (B. 57, B. 70) shallow planting (1 to 2 inches deep gave 
the best results, but at the Minnesota Station {B. 10) in a dry season tbe seed cov- 
ered with 8 inches of earth produced the largest yields. At the Utah Station {B. 5), 
where irrigation was used, differences in depth of planting did not materially affect 
the yield. Planting in trenches is favored in the following reports : Arli, B. 1889, p. 
27; Mich. B. 57; Va. B. 8. At the Kentucky Station (B. 22) the trench system had 
no advantage, and at the Indiana Station (B. 34) planting in hills gave better results. 
At the Wisconsin station little diflference in results has been found between planting 
in hills and in drills ( Wis. B. 1890, p. 211, B. 1891, p. 135). The yields from planting 
at different distances have varied with the amount and kind of seed used and the 
method of culture (Ky. B. 22; Mich. B. 70, B. 85; B. I. B. 5 (E. 1889, p. 97), E. 1890, p. 
109; Utah B. 5;- Va. B. 8). 

(See also Ala. College B. 31; Ala. Canelralce B. 6; Ind. B. 38; Minn. B. 5; N. Y. 
State E. 1888, p. 158, E. 1889, p. 223; S. Dak. E. 1890, p. 141; Utah B. 14.) 

Second crop. — In the Southern States the practice of growing a second crop of 
potatoes is extending. The North Carolina Station has recently published a bulle- 
tin of information on this subject {N. C. B. 85), in which attention is called to the 
fact that, whereas it was formerly the practice to plant potatoes kept over from the 
previous year, it is now becoming customary to use potatoes of the early crop of the 
same year as seed for the late crop. The Early Rose variety is largely used for the 
second crop. The Mississippi Station reports successful experiments in raising a 
second crop (Miss. E. 1800, p. 37, B. 1891, p. 31). In Kansas in 1890 a second crop 
was grown when the earlier planting entirely failed {Kans. B. 19). 

Fertilizers. — Numerous experiments with different kinds and combinations of 
fertilizers for potatoes have indicated that as a rule the best results are obtained 
when the fertilizer contains phosphoric acid, potash, and nitrogen. The desirable 
amount and form of each ingredient will vary with the kind of soil. 

After making tests of various fertilizers on different kinds of soil, the Ohio Station 
{B. vol. Ill, 1) drew the following conclusions, which agree substantially with those 
reported for potatoes in a bulletin of this Department on Results of Field Exjieri- 
ments with Various Fertilizers, published in 1883 : 

"(1) Sulphate of potash and muriate of potash have in some instances increased 
the yield, but in no case sufficiently to make their use profitable. 

"(2) Nitrate of soda and sulphate of ammonia have in a few cases given a slight 
increase in yield, but not to a profitable degree. 

''In seasons when blight has been the most severe these substances, esj)ecially the 
former, have apparently exerted an injurious efl'ect. 

"(3) Superphosphate (dissolved bone-black), acid phosphate, and Thomas slag 
have in nearly all cases increased the yield. Thomas slag is the cheapest form in 
which phos})horic acid can bo obtained, and the trials indicate that its use on pota- 
toes is likely to be atteacle4 with greater jirofit tUa^ that of either of the other sub' 
stances nanaeUi 



POTATO ROT. 277 

"(4) A mixture of snlphato of potash, superphosphate, and nitrate of soda has 
usually nivcu better results than superphosphate alone, but not always. 

'' (5) Barnyard manure has increased the yield, but not always the total market- 
able product, because of the usual prevalence of scab where this fertilizer is used. 

"(6) In no case has the potato crop been benefited, to a profitable degree, by the 
a])i)licatiou of fertilizers of any kind on soil that was already in a high state of 
fertility. 

"(7) On soil that had been worn by previous cropping, phosphatic fertilizers, the 
so-called comi)lef e chemical fertilizers, and barnyard manure have in nearly all cases 
given profitable returns. 

" (8) The rational conclusion is that since the potato requires a soil that is in a high 
state of fertility, and since the direct apidication of fertilizers to the crop is attended 
with considerable uncertainty, the most feasible method is to bring the soil up to the 
proper condition by enriching the land for previous crops. The best crop of potatoes 
that has been grown at the station succeeded a crop of cabbages that had been 
heavily manured. Tlie most apjiroved practice is to grow potatoes after clover, 
fertilizing both the clover and preceding crop." 

Eleven brands of fertilizers designed especially for potatoes were examined by the 
Connecticut State Station (B. 104) in 1890. It was found that they contained per- 
centages of nitrogen ranging from 2 to 5.3, phosphoric acid from 7.7 to 11.2, and pot- 
ash from 4.2 to 10 per cent. While any one of them might be an excellent genera- 
fertilizer, none was preeminently adapted to the special needs of the potato crop. 

{Ala. CoUef/e B. 31 ; Ala. Caneiralce B. 6; Ark. E. 1S8S, p. 59, B. 1890, j). 9; Colo. 
B. 4; Conn. State B. 188S, p. 119, B. 1889, p. 203; Fla. B. 13; Ga. B. 8, B. 17; Ind. B. 
31, B. 38; Ky. B. 9, B. 16, B. 22, B. 37; La. B. 27, B. 4, 2d sei:, B. 16, 2d ser.; Me. B. 
1889, p. 146, K. 1890, p. 96; Mass. Hatch B. 17; Mich. B. 57, B. 70, B. 85; Minn. R. 
1888, p. 137 ; N. H. B. 12; N. J. B. 80, B. P. B. 1890, p. 120, B. 1891, p. 108; N. Y. 
State B. 1888, p. 158, E. 1889, p. 247, B. 1890, p. 372; Ore. B. 11; Pa. B. 1886, p. 13; 
B. I. B. 1890, p. 23; Vt. B. 13, B. 1888, p. 93; Va. B. 8; W. Va. B. 20.) 

Potato beetle, Colorado {Voryphora decem-lineata). —Thh well-known beetle was 
first brought to notice in 1859 and by 1874 had overrun most of the country. There 
are usually three broods each season, the adults of the last brood passing the winter 
under rubbish or in the earth. The female lays about a thousand eggs in clusters on 
the leaves of the potato as well as on adjoining plants. These hatch in about a week 
and the larvie attain their growth in about fifteen days, after which they are trans- 
formed into the adult beetle. Both adult and larva feed upon the potato plant, and 
on this account they may be easily treated. Dusting the plants with Paris green or 
J^ondon purple mixed with flour or plaster, and spraying them with the same in the 
proportion of 1 ounce to 6 or 8 gallons of w^ater will rid the plants of this pest. Esjje- 
cial care should be taken with the early brood, as they increase so enormously. Ker- 
osene emulsion and a solution of arsenite of annnonia are also recommended. Hand 
picking the bugs and crushing all eggs will be found advantageous if the potato 
patch is small and no spraying apparatus is available. 

{Del. B. 4; Ind. B. 34; Ky. B. 40; La. B. 4, 2d ser.; N. T. State, B. 1888, p. 149, B. 
1SS9, p. 224; N. C. B. 78; Ohio B. ml. II, 1; S. C. B. 1888, p. 40; S. Bale. B. 13; W. 
Va. B. 1890, p. 155.) 

Potato rot {Phytophthora infestans). — A disease caused by the presence of the 
above-named fungus in the tuber. The filaments of the fungus, having gained access 
to the tuber, spread rapidly, filling the cells and lobbing them of their substance. 
This will result in " dry rot," unless there is considerable moisture present when the 
ordinary processes of decay come in, and the "wet rot" is theresult. The "blight" 
of potatoes is generally supposed to be caused by this same fungus, although some 
investigators think it is caused by bacteria. It affects the leaves and stalks, causing 
them to die prematurely, and consequently reducing the crop of fully-developed 
tubers. The fungus is said to be unable to pass the winter in the old stalks or 



278 POTATO SCAB. 

groniid, but must be spread through the already infested seed potatoes. It is wel 
known that the fungus eontiuues growing even after the erop has been dug and 
stored. Heating the tubers to about 105° will kill the fungus, but not injure potatoes 
for seed. They must be kept at this temperature for from four to six hours. Spray- 
ing the seed with Bordeaux mixture is known to give excellent results. 

{Conn. Siate B. 105, 111, R. lS90,p. 102; La. B. 4, 2d ser.; Mass. Hatch B. 11; Mass 
Slate B. 1890, p. S23 ; N. J. B. 1890, p. 345, B. G; Ohio B. vol. II, 6, vol. Ill, 8; li. I. 
B. 14, B. 1890, p. 137; Vt. B. 24, B. 1890, p. 136.) 

Potato scab {Oospora scaiies). — This disease, which has been attributed to quite 
a number of causes, is now considered to be due to a fungus. The appearance of the 
potato affected is well known. The thick brown scabs or patches formed are made 
by the potato in trying to heal the wound caused by the attack of the fungus. This 
disease has been proved identical with that described in the article on Beet scab. 
The treatment is the same in both cases. 

{Conn. State B. 1890, p. 81; III. B. 1888 ; Me. B. 1890, p. 115; N. Dak. B. 4; N. J. 
B. 1890, p. 347, B. 1891, p. 307; B. I. B. 14.) 

Poudrette. — A manure prepared from night-soil dried and mixed with charcoal, 
gypsum, etc. For composition see Appendix, Table IV. 

Poultry. — For notes on different breeds, see La. B. 26, B. 8, 2d ser., B. 16, 2d ser. 

Nitrogenous vs. carbonaceous food for poultry. — At the New York State 
Station {B. 29, B. 1889, p. 56) two lots of pullets of six different breeds were fed 
duriugthe laying season on corn on the cob, oats, meat scraps, and grass. In addition, 
one lot received a mixture of wheat bran, linseed meal, and ground oats, and the other 
lot corn meal. The larger breeds did somewhat better with the tirst or more nitro- 
genous food; the smaller breeds produced more eggs with the more carbonaceous 
ration (corn meal.) The year's manure of the lot fed corn meal was valued at 10 cents 
per fowl ; that of the other lot at 14 cents. 

In a second experiment tlie number and weight of the eggs were larger with the 
corn-meal ration thiin with the more nitrogenous mixture. The latter diet, however, 
kept the birds in better health and plumage. 

At the New York Cornell Station (7^. 1890, p. 162) one lot of fowls was fed on a 
mixture of wheat shorts, cotton-seed meal, and skim milk, and another lot on cracked 
corn and corn dough. The results agree with those above in that the eggs produced 
by the carbonaceous food (corn) were larger. The lot fed on corn laid only twenty- 
six eggs, while the other lot laid seventy-niue. 

The eggs produced by the nitrogenous ration were of a disagreeable flavor and 
smell, had a small yolk, and kept poorly. At the same time and place a pen of 
chickens about six weeks old was fed on the nitrogenous mixture used in the other 
experiment and another similar lot on the carbonaceous ration. The former lot 
about doubled in weight, while the other corn-fed chickens added less than 40 per 
cent to their weight. Those fed on the nitrogenous diet Avere healthy and well 
feathered, while the others wei'e sickly and in several cases almost destitute of 
feathers. The flesh produced by the nitrogenous food was darker, more succulent, 
tenderer, and contained a larger proportion of albuminoids and a smaller pro- 
portion of fat than the flesh of the corn-fed lot. 

Oyster sriErxs, tallow, and salt for poultry — At the New York State Station 
{B. 38, n. ser.) hens which were allowed access to coarsely ground oyster shells laid 
more eggs than hens that received ground glass. The egg shells of those eating oys- 
ter shells were also heavier. When oyster shells were fed a pound of eggs was 
produced for every 3.95 pounds of water-free food. The amount of ground glass 
consumed was large, being between a third and a fourth of the water-free food. 

At the same station {B. 39) hens were fed all the tallow which they would readily 
eat along witli their usual food. There were no injurious effects on health except 
that the hens having a large amount of fat in their diet were later in moulting than 
the others. 



PRICKLY COMFREY. 279 

Salt was not found injurious to hens till the quantity was increased to ahouthalf 
a pint a day for one hundred hens, when a few cases of diarrhea occurred. 

Amount of kood for laying hens. — In a six mouths' experiment at the New 
York State Station (L'. ^9) each bird of the smaller breeds daily consumed an average of 
2.56 ounces of food (mostly corn meal and wheat) ; the larger breeds ate 3.6 ounces. 

Cost of food for growing chickens. — With skiuimilk at 25 cents per hundred 
pounds a mixture of corn meal, bran, middlings, and linseed meal at $20 per ton, 
green clover at $2 per ton, and meat scraps at 2+ cents per pound it cost at the New 
York State Station {E. 1S91, p. 180) approximately 5i cents for each pound of gain 
made by growing chickens. These chickens at ten and a half weeks old averaged 
2.4 pounds in weight. 

At the Maine Station {B. 1SS7. p. 101) the gain made by twenty-four cockerels in 
thirty-two days was 20^ pounds, worth $2.50. The food consumed was 94 pounds of 
corn and 12^ pounds of meat scrap and blood, the whole costing $1.50. 

At the New York State Station \e. 1S89, p. 63, B. 1890, p. 122) the weight of water- 
free food required to produce an ounce of gain on cockerels and capons was 11.35 
ounces. Each fowl produced about 43 pounds of manure in a year, of which about 
two-thirds was moisture. 

Katk of growth of chickens and ducks. — The New York State Station {E. 
1890 p. 138) used home-made incubators and brooders for chickens and ducks. 
When 12 weeks old a lot of White Plymouth Rock chicks averaged 1.7 pounds 
apiece, while Pekin ducks, also reared in a brooder, at the same age weighed nearly 

4 pounds. 

Capoxizing. — The New York State Station during 1890 lost no fowls from capon- 
izin"-- it is stated that the frequent fatality of this operation is not necessary if a 
bright day is selected and if the birds have fasted. The operation should be per- 
formed a few weeks after the time when the sex can be distinguished. 

Keeping eggs.— The New York State Station {B. 1888, p. 59, B. 1890, p. 122) 
preserved eggs four or five months without loss by the following method: The 
eo-(rs were first wiped with vaseline to which salicylic acid had been added and 
then packed in salt. The boxes of eggs were turned every two days. At the end of 
four months these eggs were superior in quality to limed eggs. There was little 
dift'erence in the keeping of fertile and infertile eggs. Eggs were found to lose 
about 5 per cent in weight when kept in the air for a month. The specific gravity, 
which with fresh eggs varied between 1.072 and 1.104, diminished with age, but 
the experimenter concluded that a specific-gravity test could not determine the 
freshness of eggs. 

At the New York Cornell Station {B. 37) the losses were practically identical when 
eo-o-s were packed in salt, in lime water and brine, and in Eichter's mineral prep- 
aration. A little less than 5 per cent spoiled between September 9 and January 21. 

Poultry house. — A description and plan of a poultry house built at the New 
York State Station are given in K. Y. State B. 1889, p. 65. 

Prickly comfrey. iSjimphytum asperrimum). — A rank-growing, succulent, peren- 
nial plant grown for forage. Until accustomed to it cattle do not relish prickly 
comfrey. At the New York State Station hogs did not thrive on it. Though seeds 
are produced this plant is generally jjropagated bj^ root cuttings, placed at dis- 
tances of 2 or 3 feet. 

At the North Carolina Station {B. 73) prickly comfrey grew well, but became in- 
fested with caterpillars. Considerable labor is required in harvesting this crop, 
giuce each hill must be cut separately. 

At the Wisconsin Station (B. 1889, p. 207) the second year's growth of prickly 
comfrey was cut four times, yielding at the rate of nearly 34 tons per acre, while 
red clover yielded at the rate of 26 tons of green fodVr. Analyses of both plants 
are given and the conclusion is reached that prickly comfrey can not compare 
in value as a cattle food with red clover. 



280 PRIVET. 

Attho New York State Station (B. 1S8S, p. 332) it proved a valuable soiling plant, 
but unsuited for hay and silage. 

See also loiva B. 11; N. Y. State B. 22, B. 1887, p. 72, B. 1SS9, p. 93; Pa. B. 1SS8, p. 
43; S. C. B. 1888, p. 133; Vt. B. 1888, p. 77; Wis. B. 1888, p. 138. 

Privet (Ligustrum spp.)- — The common privet (L.vulgare) is noted in loua B.{188G), 
B. 16, and Minn. B. 24 as too tender for those regions, though recently introduced 
Polish and central Russian forms are hardy. The California privet (L. ovaJifolium), 
not hardy in Minnesota, is a favorite plant for hedges and wind-brealis in Texas 
(B. 8). 

Protein. — See Foods. 

Prune. — See Plum. 

Pumpkin {CncurlUa spp.).— Tests of varieties are recorded in Colo. B. 1889, pp. 41, 
122, B. 1S90, pp. 194, 210; Md. B. 1889, p. 62; Minn. B. 1888, pp. 253, 261; Nehr. B. 
12; N. Y. State B. 1885, p. 193, B. 1886, i> 241, B. 1887, p. 324. 

In N. Y. State B. 1887. p. 243, a classification of squashes and pumpkins is given 
according to species and varieties. Of the whole number fifteen are denominated 
pumpkins, and these are referred in part each to C. pepo, C. maxima, and C. moschata. 
All are fully described, English and foreign synonyms are given, and the names in- 
dexed. 

At the New York Cornell Station (B. 25) in experiments in herbaceous grafting 
pumpkin viues were found to unite with squash. (See Squash.) 

Germination tests of pumpkin seed are recorded in N. Y. State B. 1883, p. 70; Ohio 
B. 1884, p. 197, B. 1886, p. 254; Ore. B. 2; Vt. B. 1889, p. 108. 

Purslane.— A test of three cultivated varieties is reported in N. Y. State B. 1885, 
p. 192. "These are garden varieties of the common purslane Portulaca oleracea, 
and are grown in France as vegetables, the foliage benig eaten both raw and cooked. 
The varieties appeared quite distinct, and all were more vigorous and succulent than 
the common purslane." 

An analysis of the wild plant occurs in Fla. B. 11. 

Pyrethrum. — The extensive use of pyretlirum powder as an insecticide has excited 
some interest in the culture of the species used for that purpose, viz, Pyrethum cin- 
eraria-folium and P. roseum. These are composite plants with flower heads somewhat 
resembling single chrysanthemums, which, when pulverized, form the Dalmatian, 
Persian, and Bub iich insect powders. Pyrethrum appears to be grown on a com- 
mercial scale in this country thus far only in California. The conditions and method 
of successful culture and the relative merits of the two species are discussed in Cal. 
B. 1882, p. 112. The P. cinerarioefolium "has found great favor in California, and its 
culture in Merced County, as well as in Los Angeles County, has assumed large pro- 
portions." The culture of this species, so far as known, had only been carried on 
on level land with plentiful irrigation, but the fact that nearly all species of Pyre- 
thrum are natives of mountains seemed to indicate that the hot plains would not be 
the best place. Experiments in the Santa Cruz Mountains indicated the success of 
this species there. While P. roseum is the prettier species, in culture for profit it 
seemed evident that it could not compete with P. cinerariwfolium. Its yield, as 
tested at the station, was not one-third that of the latter, notwithstanding its larger 
heads. It produced few good heads the second year, and its flowering was much 
more gradual, so that all the heads were not ready for gathering at one time. 

At the New York State Statiim (7i^. 1888, p. 151) seed of P. roseum was planted, and 
though the plants failed to bloom the first season, they endured the winter unharmed 
and gave a profuse crop of blossoms the second. Trials of the powder made from 
these indicated as mucli or more strength than that of buhach from California, 
which had probably lost part of its original strength. 

Queensland nut tree (Macadamia terni folia). —This tree has been planted for trial 
iu CaUfornia {B. 1880, p. 66, B. 1882, p. 102). It appears perfectly hardy, but proves 



RADISH, WHITE RUST. 281 

to bo of slow growth during its first years. It is related to the Australian fern treo 
or silk oak, Gervillea robusla, but its leaf more resembles Lolly. It is prized for its 
finely fiavored nut. 

Quince {I'jjrHs cydoina {^Ci/donia vnlgnrial). — Variety tests are recorded in Cal. 
Univ. B. 8, Cal. It. 1S8S-'S9, pp. 87, 186, 195 ; Ga. B. 11; III. B. 21; La. B^ 22, B. 3, 
2d ser., B. 8, M set: ; Mich. B. 55, B. 67, B. 80; N. Mex. B. 2, B.4; N. Y. State R. 1884, 
p. 22, B. 1888, pp. 94, 100, R. 1889, pp. 353, 357; N. C. B. 72; Ohio R. 1883, p. 147; Pa. R. 

1888, p. 161; R. I. B. 7; Tenn. R. 1888, p. 12; Texas B. 8; Vt. R. 1889, p. 122; Fa. B. 2. 

Quinoa {Chenopodium quinoa). — Information regarding tbis plant is given with 
some fullness in Cal. R. 1884, pp. 102, 105, and the results of trials in Cal. R. 1885-86, 
p. 128. The quinoa, a plant of the same family as lamb's-quarters, is much grown in 
the highlands of Chili and Peru, and is adapted to the same climate as the potato. 
The seed, which is produced in gre.at abundance, is highly nutritious, and in those 
regions much employed as human food, beiug made into cakes or porridge or used 
in soup. The plant has been introduced into France and Germany, where the seed 
is chiefly fed to fowls and the leaves used in the same way as spinach. 

In trials at the California JStation the plant was attacked so destructively by a 
ily that it was only by planting early enough to escape the fiy that any considerable 
yield was obtained. 

Radish. — Tests of varieties are reported as follows: Ark. R. 1889, p. 101; Colo. 
R. 1889, p. 99; A'y. B. 32, B. 38; La. B. 3, 2d ser.; Mich. B. 40, B. 57, B. 70, 
B. 79, R. 1888, p. 107; Nebr. B. 12, B. 15; 2\'er. R. 1890, p. 28; N. ¥. State 
R. 1883, p. 181, R. 1884, p. 194, R. 1885, p. 116, R. 1886, p. 235, R. 1887, p. 146; 
Ohio R. 1885, p. 132, B. 1887, p. 227; Ore. B. 4, B. 15; Pa. B. 10, B. 14, R. 1888, 
p. 149; Ttnn. B. vol. V, 1; Utah B. 3, B. 12. In N. Y. State R. 1887, p. 146, are 
given full descriptions of 43 varieties, classified according to the form and secondarily 
the color of the root. English and foreign synonyms are given, with an index to 
all the names. In the Mich. B. 40 and R. ISSS, p. 107, descriptions are given of 24 
varieties, classified according to the color and secondarilj'^ the form of the root. 

Varieties of winter radishes were planted at the New York State Station in 1882 
{R., p. 123) ; also in 1885 {R., p. 118). "All of the varieties [tested in 1882] were less 
tender and more acrid than the common radish, and we think possess few qualities 
that would entitle them to a place in American gardens." - The rat-tail Japan ser- 
pent radish {Raphanus caudatns) was planted at the same station in the tests of 1884 
and 1885. As noted in the rejiort of 1884, the seed pods and not the roots of this 
plant have been developed by cultivation. These are about double the size of the 
pods of the common radish, and are used as a salad or pickled in vinegar. 

At the New York Cornell Station radishes were used iu electrocultural exjjcri- 
ments, and analyses were made of samples grown in full electric light, in sha(U)w, 
and in the ordinary dark house. The total nitrogen was the same iu all, but iu the 
electric-light plants more of the amide nitrogen had been changed into other forms 
than in the others. The electric-light samples were also richer in albuminoids. At 
the New York State Station {R. 1884, p. 210) a sample of turnip-shaped and one of 
long radishes were examined with reference to Iheir root system, which was found 
to be alike in both and rather shallow. The taproot was found to branch horizon- 
tally some distance below the body of the root, at first sparingly, then into many 
fibers extending 21 inches on either side of the row. 

Experiments relating to the selection of radish seed are noted in N. Y. State R. 
1884, p. 196. 

Reports of germination tests of radish seeds are given in Jla. College B. 2; Ark. R. 

1889, p. 93; Me. R. 1889, p. 150; N. Y. Slate R. 1883, pp. 61, 70; Ohio R. 1884, p. 197, 
R. 1885, pp. 162, 175; Ore. B. 2; Pa. R. 1889, p. 164; S. C. R. 1888, p. 83 ; Ft. R. 
1889, p. 108. 

Radish, white rust {Cystopus candidus). — A fungous disease which attacks not 
only the radish but nearly every member of the mustard family. Upon the leaves 



282 RAMIE. 

it will be seen in white patches of varying size. Its most destrnctive effects are on 
the flowers and seed pods, which it often distorts into monstrosities. It passes the 
winter in the seed stalks, which should, therefore, be burned. All diseased jiarts 
should bo removed from the plants grown for seed.. It could probably be prevented 
by the use of Bordeaux mixture, if such treatment was worth while. (N. J. E. 1890, 
p. 350.) 

Ramie {Bochmeria nicea). — A perennial shrub with herbaceous shoots, growing 4 
to 8 feet high. The bark which surrounds the stalk supplies a strong and durable 
iiber, which may be woven into carpets, cloth, curtains, etc. It thrives in the Gulf 
States and on the Pacific Coast. It is propagated by division of the roots, by cut- 
tings, layers, or seed. The first method is preferred. Two to four crops may be cut 
each year. 

At the California Station (B. 90) the estimated yield of dry stalks of white-leaved 
ramie has been about 9,000 pounds per acre, of which at least 15 per cent may be 
estimated as raw fiber. Eamie will grow on alkali soils which do not contain car- 
bonate of soda. 

Eamie is a plant which rapidly exhausts the soil. Ten tons of dry stalks, the 
amount sometimes produced on an acre, contain 251.98 pounds of potash, 155.70 
pounds of phosphoric acid, and 369.70 pounds of nitrogen. The bark alone (2.75 
tons) from 10 tons of dry stalks contains 27.86 pounds of potash, 10.86 pounds of 
phosphoric acid, and 206.10 pounds of nitrogen {Cul. B. 94; Kcv. B. 1S91, p. 20). 

A number of machines for decorticating ramie have been patented, but so far none 
have come into general use. In China and Japan ramie is decorticated by hand. 
{Biv. of Statistics, U. S. D. A.,. Misc. E. 1, «. ser.,p. 75.) 

Rape (Brassica ncqxis). — A plant which in habit of growth bears some resemblance 
to the Swedish turnip, but attains a height of 1 to 3 feet. It is grown for the tops, 
which are grazed by animals or fed as a soiling croii. Eapo may be used for pas- 
turing hogs and steers, and especially sheep. The milk of cows fed on rape is apt 
to be slightly flavored. Stock must be gradually accustomed to eating rape or 
bloating may result. 

Eape is prized as an excellent crop for cleaning land of weeds. For this purpose 
it should be sown in drills 2 feet apart, using from 1 to 2 pounds of seed per acre. 
Several cultivations and. one or two hoeing are necessary on foul land. Eape requires 
a good soil and responds to liberal manuring. The soil which afibrds a good crop of 
corn, i)otatocs, or turnips is generally suited to rape. It prefers a cool climate. 
The best variety for common use is the Dwarf Essex. {Minn. B. 20.) 

Raspberry {Enhus sp.). — Tests of varieties are recorded as follows: AJa. College 
B. 2, (ISS'S) B. 1, n. ser., B. 20, n. ser., B. 29 n. ser.; Ala. Canehrake B.12; Arlc.B.17; 
Col. E. lS88-'S9,p. 110; Colo. E. lSSS,p. 85, E. 1890,p. 34; Del. E. 1889, p. 103; Ga. B. 11; 
III. B. 21; Ind. B. 5, B. 10, B. 31, B. 33, B. 38; Iowa B. 16; La. B. 26 {E. 18S9,p. 432); Me. 
E. 1889, p. 256; Mass. Hatch B. 4, B. 7, B. 10, B. 15; Mich. B. 65, B. 59, B. 67, B. 80; Minn. 
B. 18, E. 1888, pp. 233, 284; Mo. College B. 20, Mo. B. 10, B. 13, N. Y. State B. 36, n. ser., 
B. 1883, p. 225, E. 1884, p. 322, E. 1885, p. 228, E. 1886, p. 255, E. 1887, p. 335, E. 1888, p. 
231, E. 1889, p. 308, E. 1890, p. 276; N. C. B. 72, B. 74; N. Dak. B. 2; Ohio B. vol. II, 4, B. 
vol. Ill, 7, B. vol. I V, 6, E. 1884, p. 107, E. 1885, p. 108, E. 1886, p. 188, E. 1887, p. 253, B. 
lSSS,p. Ill; I'a. B. 8, B. 18; E. I. B. 7; S. Dak. B. 7; Tenn. E. 1888, p. 12; Tex. B. 8; 
Vt. E. 1SS8, p. 119, E. 1889, j). 123, E. 1890, p. 184; Va. B. 2; Wis. E. 1891, p. 151. 

Easpberries are classified in the Michigan bulletins above referred to, especially 
B. 80, according to the species from which they are supposed to have originated. 
These are the European E. ichriis and the American E. stiigosus, giving red or orange 
fruits and propagating by suckers; the American E. occiclcntalis, the source of the 
black cax)8, ])ropagaiing by the tips of the stems; and varieties of E. negJectus, by 
many regarded as ijrobable hybrids. 

In Ohio E. 1887, p.2G2, occur analyses of four varieties, and in Ohio E. 1888, p. 113, 
similar analyses of six varieties. (See Jjjj^ewdk-, Table III.) In connection with the 



RHODE ISLAND BENT GRASS. 283 

analyses tlicrolativc value of the varietioa for drying is eonsidered with reference both 
to the producer's and the consumer's interest. The Ohio variety has a large amount 
of dry matter, but this consists largely of seed, and it is, therefore, nnprohtable to 
theconsumer; the Turner, Ilausell, and Tyler are better for the consumer. AdaGregg 
and Hilborn are higher iu actual value, while the Shaii'er is superior to any of these 
and yields but little less profit to the producer. 

Notes on the method of cultivating rasjdjerries may be found in Ala. College B. 4, 
V. ser.; Ga. B. 15. A fertilizing experiment upon rasjiberries is reported iu J/flvs. 
Haieh U. ISSS., p. 43. 

At the NcAV York State Station (i?. 1SS5, 2'. S29) the experiment was made of planting 
the seeds of few-seeded and many-seeded fruits to compare the products. The fruit of 
the seedlings from the many-seeded fruits averaged larger but was of inferior qual- 
ity. 

In N. Y. Cornell B. 25 it is noted that in numerous crossings of raspberries, black- 
berries, and dewberries no eifects were manifest the first year. 

Raspberry cane borer. — See Blackberry cane borer. 

Raspberry gouty gall beetle {Agrihts rujicollis) [also called Red-necked cane 
borer]. — An insect which infests the canes of raspljerry, blackberry, and dewberry, 
causing irregular swellings either in the main canes or the larger brauches. The 
adult beetle is about a third of an inch long, with a bluish-black back and copper- 
colored neck. The eggs are laid on the stem or at the base of a leaf. Upon hatch- 
ing, the youug larva begins to spirally girdle the stem. At a later period the larva 
seeks the pith of the stem and continues its excavations there. In the sjiring the 
transformed grub appears as a new beetle to begin the depositing of eggs for the 
season. Cutting out and burning all canes having the rough swellings above men- 
tioned is the only remedy, and this must be done early in the spring. {N. J. B. N; 
W. Va. B. 15, E. lS90,i). 160.) 

Raspberry x\xat {Cwoma nikns). — A disease caused by one of our most common 
and striking fungi, which affects raspberry and blackberry plants. It is tirst 
noticed as stunting the young parts of the plant and causing them to become yel- 
low. Soon the leaves on one or both sides are completly covered by masses of the 
bright orange-colored spores. The fungus, once established, lives from year to year 
iu the canes, and only their destruction by burning will avail anything. Its sjjread 
from plant to plant is by means of the orange-colored spores. The effect produced 
by the fungus on its host is often peculiar. In jilace of a single strong fruiting 
branch a cluster of sometimes a dozen weak yellow ones appear. The diseased canes 
die the third year after they are attacked. Spraying with Bordeaux mixture is an 
effective remedy for the disease. {Mass. State B. 1890, p. 224; Mil. R. 1S90, p. 115; Vt. 
K. lS90,p. 143.) 

Red-necked cane borer. — See Baspberri/ (joutij gall beetle. 

Red spider (Tctranychiis telarius). — This insect is often very troublesome in the 
greenhouse and window garden as well as out of doors. It flourishes best in a dry 
atmosphere, and may be destroyed by spraying plants with water or keeping them 
in a moist atmosphere. The spraying must be done to the underside of the leaves. 
Where practicable, the fumes of sulphur will be found very satisfactory. Care must 
be taken that the sulphur be uot ignited or the plants will be killed, the fumes of 
burning sulphur being poisonous to plants. Kerosene emulsion may be used with 
advantage if sufficient force is given the spray and the insecticide is applied to the 
underside of the leaves. {Iowa B. 5; Mass. Match B. 4, B. 19; N. J.B. 75; N. C. B, 
7S; Ore. B. 18.) 

Redtop. — See Grasses, under Bent grasses. 

Rescue grass. — See Grasses. 

Rhode Island bent grass. — See Grasses 



284 RHODE ISLAND STATION. 

Rhode Island Station, Kingston.— Organized uudcr act of Congress Marcli 23, 
J888, as a department of the Rhode Island College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts. 
The staff consists of the president of the college, director and agriculturist, horti- 
culturist, chemist, apiarist and poultry manager, veterinarian, assistant agri- 
culturist, assistant chemist, farmer, and clerk. The principal lines of work are 
chemistry; analysis and control of fertilizers; field experiments with field crops, 
vegetables, and fruits ; agriculture; veterinary science and practice; and apiculture. 
Up to Jaunary 1, 1893, the station had published 4 annual reports and 20 bulle- 
tins. Revenue in 1892, $16,678. 

Rhubarb {Blieum spp.). — Of the common vegetable rhubarb( E. rhaponticum) six 
varieties were tested at the Michigan South Haven Substation {Mich. B. 67, B. 80). 
A list of thirteen varieties planted at the New York State Station is given va.R.1884, 
p. 23. An analysis as to fertilizing ingredients is given in Mass. State B. 16. 

The cultivation of Russian rhubarb for its root as a drug is noted in Mass. State 
B. 1889, p. 177. The plant had been successfully grown for several years and well- 
matured seed collected each year. Three species purporting to be medicinal rhubarb 
were on trial in California {Sup. Bien. R. 1887, p. 126) and were proving successful 
on sandy loam. 

A germination test of rhubarb seed is reported in Ore. B. 2. 

Ribgrass. — See Weeds. 

Rice (Oryza sativa). — Rice belongs to the grass family and in growth resembles 
some swamp grasses. Comnf6n rice has been cultivated in Asia from remote ages. 
Other species or varieties of rice are described by botanists, but only our common 
rice is of economic importance. Rice was introduced into Carolina in 1698. It now 
constitutes one of the most important crops of the lowlands of South Carolina and 
Louisiana, and is grown in other Southern States. 

Milling — Uses of by-products. — The rice planter ships his rough rice to the 
mills in barrels containing 162pound8 of rice. From this quantity of rough rice the 
mills secure 95 pounds of clean rice, 8 pounds of polish, 30 pounds of bran (variable), 
and 29 pounds of chafit" and waste products {La. B. 24). The straw on the farm after 
threshing has some nutritive value. Rice polish is a fine, flour-like substance, very 
rich in starchy material. Rice bran is coarser and less nutritious than polish, but 
is a valuable feeding stuff". The rice mills of South Carolina mix rice polish and 
rice bran, selling the mixture under various names, as rice feed, rice meal, etc. This 
is nutritious and in the vicinity of the mills is a cheap feeding stuff" (see PUjs, feed- 
ing.) 

Composition. — For composition of rice and its various by-products see Appendix, 
Tahh'S I and II. 

CULTUUE. — Nearly all the rice of commerce is grown on irrigated land, where the 
yield is greater and the cultivation less difficult than on upland. Drained land is 
thoroughly prepared with the plow. Then the rice, from 1 to 3 bushels per acre, is 
sown broadcast and harrowed in. The time of planting varies from March till 
June. After the seed is planted the field is covered with a few inches of water. The 
frequency of irrigating varies. Some planters drain off" the water after the seed has 
germinated, flooding again when the plants are about 4 inches high. From this time 
some keep the water on the land continuously until a short time before harvest. Oth- 
ers flood the field for a few days, draw off the water, and after an interval repeat the 
flooding. All are careful to prevent the covering of the tops of the plants by the 
water. 

The great ditficulty in rice culture is to prevent worthless grasses from interfer- 
ing with the growth of rice. Some mow and burn off" the fields in the fall. Others 
irrigate early in the season and then plow under the young grass, after which rice is 
sown. Hand weeding is too expensive for the large planter, hence mowing is some- 
times resorted to, after which the rice makes a more rapid growth than the trouble- 
some grasses {Rep. of Commissioner of Ayr. of La. for 1888, App.,p. 72). 



KOADS. 285 

Small crops of rice for domestic consumption are grown in the highlands of the 
Southern States. There the seed is planted in drills at such distance as to allow of 
cultivation with the plow. The plants are thinned to a few in the hill, the hills 
heing jibout 10 inciies apart (7^/a. i?. 12). The crop is afterwards cultivated with 
hoe and ]ilow. For irrigated land in Louisiana the station suggests a mixture of 
two parts cotton-seed meal and one part acid phosphate ajiplied on the plowed 
land {La. B. 15, B. 24). 

Irrigated rice is cut either by hand or hy machinery. Rice is harvested late in 
August or early in September. The yield of clean rice varies greatly, being usually 
between 600 and 1,500 pounds {Rep. of Commissioner of Agr. of La. for 1SS8, -^pp., p. 
76; La. B. 15). 

DisEASKS. — " The only disease which has been noted by writers on rice is a blight 
or failure of the head to fill with grain ; this is called hrusone, and is usually pre- 
vented by changing seed. The real cause is unknown. In Louisiana it occurs on 
first year new ground." {La. B. 15. ) 

" The annoying blight in rice, popularly known as Bizfonx, is caused by excessive 
irrigation," according to J. T. Gilmore in Bep. of Commissioner of Agr. of La. for 1888, 
ApP; p. 72. 

(See also Fla. B. 12, B. 16; La. B.27; X. C. B. 23, May, 1882.) 

Ring'wrorin. — A skin disease of cattle and horses due to a fungus. It is most fre- 
quently found on cattle under two years old, but calves do not seem to be suscepti- 
ble. It occurs in winter on cattle fed in the barn and on those which are left on the 
range. Patches of skin become partially denuded of hair, and present a raised and 
scabbj' appearance. The surface of the affected spot is dry, and when rubbed a fine 
scurf coniea off. These patches vary in size and occur generally on the skin around 
the orbits of the ej'es, on the face, neck, or along the spine. 

On the more tender skin of the horse the disease causes greater irritation than in 
the case of cattle. It spreads more rapidly on the horse and spontaneous recovery 
is less frequent. Cattle may convey the disease to horses or even to human beings. 
Infected brushes, currycombs, and harness may transmit the disease. Diseased 
animals should be kept by themselves. The hair for some distance around affected 
patches should be clipped and the diseased parts washed with hot water containing 
some fungicide and solt soap. Then apply some antiparasitic remedy, as tincture 
of iodine, iodine ointment, citrine ointment, or solutions of corrosive sublimate, car- 
bolic acid, and sodium sulphite. Iodine is excellent when the disease is near the 
eye. One apj^lication of the following blistering ointment is usefifl: Eed iodide of 
mercury one part, lard six parts, and a few drops of croton oil. (Ark. B. 16.) 

Roads. — Information regarding road-making has been published in Ala. CollcgeB. 
19 and Tenn. B. roL IIL, S, from which tlie following brief statements have been 
obtained: 

When possible, the grade of a road should not be steeper than 1 in 35, and a slight 
grade, 1 in 12.5, is recommended as favorable to drainage. Away from cities and 
where funds are limited the roadbed may be as narrow as 16 feet, but someAvhat 
wider on a- curve. A cross section of a roadway should not be a continuous curve, 
but should consist of two inclined planes united in thecenter of the road by a single 
curve. These planes should slope one-half inch in 24 feet for a road with a broken- 
stone surface, the slope increasing with the roughness of the surface. On a steep 
hillside there should be but a single slope and that should incline towards the hill. 

In the Macadam road the bed is thoroughly drained and covered with a layer of 
several inches of broken stones. After rolling, or packing by travel, other layers of 
broken stone are added and packed until the stone work is 6 to 12 inches thick. The 
Telford road is made in much the same way, the first layer, however, consisting of 
blocks of stone of an irregular pyramidal shape, larger below than above, and set 
close tojjetUer by hand, Stones larger than 4 or 5 inches in any one direction have 



286 



ROCKY MOUNTAIN BEE PLANT. 



no place iu road constriictiou, and except in the lower layer 2^ inches in any direc- 
tion is the greatest limit. 

A steeper grade than that given in the second column of the following table should 
never be allowed on a country road. The figures in the table are true of an earth 
road in "fair" to " first-class" condition. 





Force re- 
quired to 

draw a 

gross load 

of 2, 240 

pouuds. 


Steepest 

grade (rise 

per 100 feet), 

ou which 

vehicle 

will not 

roll back. 


Draft on a level compared with 
that on ditt'erent grades.— Rise 
in feet per 100 feet. 





3 


6 


9 

2.0 
2.4 
4.1 
5.4 
5.9 


12 

2.3 
2.9 
5.1 
6.8 
7.5 


15 


Earth road 

Gravel road 

Macadam road .... 

Telford road 

Plank road 


Pounds. 

200 

143i 

65 

46 

41 


Feet. 
8.9 
6.4 
2.9 
2.0 
1.8 




1.3 

1.5 
2.0 
2.5 
2.6 


1.7 
1.9 
3.1 
3.9 
4.3 


2.7 
3.3 
6.1 
8.2 
9.1 



Rocky Mountain bee plant. — See Bee plants. 

Root crops. — In some localities root crops form an important part of the diet of 
cattle aid slieei). The roots most used as stock feed are turuips, ruta-bagas, beets, 
mangel-wurzels, and carrots. Root crops require a rich, deep soil and thorough till- 
age, but produce large yields of succulent food. For example, the Massachusetts 
State Station {B. 1S88, p. 139) grew Vilmorin sugar beets at tho rate of 22.95 tons per 
acre and carrots at the rate of 19.52 tons per acre. 

The Utah Station {B. 1891, p. SG) states that root crops, with the exception of the 
sugar beet, are less successful in the dry climate of that State than in the East. 

The New York Cornell Station {B. S7) recommends early planting for root crops. 
Roots on the Cornell University farm in 1889 cost 7 cents per bushel for seed and 
labor. See also Minn. B. 1888, p. 102. For analyses of root crops see Appendix, Tables 
I and 11. 

Root tubercles. — See Leguminous plants. 

Rose chafer (Macrodactylus suispinosus) [also called Rose bug]. — The adult insect 
is a beetle about three-fourths of an inch long, of a dirty yellow or light brown 
color. It feeds upon the leaves, flowers, and fruit of nearly every plant except ever- 
greens. It prefers the rose, but when that is not in sufficient abundance it attacks 
other plants, especially grapes. It has been exceptionally troublesome in New Jer- 
sey, where the station has thoroughly investigated its life history, discovering sev- 
eral new facts. When this insect is very numerous poisons are too slow in their ac- 
tion to accomplish much relief. Kerosene emulsion, whale oil soap, hot water 
(125°-130° F.), pyrethrum, and dilute whitewash are all recommended as of moi"e or 
less value as insecticides for the rose chafer. Perhaps the best means is to knock 
them into sheets or collectors of any convenient shape and size and kill them by 
scalding or with kerosene. They should be collected twice a day for two weeks, after 
which but little damage will be done to vineyards. They usually appear at the time 
Concords are in bloom. To keep them away from vineyards plant Clinton vines, 
spirieas, rosebushes, and magnolias to attract them. 

The eggs may be destroyed by carefully cultivating all loose soil, in which they 
are always deposited. Plowing will destroy them. No natural enemies are as yet 
known to destroy either the eggs or the larvae, which greatly resemble those of the 
'• white grub " or May beetle. (.V. J. B. 75, B. 82, B. 86, B. 1891, p. 350.) 

Rotation of crops. — A number of stations have begun experiments on the rotation 
of crops, but only reports of progress have been issued thus far. At the Indiana 
gtatJvtt {B ^7f B, §3, B, 41) whci^t grown coutiwuously during six yeu-ts ott the 



SALSIFY. 287 

8amc land lias been compared with wheat grown in rotation with corn, grass, beans 
or roots, and oats. Tlie yields have been increasingly favorable to rotation. At 
the Missouri Station {College B. 18) relatively large yields were obtained by grow- 
ing corn in rotation with other crops. The Louisiana Stations recommend the fol- 
lowing rotation for the South: Corn, oats followed by peas the same season, cotton 
{La. B. S, Sd ser.). At the Maryland Station {B. 1889, p. 130, B. 1890, p. 99, B. 1891, 
l>. SUG) during three years the lasting efl'ects of stable manure have been observed in 
lounection with the rotation of crops. The New Jersey Station advises not to grow 
tomatoes after corn since the same insect pests are destructive to both crops. See 
alsu Ark. B. IS, B. 1890, p. 5; Del. B. 16; III. B. IS, Kans. B. 20; N. C. B. 73. 

Ruta-baga {Brassica cavipesiris va^|). — Tests of a moderate number of varieties may 
be found in Colo. B. 1889 p. 103; Mass. State B. 1888, p. U2, B. 1889, p. 169 (photo- 
graph) ; Mich. B. 46, B. 60; Minn. B. 1888, p. 262; N. Y. State B. 14, B. 1882, p. 123, B. 
1883, p. 182, B. 1884, p. 199, B. 1885, p. 118; Ore. B. 4; Fa. B. 1890, p. 157. 

Analyses of ruta-bagas occur in Kans. B. 1889, p. 116 (showing food ingredients 
and nitrogen, albuminoids and other); Mass. B. 1888 p. 145, B. 1889 p. 187, B. 1890, 
pp. 298, 299, B. 1891, pp. 318, 324. See Appendix, Tables I and IT. 

Germination tests of ruta-baga seed are reported in Ohio li. 1884, p. 199 ; Fa. B. 8 ; 
Vt. B. 1889 p. 111. 

Rye. — The experiments with this crop by the stations have been chiefly Avith ref- 
erence to its value as a forage plant. At several of the stations in the Southern 
States it has been found that rye sown in the summer will give an abundant amount 
of green fodder at three or four cuttings during the fall and winter {Ala. College B, 
16, n. ser.; Ala. Canebrake B. 9). At the Vermont Station rye sown in September 
gave abundant green fodder for cows by the middle of May, but after May the 
stalks became tough and unpalatable (.F<. B. 1889, p. 87). Seaweed proved an effi- 
cient fertilizer for rye in an experiment at the Ehode Island Station (7^. I. B. 1800, 
p. 13). At the Arkansas Station pea vines plowed under largely increased the yield 
of rye forage (^)-A-. B. 18). See also Cal. B. 1890, p. 209, Colo. B. 1889, p. 105, B. 1890, 
p. 284; Xebr. B. 15, B. 19; Fa. B. 5 {1888), B. 15 {1886); S. Dak. B. 21. 

Sainfoin {Onobrychis saliva) [also called Asperset or Esparcet]. — A perennial legu- 
minous ])laut having somewhat the appearance of alfalfa. It grows about a foot and 
a half high with a weak stem, rather long, pinnate leaves, and flowers of ajiink color 
in a loose spike 2 to 4 inches long on a long, naked stalk. The flowers are succeeded 
by short single-seefled pods marked with raised lines. It is widely used in Europe 
for pasturage and hay, especially for sheep. It ])refers light, dry, calcareous soils. 
It has been tried in this country but without great success except in a few local- 
ities. At the California Station, where it has been grown a number of years, it has 
not done well, and the evidence regarding its value elsewhere in the State is con- 
flicting {Cal. B. 1890, p. 213.) 

At the Massachusetts State Station it has yielded a light crop and has been con- 
siderably winterkilled {Mass. State B. 34, B. 1889, p. 159; B. 1890, p. 161, B. 1891, p. 
189). For analyses at different stages of growth see O.H. S.B.ll; Fa. B. 1887, p. 
139. An analysis of sainfoin hay with reference to fertilizing constituents gave 
nitrogen 2.63, potash 2.02, phosphoric acid 0.76 per cent {Mass. State B. 1890, p. 323). 

{Colo. B. 1888, p. 32, B. 1889, p 95, B. 1890, p. 188; Iowa. B. 11; Me. B. 1889, p. 162; 
Mo. College B. 35, Nebr. B. 6, B. 17; Ore. B. 4; Fa. B. 1887, p. 138; Wyo. B. 1.) 

Salsify {Tragopogon porrifolius) [also called Oyster plant]. — Sijx A'arieties were 
tried at Minnesota Station (7^. ISSS, p. 255) and two at the Nebraska Station (7?. 12). 
Germination tests of the seed are reported in Me. B. 1889, p. 150; N. Y. State B. 1883, 
p. 70 ; Ohio B. 1885, p. 167 ; Ore. B. 2; Vt. B. 1889, p. 108. 

For black salsify see Scorzonera. 

The Spanish salsify {Scolymus hispanietts) is figured and fully described in K. Y. 
Cornell B. 37. The root is larger and lighter colored than that of ordinary salsify; 
its flavor is less pronounced, but wlien it is carefully cooked it has du agreeable 



288 SALT. 

quality somewliat intermediate between that of salsify and parsnip. Its prickly 
leaves are a drawback, but it is considered well worth introducing into American 
gardens. 

Salt. — Common salt is composed of the metal sodium and the gas chlorine. Its 
use as a condiment and preservative is universal. Its use as a fertilizer has been in 
some cases attended with beneficial results, but since it supplies uo essential elemen:^ 
of plant food it is probable that the little value it may possess for this purpose 
depends upon its physical action (attraction for water, etc.), or on its ability to set 
free more important constituents. 

At Kansas Station (B. 7, II. 1SS9, p. 39) salt applied to wheat and oats at the rate 
of .300 pounds per acre increased the yield slightly, but at an actual financial loss; 
applied to oats at the rate of 150 pounds per acre the yield was less than where no 
fertilizer was applied. 

In experiments at Minnesota Station (R. 18S8, p. 159) 50 biishels of salt per acre 
increased the yield of oats 5 bushels per acre, of oat straw 200 pounds; of flaxseed 
\^ bushels and flax straw 500 pounds, and of beets 1^ tons per acre. No increase 
of potatoes was produced by salt. 

Scale insects. — There are several genera and many species of these minute pests 
known to cavise greater or less injury to some of our juost important plants. They 
are about one-tenth of an inch in diameter, of various. colors, usually grayish white. 
The male ultimately develops two wings, but the female is wingless. After laying 
her eggs the female shrivels up. The young hatch, run about for a little time, and 
then attach themselves to trees by piercing the bark to suck the juice. They are sta- 
tionary afterwards, and secrete their well-known scales. These are so plentiful as 
to often cover a leaf or twig, and do great damage. Their natural enemies are nu- 
merous, and for the most part keep them in check. If they spread, whale-oil soap 
solution may be used. The trees should be given some winter wash, as a strong 
lye. This will remove and kill many of the adult scales. Sprays of kerosene emul- 
sion are best used when the young have just hatched and are still running about. 
{FU. B. 9; Me. B. lSSS,p. 184; N. J. B. K ; N. Hex. B. 7; Ore. B. 5, B. IS.) 

Schrader's brome grass.— See Grasses, under Bescue grass. ! 

Scorzonera {Scorzovera Mspanica) [also called Black salsify]. — This is briefly 
noted in Minn. R. 1S8S, p. 255, having been planted at that station. The root had 
the flavor of salsify, but was black and inferior in size. The seed has been included 
in germination tests, as reported in N. Y. State B. 1883, jyp. 70, 267; Vt. R. 1889, p. 108. 

Screw worm {Compsomyia [Lucilia^ macelJaria). — The larva of a fly found all 
over the countjw, but most lialde to be met with in Texas and adjoining States. 
The fly is slightly larger than the common house fly, of a bright metallic green, with 
three black stripes upon its back. Its eyes are dull red and very prominent. It 
lays its eggs in great abiindance in wounds or natural openings of animals or man. 
These hatch a small white grub in from two to ten hours (some claim in as many 
minutes). The yoirag larva? at once bore their way into the flesh, making a deep, 
running wound. The odor is very characteristic and serves to attract more flies. 
These lay their eggs and a new lot is hatched. If left alone, the animal will die 
from blood-poisoning in a short time. The mature grub is about three-fourths of an 
inch long and one-eighth of an inch in diameter. It tapers toward the head and 
there has two sharp, black hooks by which to hold on. The body is divided into 
segments, and these are clothed with a circle of stifl" bristles, giving it the appear- 
ance of a screw. 

The treatment is to get the worms from the wound and let it heal. By inject- 
ing into the wound chloroform, solution of corrosive sublimate (60 grains in 1 
pint of water), calomel, crude carbolic acid, kerosene, turpentine, cresylic oint- 
ment, or fresh pyrethrum, the worms will be killed or driven from the wound. 
If the "wound is carefully washed put and the flies are kept away it will soon heal. 



SEEDS. 289 

Corrosive sublimate and calomel will sometimes affect the stock with mercurial 
poisoning, especially if put where they can lick the wounds. The carbolic acid 
aud corrosive sublimate are good antiseptics and will aid the wound in healing. 
Preventive measures are to put tar, grease, or fish oil on all wounds every day until 
healed. Keep stock free from ticks, as half the cases of the attacks of screw worms 
are said to start at a place where a tick is killed, giving the necessary blood in 
which to lay the eggs. All dead animals should be burned or buried at least 2 
feet deep to prevent the flies from laying their eggs in the carcasses or those already 
laid from escaping. {La. B. 2, 2A ser.; Miss. B. 14; Tex. B. 12, E. ISSS, p. 45.) 

Seaw^eeds. — For composition of different kinds of seaweed see Ajipeiidix, Table IV. 

Seeds. — The selection of seed deserves greater attention than is generally given 
it. Seeds are often sown without any apparent regard to their purity or vitality. 
This careless method causes serious losses in time and money before a good stand of 
a given crop is secured. In many foreign countries laws regulate the sale of seeds, 
and the dealer guarantees the purity, authenticity, and vitality of all seeds. In 
this country everything is left to the honesty of the dealer and the good judgment 
of the purchaser. The tests made at the stations show that as a rule seeds secured 
directly from the producer may be relied on, but that old and inferior stock is often 
kept by retail dealers. This is especially true of kinds of seed for which the 
denuvnd is small and irregular. Imported seed is often of very poor quality. 

Seeds may either have a low germinating power or may be mixed with foreign 
substances. These impurities may consist of chaff" or dirt, which simply increases 
the bulk or weight of the packages, or they may be the seeds of other plants, 
oftentimes of troublesome weeds. 

Imported clover, grass, and other forage seeds are very liable to adulteration. 
From tables prepared at several stations it is found that they average 9.8 per cent 
of adulteration, while in one case 33^ per cent by weight of a sample of clover seed 
was made up of finely crushed quartz, colored to resemble the seed. 

To protect himself from being imposed upon, every farmer should examine all 
seeds before planting. With the aid of a small magnifying glass almost any kind of 
adulteration can be detected. 

Seeds should also be tested for vitality. This may be done in various ways. Where 
seeds are to be tested on a large scale a good device is what is known as the Geneva 
tester. This consists of a copper box, 10 by 14 inches square and 3 inches deep, pro- 
vided with a sliding lid of glass or copper. About an inch below the top, on the 
long sides, are placed narrow ledges, one on each side, upon which are to rest stout 
wires holding pockets in which to put the seeds. The pockets are made of cotton 
flannel or similar cloth. A strip the width of the box is required, and this is plaited 
into folds about an inch deep. These are sewed in such a manner that wires may 
be run through them, leaving the pocket suspended between adjacent wires. The 
strip of cloth should be long enough for about fifty pockets, the capacity of the box. 
When the wires are pressed together and placed upon the ledges, the cloth should 
hang in close folds. At the ends of the system of pockets the cloth should hang 
down to touch the bottom of the box. Water to a depth of about a half inch is 
poured into the box. The cloth becomes saturated hj capillary attraction, while 
the tight cover prevents evaporation. Each plait or pocket is numbered, and when 
slid open receives the counted seeds, after which the wires are slid together, inclos- 
ing the seed in a damp pocket. Examination is made from day to day, and the 
sprouted seed removed and counted. In this way the percentage of good seed may 
be learned. This apparatus has been tested by several stations, and is considered 
one of the best of its kind. 

Another and simpler method is to jilace the counted seeds between folds of cloth 

kept damp, but not too wet, between deep pans or dishes. Another method is to 

use a sieve, the bottom of which is covered with a piece of muslin. On this are 

placed the seeds, over which is spread another piece of muslin. Over this is spread 

2094— No. 15 19 



290 



SEEDS. 



I 



a layer of sand a half incli deep, aud the whole kept moist. In another method the 
seeds are germinated in soil in shallow jians. 

By either of the above methods the per cent of seeds liable to grow may be ascer- 
tained. All these will give higher resnlts (about 8 per cent on the average) than 
can be expected in actual field trial, but this will not affect the determination of the 
relative value of the seeds. 

Where large numbers of seeds are to be tested, and several tests made at one time, 
the Geneva tester will probably be found the most satisfactory. A single test of a 
lot of seeds is not sufficient, but several should be made, and the average of these 
taken for the index of vitality. Any deficiency in the per cent of germinating seed 
may be corrected by increasing the amount of seed used. In this way no loss of 
•time in replanting nor disajipointmeut in securing a suflicieut stand need be experi- 
enced. 

The following table gives the average per cent of the seeds of difierent kinds which 
germinated in tests at about a dozen stations in this country : 



Kinds of seed. 


Per 

cent. 


Kinds of seed. 


Per 

cent. 


Kinds of seed. 


Per 

cent. 


Kinds of seed. 


Per 
cent. 


Artirlioke 

Asparagus- 


69 

61 

86 

60.1 

75 

70.5 

48.5 

73 

73.3 

73.3 

86 




70 

68 

41 

34 

47.5 

47 

67 

75 

39 

72 

74 

83 


Mustard 

Oats 


70.5 

91 

79 

66 

53.4 

44.2 

86 

60 

55.6 

73.1 

82 

55 


Sorghum 

Spinach 


46 

49.6 

62.6 

44 

51 

73 

72 

60.3 

97 


Cucumbers 

Eggplant 


Okra 


Beets 




Sugar beet 

Tobacco 


Brussels sprouts 
Cabbage 










Kale 






Cauliflower 


Kohl-rabi 




Watermelon 

"Wheat 


Pumpkin 


Clover and leg- 
umes for forage 
Corn 






Lima beans 

Muskmelon 


Kuta-baga 

Salsify 





Some of the above figures may seem rather low, but it must be considered that all 
kinds of seeds were used and that some deteriorate rapidly with age. A table 
showing the average per cent of germinations of twenty kinds of seeds, mostly gar- 
den vegetables, from maturity until ten years old, is here given: 



Age of seed. 


Per cent. 


Age of seed. 


Per cent. 


Age of seed. 


Per cent. 


Mature seed 

Oue year old 

Two years old 

Three years old . . . 


74 
+73 
—73 

65 


Four years old 

Five j'ears old 

Six years old . ; 

Seven years old... 


60.3 
45.5 
42 
35.1 


Eight years old . . . 

Nine years old 

Ten years old 


33.1 

30 

19.6 



While this table indicates in a general way that the vitality of seed decreases 
with increasing age, these averages can not be applied to every kind of seed. Beet, 
cucumber, muskmelon, ruta-baga, tomato, and turnip seeds decrease in vitality very 
gradually from year to year, while others, like celery or parsnip seeds, are practically 
worthless after they are two years old. In the tests on which the table is based the 
germination of the older seeds was forced, and is no doubt higher than could be 
obtained in a field trial. Old seeds may, as a rule, be recognized by their duller 
color. 

(Ark. R. 1889, p. 92; Colo. B. 1888, p. 99; Del. B. 1889, p. 46; III. B. 12, B. 15; Ind. 
B. 32; Eans. B. 1888, p. 337, B. 1889, p. 13; Me. B. 1888, p. 136, B. 1889, p. 149, B. 1890, 
]}. 107; Mich. B. 2, B. 57, B. 1888, p. 110, B. 1889, p. 17; Minn. B. 12; JS^ehr. B. 12; N. Y. 



SEEDS. 291 

State R. 18S3, B. 1SS4, R. 1SS5, R. 1S86, p. 56; N. Y. Cornell B. S!3; X. C. B. 73, R. 
ISSS, p. 134; Pa. B. 10, B. 11, R. 1SS9, p. 103; S. C. R. ISSS, p. 92; Tenn. B. 2.) 

The following general stiitcments regarding the germination of seeds, esiiecially 
under glass, were compiled for the most part from N. Y. Cornell B. 32. 

(1) A constant temperature produces more rapid sprouting and gives a greater 
total number of plants than a varying one. About 74*^ F. will give better results 
than a varying. temperature whose mean exceeds this by several degrees. 

(2) Sprouting will be more rapid and a higher total will be secured if less than the 
usual amount of water used in gi'eenhouses be employed. The use of water beyond 
the amount required to moisten the soil is positively injurious to the seed, often 
causing it to rot. However, a great gain in rapidity of sprouting may be secured 
by soaking the seed in water. The longer the soaking, within reasonable limits, 
the greater the gain. This gain is only apparent, as may be seen by deducting the 
length of time the seed is soaked from the time I'equired for the uusoaked seed to 
germinate. This fact may be made of practical use where time is an object and 
conditions for planting are unfavorable. 

(3) Variations in the per cent of germinations may be affected by the character of 
the soil, a sandy loam giving higher and quicker results than a clay soil. 

(4) Where seeds in the same lot vary in color widely diliering results may be 
expected. 

(5) As a rule the heaviest seeds in a package will produce the best results. How- 
ever, the lighter seeds will sometimes give earlier results if their lightness is due to 
their having come from immature fruit. 

(6) Some seeds will sprout in the light, but not all. As a rule all seeds do best in 
the dark. 

(7) Northern seed appears to germinate earlier and more abundantly than south- 
ern-grown seed of the same varieties. 

The following are some of the results of tests of particular kinds of seed at the 
stations : 

Cauliflower seed has been experimented with to see if the claims of superiority for 
foreign seed over domestic were warranted. German or English seed has been 
found to have no advantage over that grown along Puget Sound, Washington, while 
the latter is said to be much the cheaper. (iV. Y. State R. 1890, p. 288; Minn. B. 12.) 

Clover seed has been found to be very largely adulterated, especially with weed 
seeds. The weeds most commonly found are English plantain, sheep sorrel, chick- 
weed, pigeon grass, oxeye daisy, dog fennel, and clover dodder. Among these are 
serious enemies to introduce into a meadow, the last especially being capable of 
doing great damage. {Neir. B. 13; N. C. B. 73; S. C. R. 1888, p. 91.) 

Corn tested at the Kansas Station gave 65 per cent vitality for 20 varieties of white 
corn, 70 per cent for 5 varieties of red or mixed, and 77 per cent for 21 varieties of 
yellow. The yield from these same lots was yellow 60 bushels per acre, white 76, 
and red and mixed 90 bushels. The practice of gathering selected seed corn and 
storing it in a dry, airy place is to be commended, but retaining the seed ears in the 
husk has no advantage. {Kans. B. 30, R. 1889, p. 13; Ohio B. vol. IV, 1; Tenn. B. 2.) 

Oats of the same variety grown in diflerent soils and conditions show important 
differences due to the kind of seed used. Oats harvested while still in the dough 
make the best seed for yield and early maturity. Heavy seed oats Avill produce the 
largest crop in dry seasons, but light seed is preferable in Avet seasons, probably be- 
cause of the greater number of seeds sown. Hot-water treatment, i. e., soaking the 
oats for fifteen minutes in water heated to 132° F., tends to produce a larger yield. 
{Kans. B. 13, B. 29; Mo. B. 15.) 

Peas infested with weevils do not make as good seed as those not so afiected. The 
idea that the germ of the pea is never touched by the weevil is false. The same is 
true of weoviled beans. Out of 1,800 weeviled beans, but 30 per cent could be forced 
to germiuate, while of a like number of sound ones 95 per cent grew. Of 500 weeviled 



292 SEPARATORS. 

peas of 10 varieties, but 25 per cent grew, while 97 per cent grew of a similar lot of 
sound ones. (Eans. B. 19; Canada Expt. Farms E. 1891, p. 203.) 

Tomato experiments with seed from immature fruits and from first ripe fruits have 
given couflicting results, and it is by no meaus clear that selection based on either 
of these conditions will give earlier or better fruit. {Mich. B. 57; N. Y. Cornell B. 
S,2, B. 45; N. Y. State E. 1884, E. 1885, B. 30.) 

The effect of chemicals and electricity on germination has been investigated to a 
considerable extent in the hope of finding some means by which germination might 
be hastened without reducing the vitality of the seed. Tests of different chemicals 
indicate that while in some cases they may hasten germination, they almost always 
injure the vitality of the seed. 

Recent investigations with electricity tend to jirove that it hastens the germina- 
tion of some seeds and increases their product. In the case of seeds of peas, beans, 
barley, and sunflower, placed between copper disks and electrified for two minutes 
from an induction coil, germination was effected in half the time required by non- 
electrified seeds under the same conditions. (Mich. E. 1888, p. 110 ; Mass. Hatch, B. 
16.) 

Separators (for creaming milk.) — See Creaming ofmillc. 

Serradella {Ornithopus sativus). — A low annual leguminous forage plant, slightly 
resembling vetch. It jjrefers a moist, sandy soil. Serradella draws a part of its 
nitrogen from the atmosphere. 

At the Kansas Station {E. 1889, p. 42) it failed completely, attaining a height of 
only a few inches. At the Oregon Station {B. 4) it grew remarkably well, throw- 
ing out branches 40 inches long. In Nebr. {B. 12) it withstood drought, but made 
only a slight growth. One season at the Massachusetts State Station {Mass. E. 1887, 
p. 51, E. 1888, pp. 119, 223, E. 1889, p. 190, E. 1890, p. 173) serradella yielded % tons 
of green fodder per acre; another season the yield was 13 J tons. Results from feed- 
ing green serradella have been very satisfactory. {Conn. Starrs B. 5, B. 6 ; Me. E, 
1889, p. 167; Mich. B. 47; JSfev. E. 1890, p. 16; Pa. E. 1889, p. 165.) 

Service berry {Amelanchier spp.) [also called June berry or Shad bush]. — A native 
small tree or shrub bearing a fruit resembling a huckleberry. 

The variety oblongifoUa of A. canadensis was planted at the New York State Sta- 
tion {E. 1883, p. 226, B. 1886, p. 167). Three dwarf sorts, planted at the Michigan 
Station, are briefly noted in B. 67, B. 80. The flavor of the common variety was 
regarded inferior to that of the best huckleberries, and the productiveness was low. 
The others were not yet fully tested. Two varieties of each were planted at the 
Rhode Island Station {B. 7) and the South Dakota Station {B. 7) and several at the 
Iowa Station. According to Iowa B. 16 there are several varieties of dwarf June 
berries native in that State believed to have originally come from the eastern slope 
of the Rocky Mountains. " All of them produce bountiful crops of really excellent 
fruit — comparing favorably with the huckleberry — but the birds are so fond of it 
that where only a few bushes are grown it is difficult to secure a ripe berry unless 
the bushes are covered." Where an acre or more is grown tlie loss is not noticed. 
The Iowa varieties evidentiy belong, at least in part, to the western A. alnifolia; 
the Michigan varieties would seem to belong, partly at least, to the eastern A. cana- 
densis. According to Nehr. B. 18 both these species are native in Nebraska. 

Sheep. — Cost of fattening.— At the New York Cornell Station {B. 8) in oue 
experiment a lot of lambs received timothy hay, whole corn, and roots. The nutri- 
tive ratio of the ration was 1 : 10.9, and the cost of making 100 pounds increase in 
live weight was $7. .59, Another lot was fed on wheat bran, cotton-seed meal, clover 
hay, and roots; nutritive ratio 1:4.2. The cost of 100 pounds gain in this case 
was $6.03. Another lot received corn, wheat bran, cotton-seed meal, timothy hay, 
and roots; nutritive ratio 1: 6.5. Tiic cost of 100 pounds of gain Avas $0.36. The 
fourth lot had the same ration as the j)refeding lot except that roots Avere omitted; 
nutritive ratio 1:6.3. The cost of 100 pounds of gain was $7.82. 



SHEEP. 293 

At the l\richig.an Station (B. S4) lambs fcil on oats, bran, and corn silage, all val- 
ued at ciirreut prices in Wisconsin, made 100 pounds gain in live weight at a cost of 
$4.9(3. Wlien roots were used instead of silage the cost per 100 pounds of increase in 
live weight was $4.38. 

At the Wisconsin Station (R. 1S91, p. 5) wethers nine months old fed on a ration 
of shelled corn, corn silage, and corn fodder, the ration having a nutritive ratio of 
1 : 10, cost at current prices in Wisconsin $.3.70 per 100 pounds of gain in live weight. 
A similar lot fed on oats, oil meal, clover silage, and clover hay, the ration having a 
nutritive ratio of 1 : 3.6, made a gain at a cost of $5.53 per 100 pounds increase in live 
weight. In another experiment at the same station, wethers shorn in December and 
fed on meadow hay, sugar beets, oil meal, oats, and whole corn, made a gain at a 
cost of $4.70 per 100 pounds. A similar lot given the same feed, but not shorn until 
spring, made 100 pounds gain at a cost of $4.40. 

At the same station ( Wis. R. ISOO, p. 10) a lot of lambs eating corn, corn silage, 
and corn fodder, cost per hundredweight of live increase $3.28. A similar lot fed 
on corn, oats, clover silage, and clover hay, cost $4.06. Another like lot on oil meal, 
oats, clover silage, and clover hay, cost $5.31. 

Lambs ten days old were fed on whole milk, and required 579 pounds of milk per 
100 pounds of increase in live weight, making the cost $3.47. When the lambs were 
a month old, the ration was changed to skim milk, oats, green clover, and green 
corn. The cost during four Aveeks was $2.30 per 100 pounds of gain in live weight. 
The cost gradually increased with the age of the animals, reaching $4.50 in Septem- 
ber. 

Lambs and ewes together were soiled with green clover and green corn, receiving 
also a grain ration of oats. The cost of increase in live weight of ewes and lambs 
until weaning time was from $3.22 to $6.66 per 100 pounds. When the lambs were 
separated from the ewes and put on dry food, they made growth at a cost of $5.10 
per 100 pounds of increase. 

At the Iowa Station {B. 17) lambs eating oats, linseed meal, bran, and hay, cost 
$6.20 per 100 pounds gain in live weight; a similar lot on shelled corn, hay, and oat 
straw, cost $5.70 per 100 pounds gain; a third lot on oats, corn, bran, linseed meal, 
and hay, cost $5.65 per 100 pounds of increase in live weight. 

The Massachusetts State Station {R. 1891, p. 128), with food stuffs higher than in 
the West, fattened wetherlambs at the following cost per 100 pounds of live increase : 
$9.35, $11.66, $10.07, $10.99, $13.40, and $10.70. The net cost, after subtracting 80 per 
cent of the manurial value of the food, was respectively $5.83, $7.29, $6.32, $5.76, 
$7.06, and $5.62. 

At the Texas Station {B. 10) sheep fed on cotton seed valued at $7 per ton and corn 
silage at $2 per ton cost $2.82 per 100 pounds live increase; those on cotton-seed 
meal at $20 and cotton-seed hulls at $3 made their gain at a cost of $4 per 100 
pounds. 

For cost of wintering ewes see below. 

Feeding grain to unweaned lambs. — In two experiments at the Wisconsin 
Station {B. 32, R. 1891, p. 27) the lambs of ewes that received grain while on pas- 
ture fattened no faster than those having only pasturage. It paid to feed directly 
to the unweaned lambs all the grain they would eat. Grain-fed lambs fattened 
more rapidly and were valued at three-fourths of a cent per pound higher than the 
other lots. 

Carbonaceous vs. nitrogenous rations. — In three experiments at the New York 
Cornell Station (J5. 2, B. 8, B. 47) lambs fed on nitrogenous foods drank from two 
to three times as much water as those on a carbonaceous diet. 

In two experiments at the Wisconsin Station {R. 1890, p. 16, R. 1891, p. 14) the 
diet did not aft'ect the relative proportion of fat and lean meat. 

In two experiments at the New York Cornell Station {B. 2, B. S) the proportion of 
lean meat was appreciably greater in the lambs fed on the nitrogenous diet. 



294 SHEEP. 

In four out of the five experiments referred to above a nitrogenous ration causedl 
a more rapid gain in live weight than a carbonaceous ration. 

At the Wisconsin Station (i?. 1891, p. 14) wethers fed on a nitrogenous ration gave 
slightly more washed and unwashed wool. This wool lost more in washing than 
that from the lot fed on a carbonaceous diet. 

In two of the New York Cornell Station experiments {B. 2, B. 8) the nitrogenous 
food produced more wool than the carbonaceous food. 

Cotton-seed meal vs. linseed meal for lambs.— At the Wisconsin Station {B. 
S2) one lot of lambs, 3 months old, received a grain ration of one part, by weight, of 
cotton-seed meal and two parts of corn meal. Another lot had linseed meal substi- 
tuted for the cotton-seed meal. Both lots were in a pasture together. The average 
weekly gain made by the lot on cotton-seed meal was 2.95 pounds, and by the lot on 
linseed meal, 3.3 pounds per head. 

Eape as a food for sheep.— At the Minnesota Station (C?0) 4 sheep and lambs 
were pastured on rape, while a similar lot received timothy hay. The lot on rape 
gained one-fourth of a pound per day for each animal, the other lot oue-eighth of a 
pound per day per head. One acre of rape was found to be equal to nineteen- twen- 
tieths of a ton of hay. 

Silage and roots for fattening sheep.— At the Michigan Station (5. 5-/) the 
average gain of each lamb fed on grain, hay, and sugar beets was 3 pounds per week ; 
when fed on grain, hay, and corn silage the weekly gain was 2.5 pounds. Estimat- 
ing roots and silage at the same price, roots proved slightly more economical. 

In an experiment at the New York Cornell Station {B. 47), when corn silage was 
compared with mixed hay as forage for lambs, 4 pounds of silage was found about 
as effective as 1 pound of hay. 

In two experiments at the Utah Station {B. 17, B. 19) there was found in the car- 
casses of sheep fed on roots or silage a larger per cent of water than where dry food 
had been used. 

Winter rations for breeding ewes.— At the Wisconsin Station {B. 1891, p. 5) 
a lot of ewes were fed on cut corn fodder at $1 per ton ; another lot on oat straw at 
$3; aud a third lot on blue grass hay at $8 per ton. Each lot received like amounts 
of oats, bran, aud sugar beets. The ewes were fed not for fattening, but for main- 
tenance. Each lot made a small gain. The corn fodder ration cost for each animal 
1 cent per day; the straw ration 0.8 cent; the hay ration 1.2 cents per day. Oat 
straw thus proved the cheapest coarse fodder, and hay the most expensive. 

In another experiment at the same station C^- 1891, p. 9) the cost, with current 
prices in Wisconsin, of the daily ration of each ewe was with corn silage 1.1 cents, 
with clover silage 1.3 cents, with sugar beets 1.2 cents. Clover silage was eaten 
with avidity. The report states that sugar beets are inferior to clover silage and 
corn silage, and that beets are apt to induce scouring if fed in quantities of over 4 
pounds daily to each ewe. 

Shearing wethers in winter before fattening them. — On December 12 three 
wethers were shorn at the Wisconsin Station {R. 1S91, p. 23) and a similar lot left 
unshorn. Both lots were fed alike till April 20, when both were sheared. The 
twice-shorn lot yielded a total of 28.5 pounds of unwashed wool, while the single 
shearing of the other lot afforded fleeces weighing 32.7 pounds. 

The twice-shorn lot gaiued in flesh 107.9 pounds and the other lot 110.7 pounds. 
Hence when wethers were wintered in a shed whose average temperature was about 
35° F., shearing twice was not advisable. 

In a similar experiment on lambs, the Ontario (Canada) Station {B. 68) found 
practically no difference in the gain of flesh made by lambs shorn late in November 
and those not shorn. 

Breeding.— At the Wisconsin Station (B. 1891, p. S3) lambs with two top crosses 
of the Shropshire on Merino ewes could not easily be distiuguished from those of pure 
Shropshire breeding. 



SHEEP, HEAD SCAB. 



295 



A similar cross gave satisfactory rosnlts at the South Dakota Station (i?. 1S90, p. 
1.5), the cross-bred animals retaining, in large measure, the fleece of the Merino, and 
the size, fecundity, hardiness, and -'mutton quality" of the Shropshire. 

Sheep, foot rot.— Opinions differ somewhat concerning this disease. By some 
two form's are recognized, sporadic and contagious, while others consider them the 
same, difteriug only in degree. 

The sporadic or noncontagious disease may be produced by foreign substances 
getting between the hoofs and causing inflammation of the space between them.^ If 
not checked the whole foot will become involved and the hoof will drop ott". The 
same result comes from putting sheep accustomed to high pastures upon low, mucky 
ones. Their hoofs grow too long and aftord opportunities for collection and adhesion 
ofmaterials causing decay and the subsequent inflammation. Usually the front 
feet are the first to be afl'ectcd, and examination will show them to be inflamed, 
hot, and feverish. Remove all superfluous horn from the hoof, cleanse thoroughly, 
and apply butter of antimony to the inflamed part. In twenty-four hours, if the wound 
is foul and still discharging, apply again. Keep the feet clean by wa.shing with 
water containing either blue vitriol or copperas, one part to twelve parts of water. 
One part of carbolic acid to 150 of water may be added. The animal should be care- 
fully looked after and fed. 

In the contagious form tlie cause is said to be a specific poison, which may be in- 
troduced into a flock in various ways from infected stock. Lameness will be noticed 
in one or more feet, the foot will be found swollen above the hoof, and the spaces 
between the claws will be red and tender. In a few days small pimples, contaiuing 
a watery fluid, will be developed. In a week or two proud flesh appears and the 
hoof begins to separate. At the end of about a month the hoof drops oft'. The dis- 
ease spreads from foot to foot until all are involved, and the animal lies down to die 
of starvation. The specific virus oozes from the sores in the feet and may be spread 
in various ways. The cars in which sheep are transported are often infected. 

Whenever the disease appears among sheep they should bo divided at once into 
three lots— the infected, suspected, and unaftected. In this way they may be better 
treated. The treatment is the same as for the noncontagious form. New stock if 
not well known should be quarantined for two or three weeks. (La. B. 10, 3d ser.; 
Mich. B. 74; X. Dah. B. 3.) 

Sheep, gid or staggers.— A disease due to a form of one of Mie tapeworms of the 
dog {Ta-nia ccoivrits), which becomes located in the brain or spinal cord of the 
sheep. The sheep become infected by pasturing where eggs of this tapeworm have 
been scattered by dogs. The dogs in turn are infested by eating the brains of sheep 
containing cysts. The symptoms in the sheep are stupor and involuntary muscular 
movement. ' The pupil of the eye usually becomes fixed and the sight or hearing 
is impaired. There is no inclination for food and the animal loses flesh rapidly. If 
the parasite be located in the side of the brain the animal will turn its head to one 
side, and is liable to walk in a circle. If located near the middle the movements 
will be irregular and jerky. Sometimes the breathing is very difficult, due to the 
location of the cyst in the medulla, which is the center of the nerves controlling 
respiration. If the cyst is located at the top of the head the skull over the cyst 
will enlarge and become soft in about a month. The cyst may then be removed 
through the operation of craniotomy. 

The brains and spinal cords of sheep which have died with this disease should be 
burned or buried so deep as to be out of the way of dogs. Wolves, coyotes, and 
foxes are also capable of spreading the infection. (La. B. 10, 2d ser.) 

Sheep, head scab.— A disease caused by a minute parasite, Sarcoptca scahiei. 
Under a magnify iug glass these parasites may be recognized by their rounded, some- 
what oval bodies, the adult having four and the young three pairs of legs. They 
usually begin their attack on the upper lip, but may be found about the eyes, ears, 
or any part of the body that is but partly covered with wool. They burrow under 



296 shepherd's puese. 

tlie. skin and cause an irrnption to break out. This forms a scab and spreads until 
more or less of the head is involved. The constant scratching and rubbing of the 
head is often one of the first symptoms. This is often continued until blood flows 
from the broken skin. This disease is easily prevented, as an application of almost 
any of the ointments or dips known to sheepmen will stop it if applied when the 
trouble first appears. If the scab has formed it must be softened and removed with 
oil or grease before the remedy is applied. The presence of this parasite will cause 
a loss in the poor condition of sheep and small yield of wool. The parasites are 
transmitted in various ways, and immediate treatment should be given them, since 
they increase with amazing rapidity. (iV. Dah. B. 3; S. Bah. B. 25.) 
Shepherd's purse.— See Weeds. 
Shorthorn cows. — See Covos, tests of dairy breeds. 

Silage [also written Ensilage].— Green fodder preserved in air-tight pits or boxes 
(see Silos). The practice of making silage was introduced into this country from 
France less than twenty years ago. The use of silage has been greatly extended 
through the reports of investigations and other information on this subject dissemi- 
nated by the stations. 

Corn is the crop most extensively used for silage, but many varieties of saccharine 
and non-saccharine sorghum, pearl millet, alfalfa, soja bean, clover, cowpeas, rye, 
and other forage crops are sometimes preserved in the silo. 

Varieties for silage.— ilfinw. E. lS88,p. 90, states that though Southern Ensilage 
corn in Minnesota produces twice as much fodder as the Minnesota Dent, Leaming, 
Sibley's Pride of the North, etc., yet the higher nutritive value of the medium-sized 
dent corn and the saving in labor in handling the crop render these latter varieties 
preferable for Miunesota. In later experiments {Minn. B. 7) the dent varieties 
yielded the most fodder and more dry matter than either flint or sweet varieties. 

At the Wisconsin Station (B. 19, E. 1SS9, p. 123), in 1889, Southern Horse Tooth 
gave the largest yield of green fodder, of protein, and of sugar. In 1888 South- 
ern Horse Tooth gave the largest yield, followed by Southern Ensilage. 

At the Kansas Station, in 1888, White Flat Ensilage and Southern Horse Tooth 
were the best of 7 varieties. In 1890 Mosby's Prolific aff^orded the largest yield. 
The Burrill and Whitman is a standard silage corn and produces heavily. 

Of sixteen varieties grown at the Vermont Station (i?. 1889, p. 89) the Wisconsin 
Yellow and Pride of the North did best. 

The New York Cornell Station (B. 16) found that the flint varieties contained a 
larger per cent of dry matter than either the sweet or dent varieties. The dents 
gave the largest amount of dry matter. 

The yield of sorghum is often greater than that of corn. The latter has the further 
advantage of remaining green later in the fall, thus prolonging the season of filling 
the silo {Eans. B. 6). 

At the Alabama Canebrake Station the silage from Kaffir corn was not readily 
eaten by cattle. 

The tangled condition of the cowpea vines makes much labor necessary in harvest- 
ing and cutting {Ala. Canebrake B. 9). The small farmer who can not aftbrd to buy 
a silage cutter has in pea vines a crop which can be successfully ensiled without 
cutting, though ordinarily it is better to cut the vines intended for silage. 

At the- Wisconsin Station {E. 1888, p. 85) clover silage kept in perfec*t condition. 
Cows ate it with relish and gained in milk. Analyses at that station showed that 
clover silage is much richer in protein than corn silage. 

Composition.— For composition of silage from different plants see Appendix, Tables 
I and II. 

Culture and storage.— The culture of crops intended for silage does not differ 
essentially from that desirable for the same crops grown for fodder. As the result 
of numerous experiments it is now held that corn for silage should be planted thin 
enough for considerable grain to mature. There is still considerable diversity of 



SILAGE. 297 

opinion as to the proper time for harvesting; the crop, though recent investigations 
seem to favor greater maturity than was formerly thought desirable. Chemical 
analyses recently made at the New York Station Indicate "that for the greatest 
amount of nutriment, considered from a chemical standpoint, corn should not be cut 
before it has reached the milk stage of the kernel." In Ohio it is recommended by 
the station that "fodder corn should be cut when the corn begins to glaze and 
when the stalks begin to dry near the ground." But in Kansas, where intense heat 
and other climatic peculiarities hasten the ripening of the crop, it is thought that 
harvesting "should not be delayed after the corn is in the early dough state." 

It is now quite generally thought better to put both stalks and ears in the silo 
than to nse the stalks alone for silage. Bellire being placed in the silo the corn 
should be cut into small pieces. Some experimenters prefer one-half inch lengths, 
as these will pack more evenly and solidly than longer iiieces. It is a good iiractice 
to keep a man in the silo while it is being filled to see that the silage is packed as 
closely in the corners and along the sides as elsewhere. If the filling occupies much 
time, so that the silage becomes heated, some of the cooled silage near the sides 
should be from time to time thrown into the center and replaced with the warmest 
silage, so as to keep the temperature of the whole mass as even as possible. It seems 
to make little difierence whether the filling is continuons or extended over several 
days, provided the work is carefully and thoronghly done. There is no agreement 
among experimenters as to the necessity of weighting the silo. At the Ohio Sta- 
tion a wooden cover made of flooring boards well fitted together was placed on 
the silo. On this was placed abont a ton of sand in boxes, and round the edge of 
the cover next the silo walls a piece of inverted sod to prevent the entrance of air. 
After the silage had settled about 2 feet a ton of grass was thrown over the boxes 
of sand. In Kansas a layer of tarred paper, covered about 18 inches deep with green 
grass, has been as effectual as weighting heavily with rocks. 

Fermentation in the silo. — Investigations by Prof. Burrill, of the Illinois 
Station (B. 7), emphasize and help to explain the fact that silage is necessarily a 
very variable product, requiring careful treatment. The corn or other material 
used for silage varies in maturity, in chemical composition, and in amount of mois- 
ture. Numerous and diverse chemical changes take place in the silo, and the fer- 
mentations dne to the action of the miunte organisms classified as yeasts, bacteria, 
and molds, are varied and complex. Until very recently people Iiave had but little 
idea of the influence of bacteria and other ferments in the operations of the farm. 
Much remains to be found out concerning their action in the silo, for studies in this 
line are only just begun. 

The kinds of ferments which cause changes in the silo include (1) yeasts, which 
cause the change of sugar into alcohol and other fermentations; (2) bacteria, which 
cause the formation of acids and the heating in the silo, and which appear to aid 
in the destructive changes, notably the semi-putrid decompositiou, accompanied by 
bad odors, so often occurring in old silage ; and(3)molds which also cause putrefaction. 
The yeasts found in the silo do not ajipear to be such as cause ordinary alcoholic 
fermentation, and it is doubtful if ordinary alcohol occurs in silage. The hot fer- 
mentation which often takes place soon after the silo is filled, though not yet fully 
explained, is not due to yeast. Two or more species of bacteria appear to be con- 
cerned in the raising of the temperature. These bacteria are similar to those which 
cause butyric fermentation, i. e., the formation of butyric acid in rancid butter. 
The high temperature does not destroy the bacteria and molds, which later cause 
acid fermentation and putrefaction. After the heating, liowever,tbe silage settles 
and the air is excluded. The initial high temperature which these bacteria induce 
is, therefore, probably most serviceable by causing this closer packing of the silage 
and the exclusion of the air, rather than by killing the germs of other ferments. 

Ferments which induce the formation of acetic acid in vinegar and of lactic acid 
in milk are active in the silo, and if allowed to act produce much acid and make 



298 



SILAGE. 



tlie silage sonr. Silage from corn, however treated, contains the acid originally is 
the stalks. "Sweet silage" is that which has in addition only a small quantity of 
the acids formed by fermentation. What commonly passes for sweet silage is not 
always the same thing. It maybe obtained either with or without great heat. By the 
process of rapid tilling and close packing, especially with the more mature and dry 
corn, the mass remains sweet, simply because little fermentation of any kind taken 
jdace in the silo. If, on the other hand, the silo is filled slowly, the mass soon be- 
comes very hot. This high temperature is due to the action of bacteria. After the 
heating, the silage settles and the air is excluded. In this way fermentation is 
largely prevented and the silage remains comparatively sweet. Since air and mois- 
ture favor the fermentations which injure silage, it follows that matur.e corn con- 
taining less water than that cut earlier, and close packing in an air-tight silo, are 
needed to produce the best silage. 

The losses in dry matter of corn from ensiling as compared with field curing have 
been investigated at several stations. The results on the whole indicate that when 
both processes are carefully carried on under ordinary conditions the losses are 
likely to be less in ensiling than in field curing (Mich. B. 49; Pa. B, 1890, j). 43; Wis. 
B. 1S90, p. 97). Prof. Sanborn, however, contends that in his experiments in Mis- 
souri and Utah the advantage has been on the side of field curing {Mo. B. 7; Utah 
B.8). 

Silage, value as food. — Silage has been tested extensively at the stations as a 
food for all kinds of farm animals, and generally with favorable results. The ani- 
mals take to it readily as a rule, and it often has the efl^ect of sharpening their appe- 
tites and inducing them to relish large quantities of food. 

Better results have usually followed when it has been fed in connection with some 
other coarse fodder, as clover hay. As a rule it has been found a cheaper food than 
hay for dairy cows or growing animals. 

The Ohio Station {B. Vol. II, S), fed silage successfully to horses, calves, and pigs, 
as well as to dairj' stock. The horses were given one feed of 20 pounds of silage per 
day instead of hay during February and March. With this ration their appetite 
was sharpened and the spring coat of hair was glossy. 

The Pennsylvania Station (B. 1890, p. 118) states, as the result of actual estimates 
that "a good average corn crop has produced with us from one and one-third to two 
and one-quarter times as much food per acre as a good hay crop." Concerning the 
amount of food furnished when the corn is ensiled and when field-cured, the Penn- 
sylvania Station {B. 1889, 2>- 113) estimated the amounts of digestible food nutri- 
ents in silage and in field-cured corn fodder from one acre. The figures were based 
on actual yields of corn and on digestion coeflicients found in trials with steers. 
The results are here given : 

Digestihle ingredients in fodder corn from one acre. 





Green 
loilder 
corn. 


Silage. 


Field- 
cured fod- 
der corn. 




Poundn. 

184 

67 

3,947 

153 


Povncls. 

82 

151 

3,164 

263 


Povnds. 
133 

69 

3,030 

156 




Carbohydrates 


Fat 


Total digestible 


4, ::51 


3,060 


3,o88 





These amounts are equivalent to the amount of digestible food materials contained 
.n from 3 to 4 tons of average timothy hay. 
Experiments on the relative digestibility of silage and corn fodder from the same 



SILAGE. 299 

com have been reported as follows: N. T. Stale B. 1SS4, p. 45; ISSD, Pa. 7?. rsS9, p. 
12S, R. 1890, p. 50; Wis. B. 1888, p. 28, B. 1880, p. 69. 

The results of these experiments differ considerably with the kind and maturity 
of the corn used, the conditions under which the corn was cured or ensiled, etc. As 
a rule, however, it is believed that they indicate silage to be slightly more digesti- 
ble than dry corn fodder. 

The Pennsylvania Station (i?. 1890, p. GO) found that sheep digested from 14 to 15 
per cent less of the dry matter, fiber, and nitrogen-free extract, and only half as much 
of the protein of silage as steers. 

A trial Avith one sheep at the Oregon Station {B. 6) indicated that cooking silage di- 
minished the digestibility of its protein and slightly increased that of crude fiber 
and uitrogeu-l'ree extract. 

Feeding experiments with silage are mentioned below, and also under Sheep and 
Pigs. 

(Iowa B. 6, B. 13; Mass. Siate B. 37, B. 41; Minn. B. 7; Nehr. B. 17; N. E. B. 9, B. 
Id; N. Y. State B. 84, B. 1890, p. 364; Wis. R. 1884, p. 11, R. 1886, p. 34; Ft. R. 1889, 
p. 51.) 

Silage for milk and buttek production. — This subject embraces comparisons 
of corn silage (1) with corn fodder, (2) with hay, and (3) with roots. 

Silage vs. dry corn fodder. — Tlie Wisconsin Station has made experiments for six years 
to compare the value of corn silage and dry corn fodder for milk and butter produc- 
tion {R.1SS6, p. 25, R. 1888, p. 5, R. 1889, pp. 69, 130, R. 1890, p. SO, R. 1891, p. 49). 
In these experiments the corn fodder has not been allowed to stand long in the field 
after cutting but has been kept under cover. Both the silage and corn fodder have 
constituted a larger proportion of the ration than would ordinarily be the case 
in practice to obtain the maximum difierence in the effect of these fodders. As a 
rule the cows relished the silage and thrived upon it. The results of the comparison 
of the two foods have not always been uniform from year to year, but they have 
never been at all pronounced in favor of either food. The silage has sometimes given 
a slightly larger quantity of more watery milk than the corn fodder j and in other 
experiments this result has been reversed. 

In other experiments a larger yield of both milk and fat on silage has been 
accounted for by the fact of the cows having eaten more silage than corn fodder. 
But when the results of the six years are sununarized the conclusion is that "proii- 
erly cured corn fodder and corn silage of similar variety and maturity are of equal 
value for milk and butter production." Irk several experiments the silage was found 
to possess a somewhat higlier rate of digestibility than the corn fodder. 

Eegarding the relative amounts of milk and butter produced from silage and corn 
fodder grown on equal areas of land the Wisconsin Station {R. 1891, p. 49) reports 
an experiment made to test this point in which 20 cows were fed the product from 
nearly 6 acres. 

"Summarizing our work in this line, we have the following conclusions: 

" (1) A daily ration of 4 pounds of hay and 7 pounds of grain feed, with corn silage 
or field-cured fodder corn ad libitum, fed to 20 cows during sixteen weeks produced 
a total quantity of 19,813.4 pounds of milk during the silage periods and 19,801.2 
l»ounds of milk during the fodder-corn periods. 

" (2) When we consider the areas of land from which the silage and fodder corn fed 
were obtained, we find that the silage would have produced 243 pounds more milk 
per acre than the dry fodder, or the equivalent of 12 pounds of butter. This is a 
gain of a little more than 3 per cent in favor of the silage." 

The New Jersey Station {B. 19) found that (1) the loss of food ingredients was 
less in the stack than in the silo; (2) cut and crushed corn fodder was eaten by cows 
quite as readily and with as little waste as silage; (3) in three out of four cases there 
was no increase of milk on silage; and (4) with one herd there was an increased 
yield of total solids in the milk during the silage period, and with the other no 
increase. 



300 SILAGE. 

In a trial at the Michigan Station (B. 47, M. 1S89, p. SOS) cows gave somewhat more 
milk on dry corn fodder than on silage, but the silage lasted longer than the corn 
fodder from a similar area, although nearly a quarter of the silage spoiled. The 
tendency seemed to he to gain in live weight on silage feeding rather than to pro- 
duce milk. 

A trial at the Missouri Station {B. 8) was favorable to dry corn fodder. ''Dry 
fodder corn for cows proved more effective, especially dried sugar corn, than silage. 
Cows fed on dry fodder corn gave the richest milk, the best butter, which seeiiied to 
keep better, and maintained their live weight best." 

In a comparison of a number of different coarse foods, the Vermont Station {R. 
1S89, p. 51) found corn fodder and corn silage from the same source to give practi- 
cally like results per pouncj of dry matter eaten, although average silage proved 
superior to average corn fodder, and both were superior to corn stover. " Good corn 
silage caused gain in all resiiects over good hay," and " hay and corn stover had 
much the same effect on milk production." 

In a later series of experiments at the same station ( Vt. B. 1891, p. 75) the yield of 
milk was larger on silage than on corn fodder, but the milk was of poorer quality on 
silage, containing 12.91 per cent solids and 4.05 per ceut fat on an average, while it 
averaged 13.25 per cent solids and 4.28 per cent fat on corn fodder. The total yield 
of milk constituents (fat, etc.), was slightly higher on silage. Considering the yield 
of milk and butter fat on silage and corn fodder from like areas of land, the result 
was favorable to silage, showing that on it 8 per cent more milk, 5 per cent more 
solids, and 3 per cent more fat were produced than on corn fodder. A pound of dry 
matter in silage produced more milk and slightly more solids and fat in six out of 
nine cases than a pound of dry matter in corn fodder. The loss of dry matter was 
2Q per cent in ensiling and 19 per cent in field curing in shocks, but the loss of albu- 
minoids was largest in field curing. The result of this comparison of corn fodder 
and silage agreed practically with that at the Wisconsin Station. 

At the Pennsylvania Station {B. 1890, p. 79), while more milk was produced on sil- 
age than on corn fodder, it was of poorer quality, so that the total yield of butter 
fat was slightly larger on the corn fodder. Pound for pound of dry matter, more 
milk and more solids were produced on the silage ration. "The greater efficiency 
of the silage ration was due to the greater digestibility of the silage." 

Silage vs. hay. — Experiments were carried on at the Massachusetts State Station 
for five years (188o-'89) to compare corn fodder, corn stover, and corn silage with 
good English hay for the production of milk. (^Mass. Slate R. 1885, p. 10, R. 1886, 
p. 11, R. 1887, p. 11, R. 1888, p. 11, B. 1889, p. 12.) The effect of these feeding stuffs 
was studied on the yield and composition of the milk, the total and net cost of the 
milk per quart, and the physical condition of the animals. These coarse foods were 
invariably fed in connection with a grain ration. Silage was usually fed with some 
hay ; corn fodder and stover were usually fed alone with the grain ration. The valua- 
tion used in calculating the cost of food per quart of milk was the same in all experi- 
ments, i. e., hay, $15; corn fodder, $5 ; corn stover, $5; and silage, $2.75 per ton; 
and in calculating the net cost 80 per cent of the value of the fertilizing ingredi- 
ents of the food was deducted from the first cost, it being assumed that 80 per cent 
of the fertilizing ingredients can be recovered in the manure. The corn fodder, 
stover, and silage were usually fed cut or shredded. The corn fodder was cured in 
the field and was invariably cut at the same stage as the silage — usually when the 
kernels were beginning to glaze. 

First, concerning the effect of these fodders on the cost of milk production, the 
results of the experiments showed that in every instance the cost was highest when 
hay was fed alone. Whenever a part of the hay was replaced by either corn fodder, 
stover, or silage the cost was materially reduced, often as much as one-half ceut 
per quart of milk. When corn fodder, stover, or silage were fed alone (with grain) 
the cost was likewise reduced, and between these three fodders, at the prices charged, 



SILAGE. 301 

little uniform advantage could bo traced. In general, their ability to reduce tho 
cost depended upon the extent to which they replaced the hay. 

As to the comparative value of these fodders for food, Prof. Glocssnumn says that, 
pound for pound of dry matter, they have proved " fully equal, if not superior, to 
average English hay." At the close of the fifth year of experiment he says: "To 
produce a quart of milk, using the same quantity and quality of grain food, required 
in every instance a larger quantity of perfectly dried hay than of either corn fodder, 
corn stover, or corn silage in a corresponding state of dryness. Corn silage was 
most advantageously fed in place of one-fourth to one-half of the full hay ration. 
From 35 to 40 pounds of silage per day, with all the hay called for to satisfy the 
aninuil (in addition to the grain ration), seems a good proportion." The fodders 
compared well as far as quantity and quality of milk and of cream was coucernd. 

The Maine Station (R. 1889, p. 60) found that when one-third of the hay (mostly 
timothy) was replaced by silage a somewhat higher milk yield was maintained for 
sixty-three days than on hay exclusivelj' (preceding period) with practically no 
change in the composition of the milk. This was not due to a larger amount of 
digestible food being eaten while on silage than on hay. 

The Minnesota Station (i?. 1888, p. 112) compared timothy hay and silage made 
from large southern varieties of corn, replacing the hay entirely by silage. The 
silage was sour and the cows "did not eat enough of the ration to either maintain 
the flow of milk or to keej) from falling off in weight. - * * The hay and grain 
ration produced an unusual and undesirable increase in live weight. " 

In a trial at the Vermont Station {R. 1890, p. 86) "silage gave less milk than hay, 
the quality being the same;" and corn fodder gave less milk of slightly poorer 
quality than hay. 

At the Wisconsin Station {R. 1884, p. 11) corn stover fed uncut was compared with 
mixed hay and with clover hay. Fed in this way there was a considerable loss of 
stover, and it was found to be equivalent to about one-third of its weight of mixed 
hay or somewhat less than one-third of its weight of clover hay. 

According to the New Hampshire Station (B.13) "hay apparently produced a 
harder butter than silage, " but the relative yield on the two foods is not stated. 

Silage rs. roots. — Experiments covering several years have been made at the Massa- 
chusetts State Station (R. 1886, p. 11, R. 1887, p. 11, R. 1889, p. 12). In these the cost 
of food per quart of milk was higher with sugar beets at $5 or carrots at $7 per ton 
than with silage at $2.75 or corn fodder at $5 per ton. In feeding value, however. 
Dr. Goessmaun states that the roots were fully equal if not superior to silage, pound for 
pound of dry matter. Both root crops ahnost without exception increased the tem- 
porary yield of milk, exceeding, as a rule, the corn silage in that direction. It is 
suggested that from 25 to 27 pounds of roots per day be fed in place of part of the hay. 

The Ohio Station {B. Vol. II, 3, B. Vol. Ill, 5) reports two experiments made to 
compare silage and sugar beets for milk production. In both experiments the cost 
of food per quart of milk was a fraction of a cent less on silage at $2.30 per ton than 
on beets at $2. These prices are the estimated cost of production of the crops. In 
1890 the yield of milk was considerably and in 1889 slightly higher on beets than on 
silage ; but in 1889 the sihage sliowed a greater tendency than the beets to increase 
the live weight, while in 1890 the cows gained a pound a day in weight on beets and 
lost a pound on silage. No data are given as to the composition of the milk. 

A comparison at the New York State Station {R. 1890, p. 364) of mangel-wurzels 
and silage resulted favorably, financially and otherwise, to the silage. The roots 
and silage were each reckoned at $3 per ton. 

From a comparison of roots and silage at the Pennsylvania Station {R. 1890, p. 79) 
the inference was that roots were slightly inferior to silage, more digestible matter 
being required per pound of milk solids or fat than on silage. 

Silage for bei:f production and growth. — A silage composed of corn, sorghum, 
and soja bean, with a nutritive ratio of 1:10.3, proved at the Maryland Station 



302 SILAGE. 

(B. S) to be " a. good aiifl snfficieut food for two-year-old heifers during the winter, 
just before first calving and at time of calving. It was more than a maintenauce 
ration in this trial." About 40 ponnds of the silage were fed per animal i)er day. 

Dnriug the Avinter of 1887-88 the Wisconsin Station (li. 1SS8, p. 63) compared the 
gain from silage alone and with a grain ration of shelled corn and bran, using two- 
year-old and three-year-old steers. The silage used contained very little grain. 

The steers on silage made an average gain of 1.5 pounds per day and those ou 
silage and grain of 3.7 pounds per day. To make 100 pounds of gain in weight the 
silage lot ate 3,558 pounds of silage, and the other lot 654 pounds of silage, 394 pounds 
corn, and 181 pounds bran. Hogs, following the grain-fed steers, required only 92 
pounds additional corn to make 100 pounds of gain. 

The Texas Station {B. 6) found that a ration of silage and boiled cotton seed pro- 
duced a very cheap and rapid growth. 

Silafie vs. dry corn fodder. — From a number of experiments which have been made, 
it api»ears that equal weights of dry matter in silage and in well-cured corn fodder are 
about equally effective for beef production. The relative advantage of the two 
foods depends upon the cost, the amount of food secured, convenience, weather 
at harvesting, palatability, quantity eaten, etc., rather than on any marked dif- 
ference in . the efficiency or digestibility of the dry mutter. The Pennsylvania 
and Texas Stations found silage the more palatable, while at the Utah and Iowa 
Stations corn fodder, was more eagerly eaten than silage. It is generally conceded 
that, as a rule, silage is the more palatable and that rather more dry matter will be 
eaten in a silage ration. 

(1) Steers. — At the Missouri Station (i?. <?)the amount of dry matter eaten per 
pound of increase in weight was 13.72 pounds ou a silage ration and 15.79 pounds 
on a corn-fodder ration. The silage-fed steers made the larger gain in live weight. 
On the basis of the gain per pound of dry matter fed, therefore, the result was slightly 
in favor of the silage ; but on the basis of the gain per pound of dry matter harvested 
the advantage was with the corn fodder, for it is estimated that for every pound of 
gain by the steers there was put into the silos 23.11 pounds of dry matter as against 
16.97 pounds of dry matter made into corn fodder. In feeding, the silage gave out 
sooner than the corn fodder from a similar area. 

The Utah Station (B.S) reports a comparison of silage with cut corn fodder which 
is interpreted as unfavorable to the silage system in Utah. The silage "was from 
nearly ripe corn cut when "the leaves and husks were turning yellow," and was 
eaten sparingly by the steers. There was practically no gain ou either food. Analy- 
ses showed that the carcasses of animals fed on silage averaged 74.17 percent of 
water, and those fed on corn fodder 68.4 per cent. 

In an experiment at the Pennsylvania Station (R. 1S90, p. 79) when the rations of 
silage and corn fodder from the same corn were each fed with a grain ration, "the 
corn fodder and silage were eaten equally clean, and the amount of food eaten per 
piiund of grain was substautially the same for both rations." The daily gain of the 
silage lot (3 steers) was 4.23 pounds or 1 pound for every 12.9 pounds of dry matter 
eaten ; and of the corn-fodder lot 4.27 iiouuds, or one pound for every 12.55 pounds 
of dry matter. 

At the Texas Station {B. 10) "dry corn fodderdidnot give as large gain as silage," 
when each Avas fed with cotton-seed products. While 53 per cent of the corn fod- 
der was rejected by the animals, only 8.2 per cent of the silage was refused. (Iowa 
B. 6; Minn. B. 4.) 

(2) Heifers. — A comparison of silage and corn fodder, fed ad libitum with a grain 
ration, was made on two .fersey heifers at the New York State Station (B. ISSS, p. 
297). The silage Avas readily eaten and there was a marked increase in Aveight on 
it, but on corn Ibdder there Avas cither only slight gain in Aveight or no gain at all. 

In a similar comparison at the Illinois Station (B.9) the results, as shoAvn by the 
gain in Avciglit and the dry matter consumed per pound of gain, Avere not very con- 
clusive. One lot Avas fed silage and the other corn fodder the first tAvo periods, and 



SILAGE. 303 

he th ird period both lots were feci corn fodder. The gain in weight per pound of 
dry matter eaten was in favor of the silage in the first period, and of corn fodder in 
the second period, so that at the cud of the second period the results with the two 
averaged about equal. lu the third period, however, when both lots were fed on corn 
fodder, the difterence was decidedly in favor of the lot fed continuotisly on corn 
fodder, making the average for that lot for the whole time slightly better than for 
the silage lot. 

(3) Slicep. — Sheep did not readily eat the silage used in a trial at the Utah Station 
{B. S). They gained 2(i pounds on silage and grain, as comjiared with 30 pounds on 
corn fodder and the same grain ration. 

Silage vs. han. — Concerning the relative merits of corn silage and hay of good 
quality, a trial with steers at the Maine Station (E. 1SS9, p. 75) showed that, pound 
for pound of digestible matter, the gain was slightly larger on silage than on tim- 
othy hay, although the difference was small. One jjound of hay Avas equal in effect 
to about 4 pounds of silage. 

Acid silage gave inferior results as compared with good hay at the Iowa Station 
{B. 6), but sour silage was not eaten readily in large quantities. 

With silage at $2.50 and hay at $10 per ton, the Virginia Station {B. 10) found 
silage the cheaper food. The cost of coarse food and grain per 100 pounds of gain in 
weight was $8.20 on the silage ration and $11.20 on the hay ration. ( Va.B. 3; Ohio 
B. Vol. II, 3; Ontario Agr. College B. 1S90. 

Silage vs. roots. — The Michigan Station (B. 84) reports a comparison of silage aud 
sugar beets on 16 lambs, feeding each material in connection with hay aud a grain 
ration. On an average 4.7 pounds of beets or 4.4 pounds of silage were eaten daily 
per lamb. The average weekly gain was 3 pounds while on roots, and 2^^ pounds 
while on silage. The results are held to indicate that "roots are superior to silage 
for fattening lambs." {Va. B. 3; Ontario Agr. College R. ISOO.) 

Sii.AGE FROiM DIFFERENT MATERIALS. — Very few feeding trials with otherthan corn 
silage have been reported. 

A rather inconclusive trial at the Iowa Station {B. 6) failed to show any essential 
difference between the feeding value and palatability of corn silage aud sorghum 
silage made from a mixture of amber aud orange cane cut when ripe. By mixing 
nearly mature soja beaus and green corn fodder in eijual parts, the Massachusetts 
State Station (B. 41) produced a silage much richer than corn silage, the dry matter 
coiu paring well in composition with red clover hay. 

The Maryland Station {B. S) fed two pure-bred Ayrshire heifers, both with calf, 
for about two months exclusively on silage composed of corn, sorghum, and soja 
beaus. The silage "proved to be more than a maintenance ration in this trial." 

In a comparison on ten milch cows at the Vermont Station {B. 1891, p. 86) " clover 
silage did not do as well as corn silage." 

The Minnesota Station {B. 7) compared silage from southern corn and flint corn on 
milch cows aud on fattening animals. The value of the two appeared about equal 
for milk, pound for pound of dry matter, but the southern corn produced about one- 
third more dry matter in the silage per acre. For fattening cattle flint-corn silage 
gave the best returns per acre, due, it is believed, to the larger amount of well- 
ripened ears it contained. 

The Vermont Station (/?. 1SS9, p. 51) found poorly made silage from frost-bitten 
corn iuferior to that well made from corn not frosted. 

The Illiuois Station {B. 16) ensiled apple pomace successfullj', but pigs refused to 
6 it much of it. 

At the Vermont Station {B. 1SS9, p. 51) apple-pomace silage was relished by cows, 
and Avhen fed as a partial substitute for com silage "appeared by four tests to be 
about equivalent in feeding value to corn silage." 

The same station found Hungarian-grass silage inferior to corn silage. If» was 
"on the whole, of nearly equal value with good hay." 



304 SILK OAK. 

All attempt to eiisile turuips (Vt. R. 1S91, p. SS) resulted disastrously. 

Apple-pomace silage: Mass. State E. 1891, p. 320; Vt. R. 1887, p. 88. Brewers' 
grain silage: N. J. R. 1880, p. 46, R. 1884, p. 107. Clover silage: JV. J. R. 1881, p. 
55, R. 1883, p. 75; Vt. R. 1887, p. 88, R. 1891, p. 86; Wis. R. 1886, p. 99, R. 1888, p. 
85, R. 1889, p. 145, R. 1890, p. 215. Cowpea silage: Ala. daneirake B. 9; Mass. 
State R. 1890, p. 134; N. C. R. 1882, p. 138 ; Tex. B. 6; Vt. R. 1887, p. 88. Sorglium 
silage: Ala. Canehrake B. 9; Tex. B. 10, B. 13; Vt. R. 1887, p. 88. Sugar-caiie- 
bagasse silage : Tex. B. 6. 

{Ark. B. 1890, p. 5; Conn. Starrs R. 1888, p. 96; III. B. 2, B. 7; loivaB. 16; Kans. 
B. 18, R. 1888, p. 67, R. 1889, p. 64; Md. R. 1889, p. 105; Mich. B. 68; Minn. B. 
2, B. 8; Miss. R. 1888, p. 30; Nelr. B. 17; N. H. B. 3, B. 10; N. J. B. 11, R. 1882, 
p. 79, R. 1889, p. 142; N. Y. Cornell B. 4; N. Y. State B. 9, B. 85, R. 1882, R. 1887, p. 
73, R. 1889, p. 80; N. C. B. 80; Ohio B. Vol. U, 3, B. Vol. Ill, 3; Ore. B. 9; Pa. B. 7, 
B. 11, B. 15, R. 1888. p. 34, R. 1889, p. 35; Tex. B. 6, B. 10, B. 13, R. 1888, p. 66.) 

Silk oak. — See Grevillea. 

Silos.— Tiie first silos were shallow pits in the earth; afterwards these pits were 
lined with masonry. Heavy weighting naturally found a place iu shallow silos, but 
has become less popular since the depth of the pits has been increased. The most 
serious inconvenience from these underground silos was the difficulty of getting out 
the silage for feeding. This difficulty was partially obviated by building an addi- 
tion of wood on top of the stone silo, by whicli arrangement a part of the silage was 
stored above ground. It was observed that wooden walls preserved the food as per- 
fectly as stone and brick. With improved carriers it was not difficult to elevate the 
cut forage 15 or 20 feet, and the custom of building wooden silos wholly above the 
ground became general. Now wood is generally recognized as the best material for 
silos, and is much cheaper than brick or stone. 

Location. — Since silage is heavy food, the silo should be so located that the con- 
tents need to be carried but a short distance to the animals. Where the cattle stand 
in two rows with an alley between, it is frequently most convenient to have the silo 
in one end of the barn with its door just opj)Osite this alley, so that the track for 
the hand car used in feeding may be perfectly straight. 

In order to have the silo as near the cattle, and to make its construction as cheap 
as possible, it is recommended to build the silo in the barn. A root cellar is frc- 
([uently used as a silo by taking out the floor above and building a wooden wall to 
the height of the barn plates. 

A silo at the Maryland Station was built as a "lean-to" against the cattle shed. 
If it is not convenient to make the silo a part of the barn, it should be located near 
by and in such position as to communicate easily with the feeding alley. 

Among the stations which have published descriptions of silos are Alabama, 
Arkansas, Illinois, Kansas, Marylantl, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Mississippi, 
New Hampshire, New York State, North Carolina, Ohio, Oregon, and Wisconsin. 

Several attempts to preserve green food without the expense of building a silo are 
on record. The Mississippi Station {B. 8) piled into a round and compact heap 
about 8 tons of green chicken corn and covered it with earth. Except the upper 3 
or 4 inches it was iierfectly preserved. 

The Kansas Station {R. 1889, p. 64) made in a corn field an excavation 30 feet long, 
15 broad, and 2| deep. The stalks of corn were put in whole and rolled with a 
heavy iron roller. Four inches of straw and 20 inches of earth were put on. There 
was practically no loss from rotting. 

The New York State Station {B. 1888, p. 326) made two small stacks of silage. A 
temporary roof was erected and pressure was appli<^.d to the stacks by means of 
chains and levers. The loss was about 50 per cent of the whole. 

Maticrial. — Wood is by far the cheapest material for the silo. Stone or brick is 
seldom used except when it is desired to utilize standing walls of masonry. At the 
Kansas Station nearly 50 per cent of the material stored in stone silos spoiled. 



SILOS. 



305 



Though the experience of others has iiot been so disastrous, yet many have observed 
that silage is better preserved next to a wooden wall than near a stone wall. In 
silos examined by the Wisconsin Station no such dift'crence was observed. 

The silo lining and the outer coat which protects the silo frame from the weather 
are usually sufficient to prevent any serious freezing of tlie silage. In the South 
there is no danger of freezing, and the silo lining is sufficient, except that the sides 
exposed to the weather must bo battened or weatherboarded to protect the frame- 
work. Only the soundest lumber should bo used in building a silo, and as far as 
possible arrangements should be made to secure ventilation for frame and lining. 

Floor. — A wooden floor is seldom used. The cheapest floor consists of pounded 
clay raised a few inches above the surface of the ground outside. A coat of cement 
is frequently applied to the floor. As a safeguard against the entrance of rats 
through the floor the bottom of the silo may be covered with a layer of small stones 
or grout before the coat of cement is applied. 

Foundation. — The stone or brick walls on which the sills rest should extend at 
least 6 inches above the silo floor and 8 inches above the ground outside. The sills 
should be anchored to the wall with iron rods. By having the sills 2 inches narrower 
than the studding, a 2-inch shoulder ou the stud prevents the lining of the silo from 
fitting tight against the sill, and thus allows for the silo to be ventilated. The sills 
may consist of two pieces spiked together, each 2 by 8 inches or 2 by 10 inches. 

These should be painted with coal tar and bedded in mortar, crossing at the cor- 
ners. 

STUDDIN&. — Studs smaller than 2 by 8 inches are rarely used, even though the 
height of the silo is only about 12 feet. In practice, 2 by 10 inch material is goner- 
ally used when the length is not over about 16 feet and the distance between studs 
18 inches. For greater lengths 2 by 12 inch material is safer. The following table 
is an extract from a table given in Wis. B. 1S91, p. 260. The purpose of the investi- 
gation was to calculate the pressure which white pine studs of dift'erent sizes and 
lengths would sustain without excessive beTidiug, and then to calculate the actual 
force which the silo contents would exert on these studs at time of filling the silo. 
(For data when studs are 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 16, and 24 inches apart see Wis. R. 1891, p. 260.) 

Safe pressure, total actual pressure, and amount of lending of studs of given sizes, in 
rectangular silos, white pine. 



Depth of 
silo. 


Size of 
studding. 


Siife total 
pressure. 


Studs 18 inches apart. 


Total actual 
pressure. 


Bending. 


Feet. 

"\ 

20 
22 
24 


Inches. 
2 by 8 
2 by 10 
2 by 10 
2 by 12 
2 by 12 
2 by 12 
2 by 12 


Pounds. 
1,733 
2,708 
2,408 
3,467 
3,120 
2,836 
2.600 


Pou7ids. 
I 2,112 

I 2, 673 

3,300 
3,993 
4,752 


Inches. 


i 0.78 

f 1.40 

I 0.81 

1.37 







The data given in the table apply most closely to the studs nearest the centers of 
the sides, the actual pressure being less toward the corners. The table indicates 
that 2 by 10 inch studs, 16 feet long, bent 0.78 inch, and 18 feet long, 1.40 inch; 
while 2 by 12 inch studs 18 feet long bent only 0.81 inch. 

Studs are nailed to the sills at distances of 14 to 24 inches apart, usually 16 or 18 
inches apart, and are held in place at the top by a strong built-up plate. No corner 
posts are necessary, but the two studs at the corner are set about 2 inches apart and 
209i— No. 15 20 



306 SILOS. 

perpendicular to eacli other in sucli a manner that every other horizontal lining 
plaiili may he nailed to the narrow edge of the one and then to the hroad side of the 
other. In this manner from bottom to top of the silo the ends are securely tied ! 
together by the liuing. For the round silo, where the diameter docs not exceed 30 
feet, the Wisconsin Station considers 2 by 4-inch studding, 1 foot apart, strong : 
enough. Most of the outward strain is sustained by the horizontal lining, which i 
may be half-inch lumber, and by the siding protecting the frame, which may also 
consist of half-inch lumber. 

Lining. — Some wooden silos have been lathed and plastered. The springing of! 
the walls causes cracking, and the acids of the silage render the plaster liable toj 
destruction and permit the laths and woodwork beneath to become damp and to i 
rot. The Wisconsin Station lined one silo with sheet iron and one with tin. Neither 
was satisfactory. One very unsatisfactory paper-lined silo ia on record, Shingles • 
have been iised, but this material is not recommended, The usual lining consists of 
two thicknesses of boards, breaking joints, with a coat of tarred pajjer between the 
layers of boards. When the frame consists of horizontal girths both courses of jilank 
may be put on vertically. Otherwise the first layer is put on horizontally, and the 
inner layer either horizontally, breaking the joints of the first, or vertically. A 
coat of tar is sometimes applied between the two courses of boards. 

To preserve the silo lining from decay a coat of hot coal tar, coal tar dissolved 
in gasoline, linseed oil, paraffine, or other material is sometimes applied to the sur- 
face which comes in contact with the silage. 

The Wisconsin Station examined a number of silos with painted lining and found 
but little advantage in the paint. A perfectly impervious ooat would be effective, 
but as heretofore apjilied there have been left numerous places for silage juices to 
enter the wood; this may hasten the rotting by keeping the boards just damp 
enough for the growth of fungi and by preventing the quick drying of boards after 
the silage is removed. The boards for lining need not be matched, but should be 
edged or jointed so as to fit together tightly. Smoothness of the silo walls is essen- 
tial. 

The Wisconsin Station advises painting both layers of boards on one side only 
with hot coal tar boiled until it is not sticky when cold. The tarred sides should 
then be placed face to face, with paper between. 

CoRNEHS. — Silage spoils worst in the corners where it settles poorly. Hence sharp 
corners in the silo should be avoided. This can be done by nailing in the corner a 
vertical board with beveled edge, or by diagonally splitting a large square piece of 
lumber for the corner long enough to extend from floor to plate. Or the corner may 
be boxed oft' by boards 2 or. 3 feet long, jjapered, and reboarded like the other parts 
of the silo. 

Docks. — The best silos have doors almost continuously from the floor to the top 
of the wall. The space between two studs, or between two such spaces, is used as a 
doorway. The door may consist of sections of the double course of boards cut from 
this si>ace, Avith tarred paper between the boards. These section doors make a lap 
joint against the studs or lining, so that Avhen a strip of jiaper is tacked along the 
line of joining the joint is practically air-tight. They may be hung on hinges, 
though this is not necessary, for the pressure of the silage holds them rigidly in 
place. 

Ventilation. — The method of securing ventilation between the lining and the 
sill has been mentioned under Foundation. In the lowest plank of the outer lining 
of the silo auger-holes may be bored between each two studs, and the outer lining 
does not come to the plate at the top by nearly 2 inches ; thiis permits the circulation 
of dry air between the walls of the silo, and thus retards rotting of the wood. These 
ventilators should be covered with wire netting, and in extremely cold weather may 
bo closed by boards. 

lioOF. — The form of roof is not important. It should contain a ventilator, and 



SOILING. 307 

over the plates space must be loft or a window provided for the carrier which con- 
veys the silage into the silo. 

Dimensions. — The smallest per cent of waste occurs in deep alios. The Wiscon- 
sin Station recommends a depth of at least 24 feet, though many good silos are only 
about 20 feet deep. Silos 36 feet deep are on record, but the framing for silos of 
such great depth necessarily differs somewhat from that of the ordinary silo. A silo 
whose length and breadth are equal is more economical than a long narrow silo. A 
round silo will contain the maximum amount of silage for a given outlay in lumber. 

A silo may have one or more partitions, and this becomes necessary when the num- 
ber of cattle is not sufficient to eat daily the silage from the entire upper surface to 
a depth of about two inches. Unless two or three inches of silage is fed out daily 
over the whole surface, there may be some waste from molding. Feeding from tlie 
entire upper surface is the proper method. In calculating the size of silo necessary 
for a given time and number of cattle, one cubic foot per animal, with some concen- 
trated food, may be considered as a full daily ration. 

Cost.— The New Hampshire Station estimates the cost of a 40 to 70 ton silo built 
in the barn at $1 per ton of capacity for lumber, labor, and all material, or less if 
the materials are on the farm. The Kansas Station places the cost of a wooden silo 
at $2 per ton of storage capacity. A silo at the Maryland Station, constructed as a 
" lean-to" against a cattle shed, and having a capacity of 90 tons, cost $2.63 per ton. 
At the Missouri Station a stone silo of 90 tons capacity cost $453, while the estimate 
for a wooden silo of the same size was $292. 

The Wisconsin Station compares the cost of a rectangular wooden silo 14 by 24 
feet inside with that of a round wooden silo of 20 feet inside diameter. Both silos' are 
of the same capacity, 200 tons, and of the same depth, 30 feet. Detailed estimates 
are given, which for the rectangular silo amount to $425.08 and for the round silo to 
$246.59, or about $2.12 and $1.25 per ton respectively. 

(Ala. Canehmke B. 9; Ark. R. 1SS9, p. OS; Fla. B. 16; III. B. 2; Eans. B. 6, R. ISSS^p. 
95; R. 1889, p. 64; Md. R. 1889, p. 95, R. 1890, p. 101; Mich. B. 47, iT.6S; Minn. R. 1888, p. 
85; Mo. B. 7; Miss. B. S; Nebr. B. 17; N. R. B. 1, B. 14, R. 1888, p. 14; N. Y. State R. 
1888, p. 326; N. C. B. SO; Ohio, Vol. II, 3; Ore. B. 9; Wis. B. 19, B. 28, R. 1888, p. 10.) 

Sisal h.erap {Agnve sisalana). — A tropical or subtropical fiber plant, which now 
grows wild in Florida, having been introduced in 1838 or 1837. The leaves are not 
cut till the third or fourth year, but after that time the plantations continue in 
bearing for many years. The yield per acre is stated to be about half a ton of cured 
fiber. {Div. of Statistics, U. S. D. A., Fiber Investigations, R. 3.) 

Skim milk. — See Milk. 

Skirret (Sium sisarHm).—A vegetable now little planted, but formerly grown for 
its tuberous roots, which were used in much the same way as parsnips. Attempts 
were made to grow the skirret at the New York State Station («. 1884, p. 287), which 
succeeded only by planting the seed in boxes in the hotbed and transplanting. The 
seeds in all cases failed to vegetate out of doors. 

Soiling. — The system known as soiling consists in feeding animals in the barn 
during the growing season largely or wholly on green forage crops, instead of pastur- 
ing them. The system finds more extensive application as the value of laud increases. 
Its advantages are that less land is required to maintain a given number of animals, 
the food supply can be better regulated, the animals do not waste their energy in 
searching for food, and the manure can all be saved and appliedJ;o the soil. The 
arguments for partial soiling are that the amount of feed furnished by pastures is 
very irregular, being unusually abundant and of good quality early in the season, 
but falling ott" later from droughts or early frosts. Unless some suppleiiientary food 
is given at such times the milk flow diminishes and the cows fall off in flesh. 

Concerning the relative amounts of food furnished by the two systems, the Penn- 
sylvania Station found in experiments in two years {R. 1888, p. 54, R. 1889, p. 53) 
that ''in round numbers we can produce from three to five times as much digestible 



.^08 



SOILING. 



food per acre by means of the soiling crops (rye and corn or clover and com) as ia 
produced by pasturage such as is represented by our small plat." The plat in ques- 
tion was believed to fairly represent the average pasture. From feeding trials with 
the above soiling crops and pasture grass the average yield of milk per acre was 
calculated as follows : 

Yield of milk per acre of land. 





1888. 


1889. 


Soilin"- 


Pounds. 

3,416 

928 


Poundi. 
5,671 
1,504 






2,488 


4,167 





It will be understood that the above is only an estimate, but it points very strongly 
in favor of the soiling crops. 

Similar comparisons at the Wisconsin Station {B. 1885, p. 19), using an uplanc 
blue grass pasture and green clover, oats, and cut corn fodder, resulted as follows 
In four montlis the cows used produced per acre of land 1,779 pounds of milk and 82 
pounds of butter on pasturage; and 4,782 pouuds of milk and 196 pounds of butter 
on soiling crops, a large balance in favor of soiling. Prof. Henry concludes from tliis* 
i-esult that "it is fair to state that by soiling in summer a certain area of land will 
yield double the amount of milk and butter that it will when pastured." He recom- 
mends partial soiling in summer to bridge over the time when the pastures are short 
and insufficient. 

The Iowa Station {B. 15) compared pasturage in "one of the best blue grass pas- 
tures in the State" with soiling with green peas and oats, green oats and clover, and 
clover and green corn fodder, respectively. The cows gave more milk on soiling crops, 
gained more in live weight, and were less annoyed by flies than when on pastures. 
' ' The cow responds as promptly to a well-balanced ration of grain while eating green 
feed as she does on dry feed." 1 

The Massachusetts State Station has conducted experiments with soiling crops ^i 
since 1887 (B. 1887, p. S5, B. 1888, p. 38, B. 1889, p. 48, B. 1890, p. 39, B. 1891, p. 59.) 
In these the soiling crops used have included vetch and oats, cowpeas, serradella, 
soja beans, and corn fodder, all fed green and in connection with grain rations and 
usually with hay. The result has invariably been highly favorably to the soiling crojjs 
as compared with hay. By replacing about three-fourths of the hay by soiling crops 
the yield and quality of milk have been maintained and sometimes improved, and 
the cost has usually been reduced. 

In the last experiment reported (1891) the largest yield of milk was on green soja 
beans and dried brewers' grains ; and green corn fodder proved superior to green 
vetch and oat fodder. 

The Connecticut Storrs Station (B. 9) maintained 4 cows from June 1 to Novem- 
ber 1 on a little less than 2^ acres of soiling crops with the addition of a verj^ 
light grain and straw feed. 

By a judicious selection of soiling crops not only can a much larger number of 
cows be kept on a given area of land, but the land may be brought into a higher state 
of cultivation and fertility, and much grain may be spared. The leguminous crops, 
as clovers, cowpeas, vetch, alfalfa, etc., are especially valuable for soiling purposes. 
These plants are unusually rich in nitrogenous food ingredients, which are essential 
in feeding animals and which otherwise have to be furnished largely in grains. 
This class of plants has been found to possess the faculty of taking their nitrogen 
very largely from the atmosphere. {See leguminous plants.) They thus require little 
manuring with nitrogenous manures, which are the most expensiA'e manures the 



SOILS. 



309 



farmer has to buy. They furnish anitrogenous food for animals, which, when 
fed, enriches the manure in nitrogen, and they also improve the physical condi- 
tion of the soil and enrich it by the stubble and roots which Miey leave behind. 
Their more extensive use by farmers is to be strongly recommended. 

In soiling it is important to have a succession of green fodders throughout the 
growing season, with each in its best stage of growth for feeding. There should be 
no breaks in the succession and each crop should be used as nearly as possible at the 
time when it contains the largest amount of valuable food constituents. 

From three years of experience and observation in the practice of soiling, tlie 
Connecticut Storrs Station {B. 1891, p. 13) suggests the following series of crops for 
soiling in central Connecticut: 

Crops for soiling in central Connecticut. 



Kind of fodder. 



1. Rye fodder 

2. Wheat fodder 

3. Clover 

4. Grass (from grass lands) 

5. Oats and peas (each) 

6. Oats and peas (each) 

7. O.its and peas (each) 

8. Hungarian 

9. Clover ro wen (from 3) 

10. Soja beans 

11. Cowpeas 

12. Rowen grass (from grasslands) 

13. Barley and peas (each) 



.bushels. 
....do... 
.pounds. 



.bushels. 
....do... 

do... 

do... 



.bushels. 
....do... 



.bushels. 



Amount i Approximate 
of seed j time of seed- 
per acre, 



2Jto3 

2Jto3 

20 



Sept.l 

Sept. 5-10 . . 
July 20-30 . 



Apr. 10 , 
Apr. 20 
Apr. 30 
June 1. 



May 25 . . . 
June 5-10. 



Aug. 5-10 . 



Approximate 
time of feeding. 



May 10-20. 
May 20-June 5. 
June 5-15. 
June 15-25. 
June 25-July 10. 
July 10-20. 
July 20-Aug. 1. 
Aug. 1-10. 
Aug. 10-20. 
Aug. 29-Sept. 5. 
Sept. 5-20. 
Sept. 20-30. 
Oct. 1-30. 



The gains of steers on pasturage, soiling crops, and dry hay, representing similar 
areas, were compared at the Utah Station {B. 15). The soiling crops consisted of 
alfalfa, timothy, and red clover, and the hay was made from a mixture of the same. 
During the three months of feeding, the gains made by the three lots were practically 
identical, but the pastured lot consumed the product from more than a quarter 
larger area than the lot on soiling. The dry matter eaten per pound of gain in live 
weight is calculated as 15.7 pounds on pasturage, 12.4 pounds on soiling crops, and 
13.8 pounds on hay. 

Soils. — The act of Congress making appropriations for experiment stations pro- 
vides "that, as far as practicable, all such stations shall devote a portion of their 
work to the examination and classification of the soils in their respective States 
and Territories, with a Adew to securing more extended knowledge and better 
development of their agricultural capabilities ;" but, although quite extensive inves- 
tigations have been made in a few States, no systematic concerted work in these 
lines has been done by the agricultural experiment stations of the country. At a 
conference of representatives of the agricultural colleges and experiment stations 
in Washington, August, 1891, a resolution was adopted asking that the work of the 
Weather Bureau of the Department of Agriculture "be enlarged to include the 
phycics, conditions, and changes of agricultural lands." One result of this action 
has been the commencement of the publication of a series of bulletins by experts on 
this phase of meteorology which, it is hoped, will servethe purpose of enlisting in the 
study of the subject " a larger number of active workers and observers, so that at least 
the large amount of information actually existing may be gathered together and 
made practically useful, thus leading the Avay to a better understanding of the 
character, capabilities, and needs of the lands of the various regions, and of the 



310 SOILS. 

means of utilizing tliem to the best advantage" (U. S. Weather Bureau B. S). 
In view of the renewal of interest in this subject, Prof. Milton Whitney, of Mary- 
land Station, who is engaged in a systematic study of the soils of Maryland, briefly 
outlines in E. S. M., vol. Ill, p. 665, various problems in soil physics which might be 
profitably studied by the various experiment stations. 

In this article work of the experiment stations on soils will be discussed under 
the following heads : 

(1) Origin, formation, classification. 

(2) Chemical composition and properties. 

(3) Physical properties and mechanical analysis. 

(4) Eeclamation and renovation. 

Origin, formation, classificatiox. — Soils are broken and decomposed rock, 
with a small admixture of animal and vegetable remains. " We find in nearly all 
soils fragments of rock, recognizable as such by the eye, and by the help of the 
microscope it is often easy to perceive that those portions of the soil which are 
imi)alpable to the feel chiefly consist of minute grains of tliesame rock" (Johnson, 
How Crops Feed, p. 106). Whitney has recteutly proposed for the clay group of soil 
particles heretofore classed as impalpable the limits of 0.005—0.0001 mm. diameter, 
that is, the smallest grain of clay is about ys\t\x> inch in diameter {Md. li. 1S91, p. 
S76). 

The agencies which have reduced rocks to soil are : Changes of temperature ; 
moving water or ice; chemical action of water and air; and influence of vegetable 
and animal lite. Since these agencies are continually at work in the soil, its physi- 
cal and chemical properties are constantly changing. 

Soils are geologically classified according to mode of formation or deposition. 
The U. S. Geological Survey proposes the following tentative classification: 

Endogenous soils, derived from country rocks and remaining in place. 

Exoyenons soils, derived from other sources than the country rocks proper to the 
districts where the soils are situated. 

In practice soils are simply classified as gravelly, sandy, loamy, clayey, calcareous, 
etc., distinctions being based in the majority of cases simply on the fineness of the 
particles, or the relative i)roportion of sand and clay. According to Stockbridge 
(Hocks and Soils, p. 147), 

Sandy soils contain 80 per cent or over of sand. 
Sandy loams contain 60-75 per cent of sand. 
Loams contain 40-60 per cent of sand. 
Clay loams contain 25—10 per cent of sand. 
Clay soils contain 60 per cent or over of clay. 

The classification of the soils peculiar to the individual States wherever made has 
generally been due to the State geological surveys, and in most of the older States 
at least these have been quite complete. A few of the stations have imdertaken or 
planned systematic agricultural or soil surveys, viz, those of California, Georgia, 
Louisifina, Maryland, Mississippi, New Jersey, Oregon, and South Carolina. 

The work of the California Station has included the collection and examination of 
a large number of soils and subsoils from the various agricultural and geological 
sections of that State, as well as other States; the origin, nature, distribution, and 
reclamation of alkali lands; the examination of artesian, lake, and river waters, 
with a view to their utilization for irrigation, and a comparative study of the soils 
of humid and arid regions (showing the relations of climate to soil). (See Cal. R. 
1S90, A pp., and TJ. S. Weather Bureau, B. 3.) 

The plan followed in this work has been "to attain as far as resources permit, 
first, a full knowledge of the occurrence, location, extent, natural peculiarities, and 
climatic position of each prominent variety of soil, by examination in the field, at 
the same time eliciting by inquiry from those cultivating it whatever of inibrmation 
they may possess as to the soil's merits, peculiarities, or adaptations" {Cal. B. 26, 



SOILS. 311 

1877), At the same time repi'osontativo samples have T)eeri taken and sut)mltte(l to 
analysis (both chemical and iiii^chanical). Tlie number of samples thus examined 
approaches a thousand. 

In Georgia work has been conliiied to a general geological study of the soils of 
the State ( B. J) and a special investigation of the ".Southern Drift" as found in 
Georgia {B. 6). 

The Louisiana Station has undertaken a com}trehensivo geological and agricul- 
tural surv^ey of the State, the hrst report on which relates to the geology of the 
hills of North Louisiana. "Soils have been classified and carefully mapped out, 
typical samples taken, character of A'egetatlon noted, drainage systems established, 
and general elevations above sea level, with other special peculiarities" {Specal R. 
on Geol. and Agr., part I). 

Under the auspices of the Marylaiid Station, .Johns Hopkins University, and the U. 
S. Department of Agriculture, Prof. Milton Whitney has continued on Maryland soils 
a line of investigation commenced on North Carolina and South Car(dina soils. (JV. 
C. B. 1S86, p. 93, R. 1S87, p. 161; S. C. R. 1889, p. 44; Md. R. 1891, p. 249.) 

His conclusions regarding the formation and classification of the former are as 
follows: 

"The texture or the relative amount of saud and clay contained in the soil result- 
ing from the disintegration of rocks will depend upon the kind of rock — that is, 
upon the minerals of which it is composed. A thorough and detailed geological 
map of the State should answer for a soil map. Any one familiar with the texture 
of the soil, or kind of soil formed by the disintegration of granite, gabbro, and the 
dift'ereut kinds of limestones, sandstones, and shales, should be able to tell by a 
glance at the map the position and area of each kind of soil. Each color on the 
map would represent a soil formation of a certain texture, in which the conditions 
of moisture under our prevailing climatic conditions would be best adapted to a 
certain crop." 

For the purpose of determining the general characteristics of the soils of the State 
as indicated by their origin and agricultural value, a large number of samples of 
soils and subsoils were collected in diiferent parts of Maryland. "These samjiles 
have been arranged in groups according to their agricultural value and their geologi- 
cal origin, and equal weights of the samples in each group have been mixed together, 
forming a composite sample representing the iype of the soil formation." 

It appears that all of the principal agricultural regions of the State are repre- 
sented by about ten types. These are designated pine barrens, market truck, to- 
bacco, wheat, river terrace, grass, mountain pasture, etc. It is found from analysis 
that these tjpes are further characterized by the number of soil particles per gram, 
there being a steady increase in size of soil grains from the pine barrens up to grass 
lands. 

<' From the mechanical analysis of the samples which were used to make up these 
type samples and perhaps of a large number of other soils of known agricultural 
value, it should be possible to determine the smallest and the largest number of 
grains per gram of soil where these different crops could be successfully grown. 
For example, no crop can be successfully grown except under highly artificial con- 
ditions of manuring with organic matter or by irrigation, on a soil having so few 
as 1,700,000,000 grains per gram. Good market truck is grown on a soil having 
6,800,000,000 grains. * * * Good wheat is grown on a soil having 10,000,000,000 
grains per gram, and this must be near the limit of profitable wheat production, 
for 8,000,000,000 grains per gram gives a soil rather too light for wheat, but well 
suited to tobacco. A soil having 10,000,000,000 grains per gram is too light for grass, 
which thrives on a limestone soil having 24,000,000,000. Our type soils should 
therefore show the range for the profitable production of a given crop. We should 
be able also from the mechanical analysis of an unknown soil to give it its true 
agricultural place by reference to these established soil types." 



312 SOILS. 

lu N. J. B. 1SS8, p. 213, there is giveu a popular discussion of the origin and fo| 
uiation of soils, and a classiiication of Now Jersey soils proi>osed by the State ge 
logical survey, as follows: 

Granitic soils Clay district soils 

Limestone soils Drift soils 

Slate soils Marl-region soils 

Eed sandstone and shale soils Tertiary soils 

Trap-rock soils Alluvial soils. 

An agricultural survey of Oregon has been planned by its station (B. 13). The 
State has been divided on the basis of climatic conditions into six sections, the 
method followed in general being that used extensively in California (see above). 

A systematic study of the soils of South Carolina was undertaken under the 
auspices of the experiment station, but the investigation did not extend beyond the 
collection and examination of a number of the soils typical of the rice and sea 
island cotton region {S. C. E. 18S9, p. 11) and of the soils of the station farms repre- 
senting three different sections of the State. 

In Wyo. B. 1 there is given a brief account of the geology of the Laramie Plains. 
The author places this region in the Triassic formation, and not in the Dakota 
grouji as is done by the United States Geological Survey. 

Chemical composition and pkopeuties. — Since plants derive their ash con- 
stituents exclusively from the soil, it is evident that in order that a soil may produce 
pliints it must hold all these ash constituents in proper proportion and in assimi- 
lable condition. Those elements which are of especial agricultural significance are 
chlorine, sulphur, carbon, silicon, potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, iron, 
aluminum, manganese, and phosi)horus. Soils, as we have seen, are the result 
chiefly of the decomposition of rocks. Now, since rocks contain all the simijle bodies 
or elements known to science, there is little likelihood of any soil being entirely 
deficient in any of the necessary elements of plant food. Their proportion and 
availability, however, may vary so widely as to cause wide difi'erences in produc- 
tiveness. , 

It has been questioned whether chemical analysis affords reliable indications of 
the productiveness of a soil. The value of this method of examination of soils is 
thus succinctly stated by G. E. Morrow, of the Illinois Station (Soils and Crops, p^ 
37) : "An examination of a soil by a chemist will show with great exactness of what 
it is composed and the relative proportions of the elements. It may show that there 
is evidently a too small sujiply of some essential ingredient, or it may show that 
there is some substance or some combination present which will be injurious to 
plants. In these ways such an examination may give most valuable suggestions as 
to manuring the soil or other methods of improving its fertility. A chemical analysis, 
however, will not show with certainty whether the substances of which the soil is 
composed are in condition to be available as plant food. Often it gives verj' little 
help to an understanding of whether or not the soil is in good physical condition. 
The chemist is able to state not only the actual and relative (quantity .of each element 
found in the soil, but also the percentage of this which is soluble in water and solu- 
ble in acids. This information helps greatly in estimating the quantity of each 
which is probably in suitable condition to be taken up and used by plants." 

After thirty-five years' study of this question on a great variety of soils. Prof. Hil- 
gard (CaL B. 1S89, p. 163) concludes that " in no case has any natural virgin soil show- 
ing high plant food percentages been found otherwise than highly productive under 
favorable physical conditions, * * * X)ut the reverse is not true, viz, that low 
plant food percentages necessarily indicate low productiveness." Improved physical 
conditions in the latter case may more than make up for the deficiency of plant food. 
"It is then absolutely indispensable that both thej^hysical character, as to penetra- 
bility, absorptive power, etc., of a soil should be known, as well as its depth above 
bed rock, hardpau, or water, before a judgment of its quality, productiveness, and 



SOILS. 313 

durability can be found from its rhoiiiical coiiipositiou." One kind of examination 
is the necessary complomeut of tb(3 otbcr. 

Tbe processes by wbicb soils are forujcd and plant food rendered available are 
constantly goiu<>- on in tbe soil, so tbat botb the chemical and physical conditions of 
soils are constantly changing, and frequent examinations are necessary if we are to 
be accurately informed as to the chemical and physical properties of any soil at any 
given time. 

In actual chemical analysis only the iine earth (never larger than 1 mm. in diame- 
ter, preferably i mm. according to Hilgard) is examined, it being assumed that this 
fine earth contains all the plant food readily or immediately available to plants. 

This iine earth is submitted to digestion with acids wliich separate it into two 
parts— an insoluble residue which aftords an approximate measure of the sandiuess 
of the soil, and a soluble portion which is further examined. 

The mini mum percentages of the different mineral elements in soils which chemi- 
cal analysis has found to be necessary to the thrifty growth of general crops is sum- 
marized as follows from Cal. R. 1889, p. 165, and Ore. B. SI: 

Potash is one of the three elements which exert a marked influence on the pro- 
ductiveness of soils, but is capable of great variation without materially affecting 
the productiveness of the soil. In heavy clay uplands it ranges from 0. 8 to 0. 5 per 
cent; in lighter loams from 0. 45 to 0. 30; in sandy loams below 0. 30; and in sandy 
loams of great depths may fall below 0. 10, with good productiveness and durability. 
" No virgin soil having 0. 50 per cent of potasli will wear out first on that side of its 
store of plant food ; and much less will suffice in the presence of much lime and 
humus" {Cal. R. 1SS9, p. 166). In California soil the percentage of this ingredient 
may run as high as 1. 80 per cent. 

Lime exerts a potent influence on both the chemical and jjhysical quality of a soil. 
High sandy soils average about 0. 10 per cent; clay loams 0. 25 per cent; heavy clay, 
soils 0. 30 per cent., and the percentage may rise with advantage to 1 or 2 per cent. 
Calcareous soils are characteristic of arid regions. Lime is quite readily dissolved 
ill soil water and therefore accumulates in lowlands and subsoils. It is a conserver 
of humus, and its carbonate especially is valuable for the decomposition of silicates. 
Magnesia appears to exert little direct action in the soil and is seldom deficient. 
Manganese appears to be of no special significance. 

Iron is always present in abundance. It "rarely falls below 1 per cent, and more 
commonly ranges from 2 to 5 per cent." Ferric soils possess increased absorptive 
power for heat and moisture (»S^. C. R. 1889, p. 13). 

The percentage of alumina "conveys little information as to the character of a 
soil." 

Sulphuric acid in the best soils is slight— 0.02 per cent is adequate— but frequently 
rises to 0.10 per cent. 

Phosphoric acid depends for its effectiveness largely on the proportion of lime 
present. One-tenth per cent is usually sufficient for productiveness when accom- 
panied by a fair supply of lime. It rarely runs higher than 0.30 per cent. 

Humus is of special interest since it is largely the source of the nitrogen supply. 
"In the loam (oak) uplands of the cotton States the percentage of humus seems to 
range usually between 0.70 and 0.80 per cent; in the poorer sandy (pine) soils, 0.40 
to 0.50 per cent; in the black, calcareous, prairie soils, from 1.20 to 2.80 per cent. 
The determinations made there are not, perhaps, sufficiently numerous to give fair 
averages. " In California (and in the arid region generally) the humus percentages, 
as might be foreseen, average somewhat lower; lowest in light loam soils of the high 
mesas of Southern California, where 0.30 per cent, and even less, has been found; yet 
these soils produce well at first, when irrigated. Percentages of 0.45 to 0.60 of 
humus are common in good upland soils that are neither very calcareous nor highly 
ferruginous. The "prairie," or black adobe soils usually range from 1.20 to 1.80 per 
cent — a very few as high as 3. On the whole, the highly ferruginous soils are remark- 



314 SOILS. 

able for large amounts of humns, as in the red soils of the foothills and of the coast 
range." 

In U. S. Weather Bureau. B. 3, Prof. Hilgard collates in tables analyses of soils 
from the arrd and humid regions of the United States, omitting analyses of soils 
from limestone regions. These tables briug out the fact that soils of the arid re- 
gions are rich in linie-and zeolites (complex easily decomposable silicates of lime, 
soda, potash, and alumina), and all essential elements of plant food, and deficient 
in clay and insoluble matter; in other words, they are very fertile. They are also 
of great depth, being in many cases practically devoid of what is known in humid 
regions as subsoils. 

For a discussion of the nature of those soils found in regions of deficient or irreg- 
ular rainfall, which are impregnated with soluble alkali salts, see Jlkali soih. 

The method of chemical analysis used by Peter, Hilgard, Smith, and Lough- 
bridge, in their work for the Tenth Census, is described in .S'. C; E. 18S9, p. 19. For 
methods adopted by the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, see report of 
meeting August, 1892 (Div. of Chemistry, U. S. B, A., B. 35). 

Physical properties and mechanical analysis.— The pliysical properties of 
soils which are of special importance are color, weight, fineness of division or tex- 
ture, adhesiveness, and relations to gases, heat, moisture, and dissolved solids. 

To variations in these different properties is largely due the varying productive- 
ness of soils. 

Prof. Whitney, of the Maryland Station, concludes, as a result of his studies in 
this line, that " the local distribution and development of plants are largely de- 
pendent upon the circulation of water within the soil and tbe ease with which the 
proper water supply may be maintained within the soil for the crop, and u]>on the 
relation of the soil to heat. Soil exhaustion is due to a change in the arrangement 
of the soil grains, changing the relation of the soil to moisture and heat. The chief 
value of commercial fertilizers and manures is in their physical eifect on the tex- 
ture of the soil or the arrangement of the soil grains, which changes the relation of 
the soil to moisture and heat." {E, S. B., vol. Ill, p. 665.) 

Physical properties of soils are determined largely by the proportions which they 
contain of stones, gravel, sand, clay, lime, and organic matter. The relation of the 
more important of these ingredients to physical properties of soils is thus explained 
by Prof. Morrow, of the Illinois Station {Soils and Crops, p. 39) : "Sand is heavy; ia 
usually light colored; the grains do not stick together. It has little power of 
attracting moisture from the air, and allows water to run through it readily. It 
absorbs and retains heat well. A soil with much sand in it will be dry and warm; 
easy to work; not sticky; will not " bake." In dry weather crops on such soils will 
sufter from lack of moisture. Soluble plant food will leach through such a soil. 

" Clay, or a soil with much clay, has a tine texture, and the particles a<lhere tena- 
ciously. It absorbs moisture from the air readily, draws water from below by what 
is known as capillary power, and holds it well. This tends to make such a soil 
cool, but it will absorb heat readily. It absorbs and holds ammonia and other gases 
readily. If stirred while wet it becomes hard; often cracks in drying. It differs 
much in color. The presence of iron will give a red color. Commonly it is a light 
yellowish color. Clay soils usually have more plant food than sandy ones; they 
hold moisture better, and there is less loss of soluble manures or available plant 
food by leaching. They are hard to work, and are often too cold and wet unless " 
well drained. They "heave " as the result of freezing and thawing. 

" A mixture of sand and clay makes a better soil than one almost entirely composed 
of either. The addition of clay to sand makes it more tenacious ; enables it the 
better to absorb and hold moisture and gases; gives it greater capillary power : 
enables it to withstand drought better, and, usually, will make it cooler. The 
addition of sand to clay makes it more easily penetrable by the roots of plants; 
more easy to work; somewhat warmer; less injured by being worked when wet; 
less apt to "heave." 



SOILS. 



315 



" Ilumns, or decayetl vegetal>lo matter, iu soils inakes tliem light in weight and 
dark in color; greatly increases their power to ahsorb moisture from the air and 
their capillary power; makes clay soil less and sandy soil more compact. It will be 
seen that, aside from its value as a source of plant food, humus is important in 
improving the physical condition of the soil. Most soils containing much humus are 
fertile, if not too wet. ' 

'■ Ijime in soils has a considerable importance aside from its use as food for]>lants. 
It improves the texture by making clay soils more easily worked and sandy soils 
more compact. It hastens the decay of vegetable matter." ( Sec also CaL R. 1SS9, p. 
151.) 

From what has been said the importance of the mechanical analysis of soils is 
evident. In mechanical analysis the particles composing soils are sei)arated in 
different grades of fineness usually six in number, as follows : 





1 
Diameter. 

Millimeter. 
0.5 to 1.0 (Jjinch). 

25 0.5 

0. 10 0. 25 

0. 05 0. 10 

0. 01 0. 05 

lesstluin 0.01 


Coarse sand 

Medium sand 

Fine sand 

Fine dust 

Silt 





Since the size of the soil jiarticles exerts such a marked influence on the physical 
properties of soils it is very important to be able to accurately and easily determine 
the proportion in each grade of fineness. Some process of elutriation is generally 
employed for this purpose. Two methods proposed by American investigators 
require special notice as making distinct advances on all previous methods — the 
churn-elutriator method of Prof. E. W. Hilgard {Amer. Jour. Science and Arts, October 
and JVoremher, 1S7S; Conn. Statell. 1S86, p. loO). and the beaker-elutriation method of 
T. B. Osborne {Conn. State li. ISSG, p. 144). 

In the first of these a current of water, the movement of which can be controlled 
at any desired velocity, is made to flow through a cylinder containing the weighed 
amount of soil, thus carrying along particles of a certain hydraulic value, while 
tiocculation is prevented by a rapid churning of the lower column of the water by 
means of a special device. 

In the second method the separations are accomplished by stirring up the soil 
with water iu beakers and decanting. Microscopic examination is mainly relied on 
to determine the thoroughness of the separations. 

Both these methods have been thoroughly tested, and discussions of their relative 
merits and of various projiosed modifications, etc., will be found in Cal. R. 1SS9, p. 
158; Conn. State L'. 1SS6, p. 150, E. ISSS, p. 154. 

The method of sampling employed at the California Station is described in Cal. IL 
ISSD, p. 155; that used at the South Carolina Station in S. C. E. 1SS9, p. 11; that used 
at Wisconsin Station in Wis. B. 1890, p. 160. 

The value from an agricultural standpoint of the chemical and mechanical analy- 
sis of soils is discussed in Cal. li. 1889, p. 151. 

WeUjlit of soil. — According to Schiibler the weights of 1 cubic foot of various soils 
are as follows : 

Pounds. 

Dry siliceous or calcareous sand 110 

Half sand and half clay 96 

Common arable soil 80 to 90 

Heavy clay 75 

Garden mold rich in vegetable matter 70 

Peat soil 30 to 50 



316 SOILS. 

"From the above iigares we see that sandy soils, which are usually termed 
' light,' because they are worked most easily by the plow, arc, iu fact, the heaviest 
of all; while clayey land, which is called 'heavy,' weighs less, bulk for bulk, than 
any other soils, save those iu which vegetable matter predominates. The resistance 
oftered by soils iu tillage is more the result of adhesiveness than of gravity. Sandy 
soils, though they contain in general a less percentage of nutritive matters than 
clays, may really offer as good nourishment to crops as the latter, since they pre- 
sent one-half more absolute weight in a given space. Peat soils are light in both 
senses in which this word is used by agriculturists." (Johnson, Hoic Crops Feed, 
p. 158.) 

Texture of soils. — The productiveness of a soil depends to a considerable extent 
upon its texture. The latter determines largely the circulation of water and gases^ 
the solution and retention of plant food, and the growth of plant roots. 

A large number of small pores in a soil would enable a soil containing a small per- 
centage of plant food to produce fair crops. It is therefore desirable to thoroughly 
pulverize the soil, and it is to this end that tillage or cultivation is practiced. A 
goil, however, may be too fine, and thus subject to j)uddliug or impacting when im- 
properly tilled (see Clay). 

The texture of soils is markedly affected by various fertilizers; for instance, lime 
and some other substances have the power of flocculating soils and thus rendering 
them porous, while certain substances, such as ammonia, urine, etc., have a tend- 
ency to keep the particles separate and thus make soils close. {SeeClai/ and Lime.) 
These phenomena are explained in Md. E. lS91, p. S57, and S. C. E. 18S9, p. 64, by 
changes in the surface tension of the soil water. 

Eelations of soils to heat. — The temperature of the surface soil is subject to the 
same changes as that of the air, but these changes occur more slowly. The relation 
of the air temperature to that of the soil at different depths is well shown by ex- 
periments at Maine Station {E. lSDl,p. 15S). 

" The periods covered by the experiment were from May 1 to November 1, 1889, 
from April 1 to November 1, 1890, and from April 1, to November 1, 1891, with ther- 
mometers placed in the soil [in an oj)eu field] to depths of 1, 3, 6, 9, 12, 21, aud 36 
inches. * * « 

" The mean daily range at the depth of 1 iuch during the period of observations was 
5.55"^ ; at the depth of three inches, 4.77° ; at the depth of 6 inches, 2° ; at the depth 
of 10 inches, 1.09^; aud below 12 inches inches very slight. * * * 

" Comparing soil temperatures with air temperatures during the three seasons, the 
following mean results appear : At the depth of 1 iuch the temperature of the soil was 
lower than that of the air by 2.16°; at the depth of 3 inches, by 1.89°; 6 inches, by 
3.08°; 9 inches, by 3.83°; 12 inches, by 4.06°; 24 inches, by 5.80°; aud at the depth of 
36 inches, by 7.11°." 

There are several modifying influences affecting the temperature of the soil. The 
first of these is color. A dark-colored soil is usually warmer than a light-colored 
soil. A soil containing much sand or gravel will heat slowly, but will retain heat 
longer than one containing much clay or humus. Soils sloping to the south, as is 
well known, are warmer than those having a northern exjjosure. Another factor 
determining the warmth of a soil is its water content. A wet soil is a cold soil. 
Evaporation is a cooling process, and the heat necessary to carry it ou is drawn from 
the soil. Within certain limits the extent of evaporation is determined by the 
amount of moisture in the soil (lY. C iv. i<?<S7,jJ. i56). Observations on drained and 
uudrained " black slough" soil iu Alal>ama {Ala. Canehrake B. 6, B. 10) at depths of 
from 1 to 36 inches and extending through several seasons, have shown a quite con- 
stant though small elevation of temperature in favor of the drained soil — "not 
enough to benefit vegetation," it is believed. From observations at the Massachu- 
setts Agricultural College (Special E. 1S79) ou cultivated soil and grass land, extend- 
ing from August to November, no appreciable difference in temperature was found be- 
tween wet and dry grass laoid. Cultivated soil was on the average 1.2° C. warmer 



SOILS. 



317 



when dry than when wet — a smaller diftoience than is usually assumed. (See also N". 
C. B. 1SS6, p. 109, R. 18S7, p. 187. ) 

Observations on South (hiroliiia soils {S. C. B. lS89,p. 74) load to the following con- 
clusions: While dry sand tends to become hotter under the same radiant heat than 
dry clay, practically the tendency is more than offset by the greater evaporation from 
the sand. It appears that the relation of different soils toheat depends, other things 
being equal, upon the specific heat of the soil, moisture content, evaporation, and rel- 
ative surface area of the particles and their arrangement or compactness. 

A special form of soil thermometer is described in S. C. B. 1889, p. 77. 

Other references to work on soil temperatures are: Colo. B. 1888, p. 220, B.1889, 
p. 73, B. 1890, p. 147, B. 1891, p. 73; Mich. B. 1888, p. 31, B. 1889, p. 29, B. 1890, p. 143; 
Mo. B. 4; Nehr. B. 6, B. 15, B. 17; N. Y. State B. 1889, p. 398, B. 1890, p. 464; X. C. B. 
1886, pp. 92, 106, B. 1887, p. 174; Ore. B. 12; Pa. R. 1887, p. 210, B. 1888, p. 177, B. 
1889, p. 267, B. 1890, p. 248, B. 1891, p. 247, S. C. B. 7; Utah B. 1891, p. 62; Wyo. 
B. 1891, p. 85. 

Bdations of soils to moisture. — See also Drainage, Irrigation, Lysimetcrs. All soils 
are capable of absorbing and retaining moisture, but the extent to which this 
is done varies widely. Investigations at the Wisconsin Station (B. 1889, p. 196) 
ishow that the upper 5 feet of the soil experimented on was able to store 21.24 
Inches of water. Thoroughly filled with water, the soil might contain 24.48 inches 
of water to each square foot of surface, or more than two-thirds of the average 
annual rainfall. Further investigations {B. 1890, p. 152) lead to the conclusion that 
"the water-holding power of soils, as determined by laboratory methods and gen- 
erally quoted in standard Avorks on agriculture, is so widely different from the 
conditions which exist in nature, as shown by field studies, that it becomes utterly 
misleading when applied in general practice. The highest percentages of water 
observed in any soils, as taken from the fields at the experiment farm, were : Black 
marsh soil, 34.71; brick clay, 31.81; clay loam, 33.19; clay loam, 28.88. * * » 
Laboratory experiments by Trommer have given for similar soils the following 
percentages: Moor earth, by Zenger, 105; loamy clay, 50; yellow clay, 68; quartz 
Baud with rounded edge, 26." 

According to Meister different soils show water holding capacities as follows: 

Water imhibed by different kinds of soils. 



Clay soil . . . 
Loam soil . . 
Humus soil 
Peat soil . . . 
Garden soil 
Lime soil . . 



Water 
imbibed. 



Per cent. 
50.0 
60.1 
70.3 
63.7 
69.0 
54.9 



Chalk soil 

Gypseous soil 

Sandy soil (82 per cent sand) 
Sandy soil (64 per cent sand) 
Pare quartz sand 



Water 
imbibed. 



Per cent. 
49.5 
52.4 
45.4 
65.2 
46.4 



The size of the soil particle is of great importance in determining the water-hold, 
ing capacity. Coarse sand allows water to run through freely, retaining relatively 
little, while fine clay absorbs and retains a large amount. This question is thus dis- 
cussed in Md. B. 1891, p. 282, from data furnished by examination of type soils of 
Maryland, already referred to : " The amount of space assigned to these different soil 
formations has an important bearing on the relative rate with which water will 
move within the different soils. The coarser-textured soils have less space and will 
contain less water than the clay soils. The subsoil of the truck laud has only 45 
per cent of space and will hold but 22.41 per cent by weight of water when this 
space is comi>letely filled. The subsoil of the Helderberg limestone has 65 per cent 
of space and will hold 41.22 per cent by weight of water, or nearly twice as much 



318 SOILS. 

as the truck land. When the soils contained only 12 per cent of water a quantity 
of water would move through the truck land in twenty-ono minutes which would 
require one hundred minutes to pass through the subsoil of the Helderherg lime- 
stone. When, however, these soils are taxed to their utmost it will take one 
hundred and forty-one minutes for a quantity of water to pass tlirough the truck 
land which would go through the limestone subsoil in one hundred minutes. As 
suggested in a previous section, this undoubtedly explains a matter of common 
observation and experience, that crops on these light lands are more injured by 
excessively wet seasons than crops on heavier soils." 

The proportion of organic matter is another detcirmiuing factor, the water-holding 
capacity increasing as a rule with the increase of organic matter. Good soils will 
frequently absorb and hold one-half or more of their own weight of water. The 
most favorable amount of water in the soil is, according to Wollny, from 40 to 75 
per cent of its water-holding capacity. 

Soil water is constantly in motion. When rain falls the moisture sinks into the 
soil, carrying along with it oxygen, carbonic acid, nitric acid, ammonia, etc., and ren- 
dering plant food available, a part of which may be lost in the drainage if the rain- 
fall is excessive. When the rainfall ceases evaporation commences, and the soil 
■water begins to rise, carrying along with it dissolved plant food which accumu- 
lates in the surface soil. This power which soils have of drawing up water from 
their lower depths is known as capillarity, and may extend down 6 or 7 feet. ( Wis. 
B. lS91,p. 104.) 

Experiments were conducted at the Connecticut State Station {R. 1877, p. S3) to 
test the effect of depth and fineness of soil on the capillary transmission and evap- 
oration of water. Copper or glass tubes 2 inches in diameter, with perforated metal 
or cloth bottoms, were filled with calcined and washed emery of different grades of 
fineness (in case of different tubes 0.0175, 0.0140, 0.0090, 0.0055, and 0.0030 inch in 
diameter). These tubes were placed in an apparatus which was so arranged as to 
keep the bottom of the tubes wet, but not to allow evaporation except from the sur- 
face of the soil. When the tops of th« tubes had become saturated the whole ap- 
paratus was weighed. Loss in weight thereafter was taken as a measure of evapo- 
ration and capillarity. The columns of emery varied in different cases from i^ to 14 
inches. 

From these experiments it appears that the greater the depth of the water table 
the slower the transmission of water to the surface of the soil. The upward move- 
ment of water is easier below than above the limit of saturation of the soil. "The 
ease with which a soil transmits water upward to supply a loss by evaporation from 
the surface is greater the coarser the texture of the soil, provided that the height of 
the soil column is such that the interstices can fill themselves to the tops with 
water, or, in other words, is not greater than the 'capillary height' of the soil." 
if among several similar soil columns of different degrees of fineness there are 
some in which the interstices are full of water to the top and others in which they 
are not, the greatest ease of upward motion will be found in the coarsest of the 
first class; that is, a medium fineness will show the greatest transmissive power. 
When the interstices are full of water to the top and the evaporation is less than the 
possible supply, the greatest evaporation takes ])lace from (he finest soil. 

Observations at the Wisconsin Station (B. 1SS9, p. 200, R. ISOO, p. 139, B. lS91,p. 104) 
on the rate and extent of capillary movement of water in soil in its natural condition 
show that the normal rate of this movement upward, downward, and laterally is not 
very great, although it may extend to a depth of more than 7 feet. Soils wet nearly 
to saturation show a more rapid movement of soil water. 

Experiments at the New York Station {R. 18S7, p. 103, R. 18SS, p. 104) with differ- 
ent kinds of soils in glass tubes (If inches in diameter), the lower ends of which 
were immersed in water, showed marked difterences in the height to which the water 
would rise by capillarity. In muck it was about 23 inches in seven mouths, in garden 



SOILS. 



319 



Boil about 45 iuchcs iu the same tiiue, in sand 20 iuclies, and in clay 34 inches in 
about three months, when it ceased, to rise. In the tirst cases it was still rising 
slowly at the end of a little more than seven months, when observations ceased. 

Tubes (60 inches long and nine-sixteenths of an inch in diameter), similarly pre- 
pared, but placed in a horizontal position, were used for determining the rate of 
lateral flow of distilled water, of a saturated solution of nitrate of soda, manure 
water, muck extract, soil extract, and a solution of common salt. The rapidity of 
flow was in the following order: Sand, muck, garden soil, and clay. The nitrate of 
soda solution and manure water decidedly retarded the flow; the muck and garden 
soil extracts, and salt iu proportions of 10 per cent or less promoted it. 

The height to which distilled water, manure water, and soil extract rose in capil- 
lary tubes 80 to 90 micromillimeters iu diameter, was also observed. 

The principal results were as follows : 





Specific 
gravity. 


Capillary 

lieight (for. 

tieths of 

an inch). 




tt.OlO 
1.007 
1.007 
1.000 


187. 79 
189. 00 
191. 04 
191. 67 


Muck extract 







"It is evident from the figures that the tendency of all the solutions is to lower 
the height, but the iuflueuce is so small as to be practically of little importance." 
Solutions of wood ashes, sulphate and muriate of potash, nitrate of soda, phosphate 
of lime, and sulphate of ammonia showed a similar tendency iu proportion to their 
strength. 

Investigations similar to the last described have been carried out at the Maryland 
Station {K, 1891, p. >?53). From these it is concluded that of the two forces causing 
movement of soil water — gravity and surface tension — the latter is largely modified 
by the matters in solutions. Observations on pure water, soil extract, and solutions 
of salt, kainit, lime, acid phosphate, plaster, ammonia, and urine show that certain 
of these substances — salt, lime, kainit, etc. — increase the surface tension and thus 
increase the power of the soil water to draw up moisture from below and keep the 
soil moist. On the other hand, ammonia, urine, etc., lower surface tension and hin- 
der the capillary flow of water to the surface (See also S. C. B. 1SS9, p. 63.) 

Experimtnits at Wisconsin Station on the effect of barnyard manure on the move- 
ment of soil water are thus summarized in i?. lS91,p. 117 : " While the case stands con- 
fessedly as one lacking complete demonstration, the evidence in favor of the view 
that farmyard manure increases the capillary flow of water toward the surface, and 
thus 8ui>iilies to crops both water and minerals held in solution by it which would 
otherwise be unavailable, is 1)oth cumulative and thus far positive." 

The eftect of matters in solution on the texture of soil has already been discussed. 

Observations on the fluctuation of the water table (i. e., the level of standing 
water iu the soil) at the Wisconsin Station {B. 1SS9, p. 193) have led to the following 
conclusions: 

" (1) There are, from May to October, daily fluctuations of the Avater level in the 
ground, the water either rising during the night or falling less than it did during 
the day. 

"(2) There are fluctuations extending over several days, duriug one portion 
of which the water falls at a rate faster than the average, while during the remain- 
der of the time it either makes a positive rise or else falls at a rate below the aver- 



"(3) The diurnal fluctuations are very unequal in magnitude, varying in diff"ercnt 
wells from less than 0.01 or 0.02 of an inch to 1.7 inches. 



320 SOILS. 

"(4) The longer-interval fluctuations are not exactly synchronous, there being a 
lagging, with some wells, of more than twenty-four hours. 

"(5) Corn is able to draw upon the permanent water in the ground, when it lies 
at a depth at least as great as 7^ feet, in the case of a subsoil of rather coarse sand. 

"(6) Corn may reduce the per cent of water in a subsoil of sand to 7 per cent of 
the dry soil at a depth of 40 inches below the surface, and Avhen the water table is 
but 42 inches, still lower." 

''The observations [at New York State Station (B. 1888, p. 197)} upon the depth 
of the water table, as indicated by the height of water in an abandoned well near 
the station buildings, were commenced in December, 1886, and continued in 1887. 
The results are of considerable interest, as they indicate that the depth of the water 
table is influenced far more by season than by the amount of rainfall. 

" Two facts are strikingly brought out: 

''(1) FluctuatioDS in the precipitation from month to month did not much aff"ect 
the height of the water table. The very light precipitation of January, 1887, did 
not stop the rise of the water table, nor did the extremely large rainfall of July of 
the same year cause the water table to stop falling. 

''(2) The rapid rise in the water table from January 7 to April 1, 1888, was not due 
to large precipitation during this time, nor was the fall from May 7 to November 1 
of the same year due to small precipitation." 

Similar observations in 1889 were inconclusive. 

Experiments at the same station (B. 1SS8, p. 191) on the progressive movement of 
soil water during percolation indicated " that a nearly complete displacement of the 
water contained in a sample of saturated soil [sand or emery flour] takes place, 
when a quantity of water is added at the surface equal to tliat already contained by 
the sample, and that diff"usion takes place very slowly within the soil." 

A series of observations {N. Y. State B. 1887, p. 102) with saturated soils under the 
receiver of an air pump in which the pressure could be varied at will and on the 
riite of flow from farm drains as affected by fluctuation of the barometer indicated 
that there was a general relation between percolation and atmospheric pressin-e, a 
reduction in pressure resulting in an increased flow. 

Soils have the property, known as hygroscopicity, of absorbing moisture from the 
air, but the moisture derived from this source is comparatively small {N. Y. State B. 
1888, p. 196). Ordinarily, soils give up to the air by evaporation much more moist- 
ure than they absorb from it. 

The following from N. Y. State B. 1888, p. 196, bears on this point: " In order to 
ascertain if the amount of condensation [of moisture on the surface of soils on cold 
nights] is as great as it appears to be, two samples of soil were taken from the sur- 
face of a garden bed at 6 p. m. on April 23, and two others on the following morn- 
ing. These were dried, from which it appeared that those taken at night contained 
on the average 7.57 per cent of water, while those taken in the morning contained 
10.06 per cent. The samples' were taken to the depth of about three-fourths of an 
inch, and the figures indicate that, to at least this depth, the soil gained in moist- 
ure content 2.49 per cent during the night. It appears, therefore, that the amount 
of water thus condensed is really small. If we assume that the soil increased at the 
same rate to the dex»th of 2 inches, the increase would only amount to about one- 
fortieth of an inch of rain." 

The effect of the size of soil particles and proportion of iron on the hygroscopicity 
of soils has been studied at the South Carolina Station (J?. 1889, p. 13). " In order 
to ascertain how much hygroscopic moisture was absorbed [by each grade of soil 
particles] from an atmosphere saturated with moisture, tests were made on a soil 
from the Spartanburg farm, which contained 11.2 per cent of ferric oxide, all of 
which was contained in the silt and clay." The different sized particles were 
exposed for a time at 70° F., and then the percentages of moisture lost by the differ- ' 
ent grades in heating at 200° C. were determined. The tabulated results indicate 



SOILS. 321 

that the percentages of moisture given off " increase with the lessening diameters of 
the grains." The author concludes from this trial and from results obtained by 
Prof. Hilgard that " ferric oxide clearly has a large influence in giving soils a high 
absorption coefficient." 

Experiments bearing on this point were made at the Massachusetts Agricultural 
College (Sprrial B. 1879). In these experiments Prof. Stockbridgc showed that the 
air cools off more quickly than th<' soil at night and that dew is the result of the 
condensation of watery vapor arising from the soil when it comes in contact with 
the colder air at the surface. The process of deposition of dew is, therefore, the 
reverse of that generally described which 8np])oses that the soil is the cool condens- 
ing agent. If this theorj'^ be true, practically all gain of moisture at night in the 
surface soil is from moisture drawn from the lower layers. This last fact has been 
confirmed by experiments at the Missouri Station {College B G, College B. 23). From 
the results of rejieated determinations, night and morning, of the moisture in soil, 
the conclusion was reached that in fair weather there is an absolute loss of moisture 
from soil during the night, but a gain by capillarity from below. This was sub- 
stantiated by the fact that when the flow from beneath was cut off the moisture con- 
tained in the soil was actually less in the morning than at night. 

The influence of temperature and water content of the air upon the absorption of 
moisture by soils h.as been studied at the California Station {R. 1SS,2, p. 52). It 
appeared from these experiments that in a saturated atmosphere absorption 
increased with rise of temperature, but in a partly saturated atmosphere, steadily 
diminished as the temperature was raised. 

The main object of tillage is to put the soil in the mechanical condition most 
favorable to the circulation of water, plant-food solutions, air, and gases, and to 
the growth of the roots of plants. We can see, then, how important is the study 
of the effect of tillage or cultivation upon the content and circulation of water in 
soils. 

Surface tillage, like mulching (see Mulclibifj), interferes with the capillary flow of 
water to the surface and saves it from evaporation. 

''Computing from the observed losses (on clay loam soil) the mean daily rate of 
evaporation jier square foot from the surfaces in the two conditions (with and with- 
out surface tillage), we get for cultivated ground 665 pounds per square foot and 
for uncultivated ground 808 pouuds per square foot, and this is the amount of 
water over and above that which may have been brought into the upper 6 feet of 
soil from below by capillary action" ( Wis. B. 1S91, p. 105). 

By destroying weeds another source of large loss of moisture is removed, for plants 
of all kinds draw heavily on the moisture of the soil and exhale it rapidly into the 
air in dry weather. •' Under the conditions of good cultivation corn may draw in 
considerable quantities upon soil water existing at depths greater than 7 feet below 
the surface." {Conn. Storrs B. lSS8,p. 22; III. B. 3 {1887); Mich. E. 1889, p. 79; Mo. 
College B. 5; Wis. B. 1891, p. 100). 

As regards the effect of deeper cultivation, the results of experiments at New 
York State Station {B. 1888, p. 186) are as follows: 

" (1) Keeping the surface of the soil stirred, if only to the depth of half an inch, 
increases the water content of the first 12 inches to a very appreciable degree. 

(2) The deeper the tillage, at least up to 4 inches, the greater is the increase in 
water content. 

(3) The rate of increase diminishes as the depth increases." 

On the other hand, experiments at the Missouri Station lead to the conclusion 
"that the breaking up of the compact subsoil of the (station) farm increases its 
Avater-holding capacity, both in years of drought and in wet seasons." {Mo. College 
B. 5, College B. IS.) 

The question of the relation between tillage and soil moisture has been quite 
thoroughly studied at the Wisconsin Station {R. 1889, p. 205, E. 1890, p. 134, E. 1891, 
2094— No. 15 21 



322 SOILS. 

jfj. lOff). A brief summary of this work in some of its more practical bearings is here 
attempted: In his study of soil moisture the author has found, "on several occasions, 
that the distribution of water in the soil changes at times quite rapidly, so that one 
stratum has gained in water content at the expense of a contiguous one, and this 
rtdistribution of water may be conveniently designated 'translocation.' 

" The translocation of soil water is occasioned in at least two ways, namely, (1) 
by ('hanging the porosity of a given stratum of soil; (2) by changing the amount of 
water a given stratum of soil contains." Firming tlie surface soil by rolling draws 
water up from beneath. Rains also frequently give rise to a translocation of water. 
This is illustrated by accounts of observations made by the author on samples of 
soil taken at different depths before and after a rain or artificial sj)rinkling, from 
■which it appeared that there was a marked decrease in the amount of water in the 
subsoil when the surface soil was wet. These observations were confined to a clay 
soil underlaid with sand. Some of the bearings of these phenomena on the tillage 
of this class of soils are briefly discussed. 

"(1) Cultivation after rains. — Unless the ground is already too wet, the stirring of 
the surface soil, wherever practicable, should follow just as soon after a considerable 
rainfall as the tools will work well. The ciiltivation should, as a rule, be shallow, 
leaving a thin stratum of the surface soil finely pulverized and completely cut off 
from the ground below. If this is not done the extremely rapid evaporation which 
takes place from undisturbed wet soil on hot, clear days may, even in a few hours, 
not only dissipate that which has just fallen, but also a part of that which the rain 
has caused to be drawn toward the surface from lower levels, and thus leave the 
g\;ound actually drier, as a whole, than before the rain, even though it may look 
more moist at the surface. 

" (2) Watering transplanted trees. — When dry weather follows the planting of trees 
it will be evident that simply wetting the surface may, in certain localities, do more 
harm than good, because in these cases the roots, lying as they do at considerable 
depths, can not use water which remains at the surface, and as surface wetting may 
diminish the water content of the deeper soil, the soil about the roots is liable to be 
rendered drier than before the wetting. * * * 

"If, however, the surface soil about the trees is deeply spaded before watering, tte 
water will then enter the ground more deeply by the direct force of gravitation, 
largely uuimjjeded by capillary action, while at the same time the abilitj' of the soil 
to return the water to the surface will be reduced to the minimum, and if a good , 
mulch is now added the water will be under the best conditions for being used by . 
the tree. So, too, if the soil about the roots of transplanted trees is well firmed to 
insure the rapid transit of water to them, while the surface is left loose and well 
mulched at the time of setting to prevent capillary action upward above the roots 
and to permit the rains to penetrate downward to them, we start the tree under the 
best possible conditions for growth, so far as moisture is concerned." 

From experiments with refei"euce to the rate of capillary movement in fine sand 
and to the influence of stirring the soil on the rate of evaporation, the followingsug- , 
gestions were drawn {Wis. E. 1SS9, p. 206), some of which have been confirmed by ] 
more recent experiments, while others still need further confirmation. ' 

"(1) A tool like the disk harrow, or like the curved-toothed harrows, which ; 
cuts narrow and comparatively deep grooves in the soil, leaving undisturbed ridges 
between them, tends to dry the ground rapidly and deeply. j 

" (2) Tools like the plow and some forms of cultivators, which cut the whole sur- 1 
face of the ground, leaving a loose layer of soil on the top, tend to dry the loosened I 
soil, while the loss of moisture from below by capillary action and evaporation is , 
diminished. i 

"(3) Deep plowing in the spring, especially if the soil is heavy, and if coarse j 
material is turned under, would tend, unless prevented by early, heavy rains, to pro- \ 
duce a deficiency of moisture for shallow-rooted plants, and for deep-rooted plants , 



SOILS. 323 

during the early part of the season, by partially cutting off the water supply at a 
depth below the roots. 

" (4) Shallow plowing or surface stirring would tend to diminish surface evapora- 
tion, and at the same time allow capillary action to lift water from below to the 
roots of young and shallow-rooted plants. (B. 1891, p. 100.) 

" (5) Fall plowing and early spring treatment with tools like the disk harrow 
would tend to draw the water to the surface with the minerals held in olution, and 
thus concentrate the fertility at the surface for later use, thus preventing so much 
being lost by underdrainage." 

Experiments in rolling soil have given the following results: 

"(1) Rolling land makes the temperature of the soil at 1.5 inches below the surface 
from 1^ to 9° F. warmer than similar unrolled ground in the same locality, and at 3 
inches from 1° to 6° warmer. 

" (2) Rolling laud by firming the soil increases its power of drawing Avater to the 
surface from below, and this influence has been observed to extend to a depth of 3 
to 4 feet. 

" (3) The evaporation of moisture is more rapid from rolled than from unrolled 
ground, unless the surface soil is very wet, and then the reverse is true, and the 
drying effect of rolling has been found to extend to a depth of 4 feet." 

(4) Observations on oats, clover, peas, and barley seeds indicated that " in cases 
of broadcast seeding, germination is more rapid and more complete on rolled than 
on unrolled ground." The yield of oats was increased by rolling. 

A soil hygrometer with modifications is described in N. Y. State B. 1SS6, p. 176, B. 
1SS7, p. 110, B. 1SS8, p. 198. 

Prof. Whitney, of the Maryland Station, has given in U. S. Weather Bureau B. 4 
the methods and results of determinations of moisture in soils by means of electrical 
resistance. 

"The method consists of burying plates of carbon or of some other good conduct- 
ing material in the soil at such distances apart that the electrical resistance of the 
intervening soil will be about 1,000 ohms when the soil has about 8 or 10 per cent of 
moisture. An electric current from an induction coil is sent across from one plate 
to the other, and the resistance of the soil measured by a Wheatstone bridge arrange- 
ment with a telephone instead of a galvanometer. The drier the soil the higher 
will be the resistance. The soil apjiears to move away from the plates, however, 
and the resistance gradually increases from this cause. The movement of the soil 
grains seems to depend upon the barometric pressure, changing temperature, and 
changing moisture content of the soil." 

This movement of soil particles has been made the subject of investigations, but 
no definite results have yet been piiblished. (See also S. C. B. 1889, p. 70.) 

In U. S. Weather Bureau B. 5 Prof. King gives in details the methods and results 
of his investigations on soil water. 

Intimately associated with the relations of soils to water is the important property 
which they possess of absorbing solids dissolved in the soil water. Soils vary much 
in respect to this property, and none possess it in unlimited extent, as is shown by 
the considerable amounts of mineral matter always present in drainage water. 

In clay soils and those containing humus it is especially marked; in sandy soils it 
is much less noticeable. Soils, too, exercise a selective action in the absorption of 
different salts. It Avas found in experiments at the Indiana Station {B. 33) that the 
percentages of salts removed from the solutions tested by 100 grams of air-dry soil 
of the station farm was: Sodium phosphate, 29.6; sodium nitrate, none; potassium 
chloride, 26.5; potassium sulphate, 28; ammonium sulphate, 27.5. These results 
suggest that liberal dressings of phosphoric acid and potash might be safely made, 
but nitrogen compounds should be used only in amounts needed by crops; otherwise, 
there will be loss in the drainage. 

Renovation and reclamation. — For improvement of soils by irrigation and 
drainage, see Irrigation and Drainage. For reclamation of alkali soils, see Alkali soils. 



324 SOJA BEAN. 

Exi>erimcuts under tlie direction of tlie Michigan Station were commenced in 1888 
on the liglit porous soils of the jack-pine plains near Grayling, Michigan. The only 
manures used were marl, gypsum, and salt, the object being to enrich the soils by 
green manuring with the aid of cheap fertilizers. Spurry, vetch, red, white, and 
alsike clover, and field peas were used Avith good effect. Sugar beets and various 
grasses have been raised with good results, and the phj'sical character of the soils has 
perceptibly imjiroved (B. 68.) 

P. F. Kefauver, of the Tennessee Station, reports {B. vol. Ill, 4) a series of experi- 
ments on land from which the soil had been washed ("galled"), leaving the subsoil 
exposed and scarred by deep gulleys. Success in reclaiming the laud was finally 
attained by a liberal use of stable manure, together with mulching. (See also 
Mulching.) 

Soja bean. — An annual leguminous plant resembling the buuch or upright varie- 
ties of the covvpea. The growth is erect from 3 to 4| feet high. The stock is strong 
and woody. The pods occur in clusters of from two to five. 

Two distinct species have been called soja beans. The small bean (Phaseolus 
radiatus) is largely used in Japanese confections, but is of no special value as a 
fodder plant (Mass. Hatch B. IS). 

The large bean {Soja hispida or Glycine hispida) is the true soja or soya bean. In 
Japan this bean is extensively used as food for men and animals. 

At the South Carolina Station (B. 1SS9, p. 344) the yield of seed was from 10 to 15 
bushels per acre. At the Georgia Station {B. 17) soja beans yielded 1,307 pounds of 
beans per acre, while the yield of cowpeas on an adjacent plot was only SlOpounds. 
The weight of dry forage from the former was also greater than that of the hay 
from cowpeas. 

At the Massachusetts Hatch Station {B. 18) the variety Medium Early White soja 
bean yielded at the rate of 35 bushels per acre. The varietj^ Black Medium made a 
ranker growth of vine than most of the other sorts. 

The soja bean is planted in drills, five to seven beans to the foot. It is cultivated 
like cowpeas and is utilized as a soiling crop, as hay and as silage. 

For analyses see Appendix, Tables I and //. 

{Kans. B. 18, E. 1889, p. 43 ; La. B. 8, B. 27, 2d ser.; Md. B. 1889, p. 118; Mass. 
Hatch B. 7, B. IS, R. 1891, p. 9; Mass. State R. 1890, p. 171; N. C. B. 73.) 

Soldier beetles. — There are numerous species of these beetles, all of which are 
carnivorous and destroy many of the more serious insect pests. The best known 
are those preying upon the sugar-cane borer; the spined soldier bug, which kills 
many cotton worms; the glassy-winged soldier bug, which frequents grape vines; 
and the banded soldier beetle, which attacks the striped potato bug and many tree 
insects. If looked for, they can soon be recognized, since they are very active in 
their work of destruction. iArh. B. 15 ; La. B. 9, 2d ser.; Nebr. B. 14; N. C. B. 
78; Tenn. B. vol. IV, 1.) 

Sorghum (Sorghum, vnlgare var. saccharatnm, or Andropogon sorghum var. saccha- 
rattis). — For non-saccharine varieties of sorghum see Chicken corn, Burr*, Egi/ptian 
rice corn, Kaffir corn, and Millo maize. Sorghum is a cane-like grass, having a general 
habit of growth resembling that of the taller varieties of Indian corn, but without 
ears. The stalk is terminated by a heavy head of small seeds. It has long been 
grown in numerous localities in the United States as a forage plant and for the 
sirup made from its sweet juice. During the past fifteen years efforts have been 
made to make sugar from sorghum in profitable quantities. Inthis work the U. S. 
Department of Agriculture has taken the lead, but much has also been done by ex- 
periment stations and private parties. The experiments have been in two directions — 
first, to improve the processes of extracting the juice and making the sugar, and 
secondly, to increase the sugar content iu the varieties of sorghum grown for sugar 
making. It is impracticable here to do more than indicate the general lines in 
which the work has been advanced, aad to point out what stations have carried on 



SORGHUM. 



325 



experiments -with sorghum. In the ni.annfacturo of sorghum sngar the most important 
iuiproveiiients have been the ai>plicatioii of the difl^ision process and tlie introduction 
of the use of alcohol to separate the impurities from the juice. 15y these improve- 
ments the amount of sugar obtained from a ton of cane has been very largely in- 
creased. The folloAving brief account of the process of manufacturing sugar from 
sorghum, as employed in the recent experiments conducted by the U. S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, is compiled from Bulletin No. 34 of the Division of Chemistry. 

The cane when brouglit from the tields is passed through a cutting apparatus and 
cut into pieces about 1 inch in length. These pieces are carried to a fanning machine, 
by which portions of the blades and other light particles are entirely removed. The 
clean pieces of cane are carried to a shredding machine, wliicli tears thorn into small 
l)its. The pulp thus prejiared is carried on into the cells of the diffusion battery, 
wliere the juice is extracted. The ditt'nsion juices ai-e collected into clarifying tanks 
neutralized with lime, "boiled, shimmed, and allowed to settle. The clear juice is 
drawn oft" into the evaporating apparatus, where it is concentrated to a sirup con- 
taining about 55 per cent of solid matter. This sirup is put into cylindrical tanks 
and mixed with an equal quautity of 90 per cent alcohol. As soon as the sirup and 
alcoliol are thoroughly mixed the impurities in the sirup begin to settle, and in a few 
hours they have settled to the bottom of the tank, leaving a clear alcoholic sirup 
above. This clear liquor is drawn oft" and passed through a still, where the alcohol 
is entirely removed. The sirup is then ready for boiling in the vacuum pans and for 
concentri^tion into sugar by the ordinary methods. The sirup made in this way can 
be transformed into sugar more rapidly than is possible where alcohol is not used. 
The sediment from the sirup is passsd through a filter press by which the alcohol 
sirup is removed, and a hard, firm cake is left. These press cakes may be so treated 
that not only the alcohol in them is recovered, but the sugar which they contain is 
changed into alcohol which may be used to make more sugar from other canes. 

In the experiments in the improvement of varieties of sorghum the effort has been 
by means of seed selection and crossing, together with careful culture, to produce 
]»ermanent varieties with a high sngar content. Sorghum is a plant which varies 
materially in its chemical composition and habits of growth under diifcrent condi- 
tions of climate and culture. Much progress has been made, but until the exiieri- 
ments have been carried on longer permanent success is not assured. The varieties 
most Avidely used for sugar-making have been Early Amber and Early Orange. 
Early Amber matures early, and under certain conditions has a fairly good suo-ar 
content, but it has a small-sized stalk, is delicate, and deteriorates easily, and after 
maturity rapidly loses its sugar content if left in the field. Early Orange is more 
sturdy and yields a large crop, but contains a large proportion of glucose, so that it 
is better for sirup than for sugar making. Among varieties which have given good 
results in recent experiments may be mentioned Collier, Colman, McLean, Fo]"-er 
Early, and Liuk Hybrid. 

The following results (per acre), obtained at Medicine Lodge, Kansas, in 1891, under 
favorable conditions, will serve to indicate the present status of exijerimental tests 
of sorghum: 

Results of experiments with sorghum in 1891. 



Variety. 


Whole 
cine. 


Blades 
and trash. 


Clean 
cane. 


Dry 

seeed. 


Sngar 
in Juice. 


Kuniber 
of stalks. 


Sugar, 




T07U. 

12. 08 
11.69 
13.96 
10.72 
14. 54 
16.^6 


Tons. 
1.66 
0.97 
1.07 
1.20 
1.64 
1.88 


Tons. 
8.09 
8.61 

10.07 
7.07 
9.86 

11.48 


Pounds. 


Percent. 
14.50 
14.55 
15.75 
13. 10 
10.20 
13.75 


14, 022 
11, 147 


Pounds. 
2,071 
2,104 
2,745 
1,758 
1,767 
3,021 




1,768 
2,340 


Folger Early 

Liuk Hybrid 

Early Orange 

Collier 


11,434 
17, 533 
24, 339 


1,937 
1,304 





326 SORGHUM BLIGHT. 

Accounts of the experiments with sorghum conducted by the U. S. Department of 
Agriculture are given in the annual reports of the Department from 1878 to 1892 
inclusive^ and in IhtUetins Xos. SO, 26, 29, and 34 of the Division of Chemistry. The 
New Jersey and Louisiana Stations have done a large amount of work in connection 
with experiments in sugar-making and improvement of varieties (N. J. B.18, B. 24, B. 
25, B. 30, B. 3S, B. 41, B. 44, B. 51, B. 54, E. 1SS8, pp. 17, 133, E. 1SS9, p. 187; La. B. 
6 (1886), B. 12 and 19 (1888), B. 21, B. 26, B. 27, B. 3, 2d ser., B. 8, 2d so:). The New 
York State and Kansas Stations have tested numerous varieties and made experi- 
ments with reference to the improvement of varieties (N. Y. State B. 6, B. 9, B. 21, 
B. 78, B. 11, n. ser., B. 13, n. ser., E. 1888, p. 71, E. 1889, pp.52, 67, 263, E. 1890, p. 102; 
Kans. B. 16, B. 25, E. 1888, p. 122, E. 1889, p. 90). 

Tests of varieties, analyses of the crop, and fertilizer tests are also reported in the 
following: Ala. Canehrake B. 9; Ark. E. 1888, p. 68, E. 1889, p. 61, E. 1890, p. 13; Cal. 
E. 1878-'79, p. 91, E. 1880, p. 40, E. 1882, p. 61, E. 1888-'89, p. 139, E. 1890, p. 296; Colo. 
E. 1888, p. 151, E. 1890, p. 19; Del. B.8, E. 1889, p. 29, E. 1890, p. 39; Fla. B. 12; Ga. 
B. 12, B. 13, B. 17; Ind. E. 1882, p. 75; loivaB. 5, B. 7, B. 8, B. 12; Ky. E. 1888, p. 31; 
Md. E. 1888, p. 54, E. 1889, p. 148; Mass. Stale B. 34, E. 1889, pp. 169, 182, 310; 
Miim. E. 1888, p. 161; Miss. E. 1889, p. 19, E. 1890, p. 40; Nehr. B. 19; Ncv. E. 1891, 
p. 16; New Mex. E. 1891, p. S; Ore. B. 4; S. C. B. 1889, p. 342; Tenn. B. vol. Ill, 2; 
Tex. B. 13. 

Sorghum blight (Bacillns sorghi). — Abacterial disease, indicated by theappearance 
upon the leaf sheath or the leaves of small red spots and patches of various shades 
and sizes. They usually are brighter upon the inside of the leaf sheath than else- 
where, and begin at the top of the sheath and spread downward. The coloration 
becomes deeper until it is dark brown and the vitality of the underlying cells is 
exhausted. The roots are known to be affected in a like manner. It has been 
demonstrated that the bacteria live through the winter in the old stalks and 
stubbles. In fudds which have been affected these should never be turned under, 
but burned. The disease is worse on some varieties of sorghum than on others, and 
also whei"e sorghum is raised for several years without rotation of crops. In such 
places the young plants are often attacked, and either killed outright or so stunted 
as never to make vigorous growth (Kans. B. 5, E. 1888, p. 281). 

Sorghum smuts (Ustilago sorghi and U. reiliana). — The first of these smuts 
attacks the grain and causes it to swell and finally burst, becoming entirely worth- 
less. The other attacks the whole panicle, or head, converting it into a large black 
mass, covered at first by a whitish membrane. So far these fungi have attacked only 
the foreign varieties recently introduced into this country. As yet no preventive 
treatment is known to be very successful (Kans. B. 16, B. 23). 

South Carolina rock. — See Phosphates. 

South Carolina Station, Fort Hill. — Organized under act of Congress January 
1888, at Columbia, as a department of the University of South Carolina, removed to 
Fort Hill in 1890, and reorganized as a department of Clemson Agricultural College. 
The staft" consists of the president of the college and director, vice director and agri- 
culturist, assistant agriculturist, chemist, two assistant chemists, and assistant 
horticulturist. The principal lines of work are analysis and control of fertilizers 
and field experiments with fertilizers and field crops. Up to January 1, 1893, the 
station had published 4 annual reports and 15 bulletins. Eevenue in 1892, $14,512. 

South Dakota Station, Brookings. — Organized under act of Congress in 
1888 as a department of the South Dakota Agricultural College. The staff con- 
sists of the president of the college, director and agriculturist, entomologist, chemist, 
irrigation engineer, dairyman, assistant entomologist, assistant horticulturist, 
assistant chemist, acting botanist, librarian, foreman of farm, and accountant. The 
principal lines of work are meteorology, field experiments with field crops and 
fruits, forestry, entomology, and dairying. Up to January 1, 1893, the station had 
published 4 annual reports and 32 bulletins. Revenue in 1892, $15,000. 



SPELT. 327 

Southern cattle fever [more coniraonly known as Texas or Splenetic fever]. — A 
specific fever coiuiuuiiiciited by cattle from a certain infected district in the South, 
or contracted by cattle imi)orted into that region. The cattle which transmit the 
infection are apparently healthy, while diseased animals do not, as a rnk% infect 
others. 

Theseacoast region from Virginia to Mexico contains the germs of the disease, and 
the infected region extends some distance from tlie sea, embi-acing parts of Virginia 
and North Carolina, most of South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, 
and Louisiana, the southern part of Tennessee, and a large portion of Arkansas, 
Indian Territory, and Texas. 

The fever is caused by an organism which exists in the red corpuscles of the blood 
and breaks them up, thus making it necessary for the system to get rid of a large 
amount of solid waste material. The overworked liver and kidneys become dis- 
eased. The temperature rises to 106° or 107° F., the animal becomes dull, loses its 
appetite, and lies down alone. The bowels are constipated. At a late stage of the 
disease the urine becomes deeply stained with the red coloring matter of the blood. 
This coloi'ing is generally considered a fatal symptom. The animal becomes emaciated 
and the blood very thin and watery. The disease is usually fatal in from three days 
to several weeks, though sometimes there is a slow recovery. 

Medical treatment has generally been unsuccessful. Epsom salts have perhaps 
been most extensively given. Sulphate of quinia, in doses of 15 to 30 grains, and 
tincture of aconite root have been used. 

Cold weather prevents the spread of Soutlieru cattle plague, while a certain degree 
of warmth is favorable to it. Thirty to fifty days may elapse after the contamina- 
tion of a pasture by Southern cattle before the disease appears. But if cattle are 
placed on pasture in which the germs have existed for some time they may become 
diseased in thirteen to fifteen days. 

The Bureau of Animal Industry, Avhile admitting the possibility of other sources 
of infection, states that it is carried North by the ticks from Southern cattle. When 
Northern cattle are carried South it is recommended that the winter months be 
chosen for shipment, that the animals be kept free from ticks, and separated from 
native cattle during the first year. Young animals carried South are less apt to die 
than grown cattle. 

By means of regulations governing the movement of cattle from the infected 
region, now made yearly by the Secretary of Agriculture, the disease has been very 
largely prevented. 

Accounts of observations and exiieriments on this disease at the stations are given 
in Ark. B. ISSS, p. 91, E. 1889, p. 119, B. 1890, p. 99; Mo. College B. 24, College B. 31, 
B. 11; Nebr. B. 3, B. 7, B. 8, B. 9, B. 10; Tex. College B. 4, B. 5, E. 1888, p. 12, E. 
1889, p. 55. 

Spaying. — The removal of the ovaries, the essential organs of generation of female 
animals. This operation is successfully performed on cows, sows, and otlier domes- 
tic animals. It has been practiced quite extensively, especially in European coun- 
tries, with a view to perpetuating the flow of milk of cows without the interruption 
of dry spells and calving. " Cows that are spayed at the age in which they give 
the largest yield of milk — after the third calf — provided they are fed and tended 
properly, continue to milk in almost imdiminished quantity, except as influenced by 
the food, for a very considerable period after being operated on. The length of 
time is somewhat uncertain, but is usually stated to be two or three years." Obser- 
vations at the Arkansas Station {B. 8, B. 12) showed that four months after spaying 
there was no falling off in yield of milk and no i^articular change in quality. There 
was a temjiorary shrinkage in milk, lasting for two or three days after the opera- 
tion. 

Spelt. — A kind of wheat generally known as Triticum speJta, but probably a race 
of the common wheat. The grain is adherent to the chaff. Spelt is a mountain 



328 SPINACH. 

gram. It was found to be poorly adapted to the warm San Joaquin region in Cali- 
fornia. {Cal. B. 1S90, p. 290.) 

Spinach {Spinacia spp., etc.). — The varieties of this vegetable {S. (jJdbra and S, 
oleracea) have been investigated chiefly at the New York State Station {B. 1S8S, p. 
208, B. 1SS4, p. 2S3, B. 1SS5, p. 1S8, B. 1887, p 325). In the N. Y. State B. 1887, p. 225, 
are found full descriptions of 10 varieties, including one prickly seeded variety. 

Experiments with earliest and latest ripened seed from the same plant and seed 
from the earliest and latest matured plants are noted in iS''. F. State B. 1884, p. 284. 
The earliest ripened seed on the plant vegetated considerably better than the latest. 
The plants grown from the latest ripened seed bloomed two days later. Seed from 
the earliest ripened i)]ant vegetated slightly better and bloomed about three days 
earlier than seed from the latest ripened plant. Using the earliest seed on a plant, 
while it had been found to give a larger vegetation, appeared to shorten the period 
of usefulness of the plant. 

The root system of siiiuach was observed at the same station {B. 1884, p. 308). The 
deepest growing roots extended about 2 feet downward, and the horizontal roots 
seemed chiefly to lie at a depth of about 6 inches, though many librous roots rose to 
within 2 inches of the surface. 

Germination tests of spinach seed are reported in N. Y. State B. 1883, pp. 61, 70; 
Ore. B. 2; Vt. B. 1889, p. 108. 

The "New Zealand spinach," a plant of a different genus (Tetragonia expansa), was 
planted with the common species at the New York State Station in 1883 and 1887. It 
is described {B. 1883, p. 208) as a low annual plant with spreading, branching stems, 
numerous thick, fleshy leaves, and greenish inconspicuous axillary flowers, of which 
the leaves are used like those of common spinach, but develop later. It was found 
to remain in edible condition all summer and up to October. 

For French spinach see Orach. 

Spinach, leaf blight (PA;/ Wositc^a elienopodii). — This fungus appears upon the leaves, 
usually on the lower half, in the shape of minute pimples. These increase in num- 
ber until quite an area is covered. When the spores are mature they escape in a 
stream from the top of the pimple. Upon drying they are blown to otlier leaves and 
thus the disease is spread. Another disease, the black mold, caused by the fungus 
known as Cladosporium maerocarpum, is abundant upon older leaves and often unon 
the stock in mai'ket, giving it an unattractive appearance and causing it to quickly 
rot. Equal parts of air-slaked lime and sulphur well raked into the soil will be 
eff'ective in preventing this and other diseases of spinach. (N. J, B. 70.) 

Spinach, mildew {Peronospora cffiisa). — This fungus, which is related to quite a nmn- 
ber of other verj^ destructive ones, often causes heavy losses to the grower. It forms 
grayisli-colored patches upon the under side of the leaves, Avhile on the upper side, 
opposite them, tlie green tissue will become yellowish, due to the attack of tlie fun- 
gus upon the underlying cells. Wherever it sends its filaments they sap the cells, 
causing the tinal destruction of the leaf. It is said to grow on other plants, such as 
the pig-weed or lamb's quarters, and these should be rigidly kept away from spinach 
beds. For other ]»reventive measures see Spinach, Uaf Might. {Mass. State B. 1890, 
p. 221; N. J. B. 70.) 

Spinach, -white smut {EniyJoma eUisii). — A fungous disease, giving the leaf the 
appearance of being covered with a fine frost. The attacked leaves lose their nor- 
mal color and become a sickly yellowish green. It forms two kinds of spores, one 
Avithin the leaves, the other on their surface. This disease is of recent discovery and 
but little is known of it. The ]>recautions given for leaf blight should be followed 
and will probably aid in keeping it from spreading. It has not been very destruc- 
tive so far. (N.J. B. 70.) 

Splenetic fever. — See Southern cattle fever. 

Spraying apparatus. — See Fungicides aud Inscciieidcs. 



sruRRY. 329 

Spruce trees {Picea !i])Y».).—The forests of black spruce (P. nigra) in West Virginia 
are dcst lihed in U\ Fa. Ji. lSDO,pp. OS, 171, from observations made in a trip to inves- 
tigate tte extensive destruction of the trees (as it proved) by the attacks of a beetle. 
Statistics respecting the extent and distribution of tlie forests and the quality of tlie 
wood are introduced. The area is estimated as over 500,000 acres, of which perhaps 
150,000 acres are dead. The 1)eetles work in the bark and the sap-wood. 'J'he dea<l 
trees are available for timber, into wliich, it is judged, they may be profitaldy worked 
for a period of eiglit years after deatli. Tlie station is now making experiments 
with a parasitic insect introduced from Euroi)e, which, it is hoped, will greatly 
diminish the ravages of the beetle which destroys the spruce forests. 

Various spruces planted at the South Dakota Station and elsewhere iu the State 
are noted in B. U, B. 15, B. 20, B. 33, B. 29, B. 1888, p. 26. According to B. 23 the 
white spruce (P. alba), which is one of the principal forest trees of the Black Hills, 
can be grown in any part of the State; Norway spruce (P.exceha) may be success- 
fully cultivated in the southern counties, while Colorado blue spruce {P.punrjens) is 
as hardy as white spruce, but is a high-i)riced tree. 

Several species are somewhat fully noted in Minn. B. 24 with reference to the con- 
ditions of that State. The white spruce (P. alba) is regarded as perhaps the best 
spruce for the State, being much hardier than the Norway spruce, and though less 
graceful in habit, still a beautiful tree. The Norway spruce, however, is generally 
doing well in the State and is estimated as very desirable not only for ornament but 
also for wind-breaks. It is far more easily obtained than the white spruce. The 
black spruce, though much more common in the native forests of the State, is com- 
paratively worthless for planting, a slow grower with a decidedly dirty as})ect on 
account of the persistence of the cones, and further unsightly on account of its en- 
feebled growth, which begins to show when the trees first bear seed. This tree is 
sold by unscrupulous persons for the white spruce, the two being similar when 
young. 

The Colorado blue spruce is stated to be a tree of exceeding great beauty from the 
Rocky Mountains, where it is found growing in very severe exi)08ures. Its chief 
beauty lies in the light blue color of the foliage, found, however, only in about one- 
third of the seedlings, while the remainder are of a rich green. Though there were 
no large specimens in the State it was bclievedthatit would provea decided acquisi- 
tion. 

Engleman's spruce (P. englemanii), a somewhat similar tree from the Rocky Moun- 
tains, is noted as very pretty and desirable, but not yet thoroughly tested. 

For Kansas (B. 10) the Norway spruce is considered as holding a second rank only, 
on account of its uncertain resistance to unfavorable climatic conditions. In resist- 
ance to drought it appears inferior both to the Avhite spruce and the Colorado blue 
spruce. The white spruce is judged to be "one of the best of the more ornamental 
evergreens for planting in middle and eastern Kansas." The Colorado blue spruce 
is " in hardiness fully the equal, and in distinct beauty the superior, of the white 
spruce." Brief recommendations of the two latter occur in loxca B. 16. 
For Douglas's spruce see Fir. 

Spurry ( Spergnla arreiisis). — An annual forage plant which prefers sandy soil. On 
the jack-pine plains of Michigan, spurry has proven valuable. It jnoduces a large 
amount of forage and its introduction has been a benefit to this region. {Mich. B. 
68.) 

At the Maine Station (i?. 155.9, jj. iC.S') it bloomed two months after sowing and 
made a growth 15 inches high. It produces a great quantity of seed and is diliicult 
to get rid of. 

At the Oregon Station (B. 4) the yield was 20 tons of green forage per acre. At 
the Louisiana Station (/?. 27) the growth was but lOto 12 inches. The Pennsylvania 
Station ( R. 1887, p. 141) secured 3,403 pounds of dry hay per acre from spurry. It ia 
readily eaten by cattle. 



330 SQUASH. 

Squash (Cucurhita spp.).— Variety tests of the squash are recoriled in Ala. College] 
B. 2; Ark. B. 1SS9, p. 104; Colo. B. 1889, pp. 42, 102, 122, B. 1890, pp. 194, 210; La. B. 3, 2d-\ 
Her.; Md. 1889, p. 62; Mich. B. 70, B. 79; Minn. E. 1888, pp. 253, 261; JSF. Y. State R: 
1882, p. 128, B. 1883, p. 185, B. 1884, p. 205, B. 1885, p. 124, B. 1886, p. 240, B. 1887, p. 
323; Pa. B. 14; Utah B. 3. , 

N. Y. State B. 1887, p. 243, contains a joint classification of squashes and pumpkins, 
covering 55 varieties, of which 40 are classed as squashes, being referred in part each 
to C. Pepo, C. maxima, and C. moschata. Full descriptions are given with English i 
and foreign synonyms and an index of all the names. In Mich. B. 48 an illustrated 1 
account is given of experiments in cross-fertilizing squashes which led to the con- 
clusion that only the seeds were aftected the first year. Experiments on pumpkins 
and squashes at the New York Cornell Station (B. 25) gave the same result; they 
also indicated that C. Pepo and C. maxima do not hybridize, and that in pumpkins ■• 
and squashes pollen is impotent on pistils of the same plant. In experiments in her- 
baceous grafting {ibid.) pumpkin vines were found to unite with squash. 

Germination tests with squash seeds are reported in N. Y. State B. 1883, p. 70; Ohio 
B. 1885, p. 176, B. 1886, p. 254; Ore. B. 2; Ft. B. 1889, p. 109. 

Squash bug (Anasa tristis).— The adult insect is a beetle about half an inch long, 
brownish black above and dull yellowish beneatli. The females lay their eggs on 
the under side of leaves, gluing them together. The eggs hatch in a few days into 
young beetles greatly resembling the adult. The perfect insect spends the winter 
under rubbish and comes out early in the spring. They are so persistent and nu- 
merous that the vines soon wilt under their attack. 

Hand picking and destroying the eggs are the most satisfactory means of treat- 
ment. Kerosene emulsion will kill the young bugs. A small dark gray fiy is known 
to be parasitic on this bug, destroying many of tbcm. (Colo. B. 6; Mass. Hatch B. 
12; Mich. B. 1889, p. 95; N. Mex. B. 2; S. C. B. 1888, p. 26.) 

Steers. — See Cattle. 

Strawberry (Fragaria sp.).— The strawberry has been more widely and constantly 
grown at the stations than any other small fruit. The study of this fruit has 
consisted most largely in the comparison of its numerous varieties, but various 
culture questions have also been touclied, and the enemies of the plant often inves- 
tigated. 

Botanical notes on the occurrence of plants wfth five leaflets instead of three and 
of white-fruited and double-flowered forms are made in N. Y. State B. 1887, p. 43. 

Vakieties. — Tests of varieties are recorded: Ala. College B. 2, B.l, n. ser., B.20, n. 
ser., B. 29,n. ser.; Ala. CanehralceB. 12; Ark. B. 7 (B. 1888, pp. 50, 54), B. 11 {B. 1889, p. 82), 
B. 13 (B. 1890, p. 433), B. 17; Cal. B. 188S-'89, pp. 88, 110; Colo. B. 17, B. 1889, pp. 29, 
111, B. 1890, p. 31; Del. B. 18; B. 1889, p. 103, B. 1890, p. 92, Fla. B. 14; Ga. B. 11; 
111. B. 21; Ind. B. 5, B. 10, B. 31, B. 33, B. 38; Bans. B. 26; Ky. B. 25, B. 32; La. B. 
26 (B. 1889, p. 430), B. 3, 2d ser.; Md. B. 9, B. 1890, p. 104, B. 1891, p. 412; 
Mass. Hatch B. 6, B. 10, B. 15; Mich. B. 55, B. 59, B. 67, B. 80, B. 81; Minn. B.18,B. 

1888, p. 231, Miss. B. 1891, p. 29; Mo. College B. 20, B. 26, Mo. B. 10, B. 13, B. 16, B. 18; 
Nev. B. 1890, p. 30; N. Y. State B. 24, n. ser. B. 36, n. ser., B. 44, n. ser., B. 1883, p. 226, 
B. 1885, p. 224, B. 18S6, p. 253, B. 1887, p. 333, B. 1888, p. 95, 239, B. 1889, p. 298, B. 
1890, p. 259, B. 1891, p. 460; N. C. B. 72, B. 74; N. Dak. B. 2; Ohio B. 1884, pp. 108, 
121, B. 1885, p. 99, B. 1886, p. 180, B. 1887, p. 245, B. 1888, p. 103, B. vol. II, 4 {B. 

1889, p. 101), B. vol. Ill, 7 (B. 1890, p. 211), B. vol. IV, 6 (B. 1891, p. 115); Ore. B. 7, 
B. 12; Pa. B. 8 {B. 1889, p. 163), B. 18; B. I. B. 7; S. Dak. B. 23, B. 26; Tenn. B. vol. 
II, 4, B. 1888, p. 12; Tex. B. 8 (B. 1889, p. 30), B. 16; Utah B. 10; Ft. B. 1888, p. 120, 
B. 1889, p. 123, B. 1890, p. 184; Fa. B. 7; Wis. 1890, pp. 213, 274, B. 1891, p. 142. 

The varieties grown run up to 150, and not seldom the data given are very full— 
e. g., in Ark. B. 13; Ind. B. 33, 38; Bans. B. 26; Md. B. 9; Mich. B. 80, B. 81; N. Y. 
State B. 1890; Ohio B. 1888, B. 1889, B. 1890; Tenn. B. vol. II, 4, Tex. B. 8. 



STRAWBERRY. 331 

The essentials of a good variety are stated in Ohio B. vol. Ill, 7 {E. 1890, p. 210), 
and some generalizations are presented upon tlie relation of length of season and 
frnitfulness among varieties, and the length of season of early and late as compared 
with medium varieties. 

To compare the productiveness of perfect and imperfect flowered varieties, a list 
of eight of each class was sent to growers for their marking. According to the 
data obtained, the imperfect flowered plants were considerably more prolific than 
the perfect flowered. 

Experiments were carried on at the Ohio Station {R. 1884, p. 119, E. 1885, p. 107, B. 
1887, p. 253) for three seasons with strawberries to learn the influences of cross-fer- 
tilization upon the fruit of the first year. The first season modifications of the fruit 
in form, size, color, and general appearance seemed to result; the second season 
there was some apparent eftect, but the results seemed far from decisive; those of the 
third year were not regarded as warranting positive statement. In crossing experi- 
ments at the New York State Station (i?. 1890, p. 274) many of the pollenized flowers 
gave fruit utterly unlike either parent. Some of the results are illustrated by cuts. 
In the same report experience in growing seedlings is noted. Of 1,000 seedlings, 
but 20 were saved as showing any indications of value, and of these 15 were dis- 
carded the next season. In Ohio B. 1887, p. 253, the question is briefly touched 
whether pistillate varieties will fruit when standing alone. While this seemed 
sometimes to occur, it was judged not safe to depend upon it. 

The influence of rain on pollination has been somewhat investigated by the New 
Jersey Station {B. C, B. 1890, p. 330). Plants kept continually wet by sprinkling 
durino- the flowering season gave a smaller crop, and the berries were very irregular. 
This result is referred to the exclusion of bees by the moisture. Where plants were 
kept dry by a canvas the berries were the same as elsewhere in the field, the ad- 
vantage of dryness being perhaps ofi'set by the fewer visits of bees under the can- 
vas. There were fewer young berries under the canvas, and the indications were 
that its use is unprofitable. 

Composition. — See Appendix, TaMe III. Analyses of strawberries are recorded in 
Mass. State B. 1888, p. 233, B.1889, p. 306, B. 1890, p. 305; Ohio B. 1887, p. 259, B. 1888, 
pp. 108, 110; Tcnn. B. vol. II, 4. 

At the last-named station 17 varieties were examined, and the determinations 
•were of water and dry matter, sugar and acid, and food constituents. 

The food and dietetic value of the strawberry is discussed with some fullness in 
Ohio B. 1887, p. 259. In the same place and in the Tennessee bulletin the increase of 
sugar relatively to acid in the cultivated varieties as compared with the wild plant is 
noted ; also, in the Ohio reports, the relative diminution of the seed in the cultivated 
plant. 

Culture. — A new method of propagation is described in Ohio B. 1886, p. 187, con- 
sisting " simply in removing the young runners from the plant as soon as, or even 
before, they have taken root, and projiagating in a cold frame; or, in other words, 
treating the young plants as florists treat cuttings." The essential conditions are 
plentiful moisture and partial shade. By this method "well-rooted plants can be 
grown nearly a month earlier than in the field." Experiments at the same station 
{B. 1888, p. 104) indicated that market gardeners might iirofitably grow strawberries 
as a second crop by close planting, though the yield was less than when the plants 
had a whole season. But planting after August 1 in that latitude did not seem desir- 
able in any case. 

A successful method of setting strawberries is described in detail in Tex. B. 16 
and instructions for planting are given with cuts in Ark. B. 1889, p. 82. 

An experiment at the Michigan South Haven Station (JS. 80) showed in the great 
majority of cases a larger — often much larger — yield of fruit from the same variety 
under the hill system than from the matted row, "and the increase is not from a 
greater number of fruits so much as from their greater size and beauty." Notes 



332 STRAWBERKY CROWN BORER. 

favorahle to hill cultivation are also found in 3fass. Haich B. 10. In Ga. B. 15 the two 
metbods are compared to the advantage of the hills; also a third method is highly 
recommended, viz, setting the plants 15 inches apart in the row and placing the rows 
3 feet apart, permitting a matted row 1 foot wide to be formed. This system admits 
of cultivation by horse power. 

The effect of mulching has been a subject of some study. At the Ohio Station 
{R. lSS4,p. 120, It. 1S85, p. 106, B. 1887, p. 252) observations were made ou tliei 
temperatures of straw-covered and bare ground, mostly in the month of May, for i 
three seasons, showing that the temperature falls lower over the straw sufficiently, 
to make the danger of frost slightly greater; but it was believed that the risk was 
more than oltset by the protection afforded against drought and winter-killing, tlie 
value of which was also shown by experiment. Where the ground was weedy it 
seemed advisable to remove the straw and after cultivation to replace it, though 
this increased the danger from drought. At the Alabama College Station {B. l^ii. 
ser., B. 4, n. scr.) mulching was found to insure relatively the growth of young 
plants, to retard ripening, and to increase the yield. It was asserted, however, that 
in that climate the crowns should not be covered, and was suggested that on account 
of the delay of ripening one-half of the bed should be left unmulched. In Va. B. 7 
nuilching is earnestly advocated. The straw was there removed in April, and after 
cultivation spread again between the rows and scattered lightly over them in order 
that the plants might grow through and the fruit be kept clean. At the Texas 
Station {B. 8) mulching was deemed not profitable in the South. At the Alabama 
College Station (if. 1, n. ser.) the experiment was tried of removing the fruit stalks 
from plants the first season with results showing the practice to be uuprcjfitable. 

At the New York Station {B. 1884, p. 325) an experiment in irrigating strawberries 
was made, which showed that an excess of water injured the quantity and quality 
of the crop, but that a moderate supply in dry weather was an advantage. 

General notes on culture are given in Ala. B. 4, n. ser.; Ga. B. 15- N Dak B «^- 
Tex. B.8. , ■ . . ,^, 

Manuking.— Experiments with fertilizers on strawberries are recorded in Bel. B. 
11; N. J. R. 1891, p. 141; Oltio R. 1888, p. 108. The New Jersey experiment showed 
again of 31 per cent in yield from the use of nitrate of soda. Notes on manuring 
strawberries occur in Ga. B. 15. 

Strawberry, crown hoier {Tiiloderma fragarue).—T-hfi larva of this insect is a 
small white footless grub one-fifth inch long, with a light yellow head. Tlie adult 
is a brown beetle one-sixth inch long, resembling the plum curculio. The cros are 
laid in the crown of the plant. The young grub burrows about in it and emerges in 
the fall to spend the Avinter in the ground. They do not spread rapidly owing to 
their inability to fly. Old plants are most affected and should be completely^de- 
stroyed after the bearing season is over. Burning over the patch during the sum- 
mer will destroy them. 

Do not plant strawberries continuously on the same ground. Insecticides are of 
little value. {Ind. B. 33; Ky. B. 31; N. Y. State B. 35, n. ser.; Ore. B. 5.) 

Strawberry, leaf blight {Sphmrella fra(jariw).—k fungous disease which, as a rule, 
does not appear to cause much injury until after the plants are through bearing. It 
is carried over the winter in the tissues of the old leaves. The disease is charac- 
terized by the appearance of reddish spots on the upper wrfaco of the leaf. The 
center becomes grayish white and the border more or less pui-ple. In these spots 
are developed the spores which propagate the fungus. Its spread may, in a great 
degree, be controlled by removing and burning all old leaves. Frequent resetting 
of the beds is also recommended, so that the plants may be young and vigorous*! 
Some varieties are more liable to attacks than others. After removing the old leaves 
the young ones may be sprayed with Bordeaux mixture or eau celeste with great 
advantage. They should have three or four applications. The use of ammoniacal 
copper carbonate is also recommended by some persons. The old leaves may be 



SUGAR BEET. ' 333 

rt'inoved by liaiid or cut off and rakod up, but they should abvays be burned. (Conn. 
.stale. B. Ill; Ky. B. 31; N. Y. Cornell B. 14; Ft. li. 1S90, p. 142.) 

Strawberry tree {Arhutm nnedo). — This tree, "the true madrouo of Spain," is 
'uottnl in ('al.lt. 1SS9, pp.110, ISS. "It is a true oruanient to any gardeu, while its 
sweet berry, very much resembling in a]»pearance and taste the straAvberry, 
might make it profitable fruit. In Spain the berries are nmch liked, and are canned, 
jand in this coudition find their way even to Spanish- America. The tree is an ever- 
i green with dark shining green leaves. The flowers, produced in great abundance 
I at the ends of the branches, are of the well-known urn shape, and, like those of our 
I madrono and madzanita, of a transparent Avhite." The berries do not mature till 
the second season, when their beautiful crimson, mingled with the transparent white 
of the flowers, makes the tree highly ornamental. (Cal. R. 1800, p. 2,36). 

Subsoiling. — The experiments undertaken t5 determine the eftects of subsoiling 
have given conflicting testimony, due largely to difterences in climatic conditions 
and the character of the soils. During four seasons (1871-74) the Wisconsin Agri- 
cultural College secured in dry seasons larger yields of corji on subsoiled plats, but 
in wet seasons the results were reversed. {Trans. Wis. State Agr. Soc, 1872-73, p. 464, 
lS73-'74,p. 53.) 

The average of results in subsoiling corn at the Pennsylvania Agricultural College 
in 1869 and 1870 was in favor of subsoiling. {Pa. Agr. Soc, vol. FIT, p. 472.) 

At the Kansas Station the average, yield of corn during two years (1882~'83) was 
practically the same whether the land was subsoiled or not. {Eans. R. Bd. of 
Agr., May, 1884, p. 6.) 

At the New York State Station {R. 1889, p. 295) there was a decided loss of total 
green matter from subsoiling corn intended for silage. During the same season and 
at the same station subsoiling increased the total yield of oat straw and grain, but 
an attack of rust vitiated the experiment. The season was one of heavy rainfall.. 

A test of subsoiling for oats made at Cornell University in 1875 was apparently 
in favor of not subsoiling. {Cornell Univ. Studies in Practical Agriculture, 1887, p. 82.) 

For two years the South Carolina Station {R. 1889, p. 256) conducted subsoiling 
tests with corn at three farms in diff"erent parts of the State. The average for two 
years and for all the farms shows no apjireciable effect from subsoiling on light 
sandy soils. 

At the Missouri College (7>. 5, B. IS) subsoiling increased the per cent of water 
present in the soil. With corn this naturally gave the best results for subsoiling 
in seasons of protracted drought, while the subsoiled plats yielded le3S in cold 
wet seasons. 

Sugar beet. — See also Beet. By special selection and culture varieties have been 
developed from the coumion garden beet which contain a large percentage of sugar 
Immense quantities of sugar are manufactured from beets in Europe, especially in 
Germany and France. In recent years efforts have been made to introduce this 
industry into the United States. Much information regarding the culture of sugar 
beets and the making of beet sugar has been published by the U. S. Department of 
Agriculture and by a number of the stations. Experiments in growing sugar l>eet8 
have been made in many States, and factories for beet sugar are in operation in 
California, Nebraska, and Utah. A popular summary of information on the culture 
of the sugar beet was recently publislied as Farmers'' Bulletin No. 3 of the U. S. 
Department of Agriculture, from which the follo^ving brief statements have been 
compiled. 

Experience has shown that the sugar beet reaches its highest development 
in regions having a mean summer temperature of about 70" F. In the United 
States the region includes portions of Connecticut, Massachusetts, Vermont, New 
York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan, Indiamx, Illinois, Wisconsin, Min- 
nesota, Iowa, South Dakota, Nebraska, Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, Idaho, 
Nevada, Washington, Oregon, and California. As a rule a rainfall of from two to 



334 SUGAR BEET. 

four inches duriug the summer months is required for sugar beets, but moisture may 
be supplied from the soil, as in certain localities in California and Nebraska, or by 
irrigation. A sandy loam is considered the best soil, but good beets can be pro- 
duced on any soil suitable for corn, wheat, or potatoes. The land should be rea- 
sonably level and good drainage (with tiles if necessary) is essential. Among the 
varieties most widely grown in Europe are Vilmorin Improved, Klein Wauzk- 
ben. White Excelsior, White Imperial, Simon Le Grande, Florimond and Bulteaii 
Desprez Richest, and Brabant. The first two have been most extensively used in i 
this country. The quality of the seed is of the highest importance. This can be ! 
maintained only by the most painstaking care. In Europe the production of the 
seed is a distinct branch of the beet-sugar industry. At the time of harvest the best 
average beets for sugar, weighing 20 to 24 ounces, regular in form, and smooth, are^ 
carefully harvested and the leaves cut off without injuring the neck of the beet. 
These beets, known as "mothers," are carefully protected against frost, in piles 
covered with earth (or straw). In early spring the "mothers" are tested to 
determine the density of their juice and their sugar-content. This test is made on 
a small piece of the beet removed with an appropriate instrument from the center 
of the root. The standard of excellence for beet mothers is 16 to 18 per cent of 
sugar, with a purity of 85. The "mothers" are used only for the production ofi 
seed. • 

CULTUKE.— The land intended for sugar beets shouldbeplowedin the autumntoa i 
depth of at least 9 inches and subsoiled 6 or 7 inches deeper. In the spring the surface 
of the soil should be reduced to perfect tilth by thorough cultivation immediately be- 
fore planting. Plantingmay be by hand or by drill. If the drill is used 15 to 26 pounds 
of seed per acre are required, if the planting is by .hand, only 10 to 15 pounds. If 
the soil is moist the seed should be covered only one-half inch, if dry one and one- 
half inches. As soon as the beets are large enough to mark the rows cultivation 
Avith the horse or hand hoe may be commenced. When the plants have four leaves 
they should be thinned to eight or ten inches apart, leaving the most vigorous plants. 
At the same time a thorough hoeing by hand should be made. About once a week 
during the season of growth (6 to 8 weeks) the crop should be cultivated with nar- 
row cultivators to remove weeds and keep the soil in proper tilth. Care should be 
taken not to injure the leaves or root of the beet. 

Manuring.— The soil ingredients most essential for the sugar beet are nitrogen, 
phosphoric acid, potash, lime, and magnesia. The last two can ordinarily be sup-' 
plied by the press cakes from the sugar factory. If, however, lime is needed land 
plaster, burned lime, or ground shells may be used. Potash may be supplied in the 
form of the molasses and other residues from the sugar factory, and of the ordinary 
commercial salts. Ground bone, superphosphate, or basic slag will supply the 
phosphoric acid; and dried blood, tankage, cotton-seed meal, or nitrate of soda, the 
nitrogen. Stable manure should be apiJied to the previous crop and not to the beets 
themselves. If nitrogenous fertilizers are applied too freely the value of the beet 
for sugar making will be reduced. Beets should follow wheat or other cereal, A 
good rotation is wheat, beets, clover, potatoes. 

Harvesting.— The time varies, but in general beets planted the first week in 
May may be harvested about October 20. Harvesting may be delayed if there is no 
danger of a second growth. The beets should first be loosened in the soil and then 
removed by hand. For looseniiig the beets a specially devised machine may be need. 
The tops are next removed by cutting the necks of the beets with a large knife. 
The topped beets are thrown into piles and covered with the tops until they can be 
delivered at the factory. 

Manufacture of sugar.— This is carried on in large factories by the diffusion 
process. 

"The beets are first conveyed to washing-tanks provided with suitable apparatus 
for keeping them in motion and transferring them toward the end from which the 



• SUGAR BEET. 335 

fresh water enters, in order that the whole of the atlhoring soil, together with any 
sand and pebbles, may be completely removed. By a suitable elevator the beets are 
next taken to a point above the center of the battery, whence they are dropped into 
a slicing apparatus, by which they are sliced into pieces of greater or less length and 
of small thickness, so that when placed in the cells of the battery they Avill not lie 
so closely together as to prevent the circulation of the difl'usion juices. The slices, 
commonly called cossettes, next pass into the diffusion battery, in which the sugar 
is extracted in the usual way. The extracted cossettes are carried through a press, 
by which a portion of the water is removed, and they are then in suitable condition 
for use as cattle food. The diffusion juices are carried to carbonatation or satura- 
tion tanks, where they are treated with from 2 to 3 per cent of their weight of lime 
and afterward with carbonic acid until nearly all of the lime is precipitated. The 
slightly alkaline juices are next passed through filter presses, by which the precipi- 
tated lime and other matter are removed. The juices pass next to a second set of 
carbonatation tanks, in which they undergo a treatment in each particular similar 
to the one just mentioned, except that the quantity of lime added to the second satu- 
ration is very small as compared with that of the first. The refiltered juices from 
the second saturation are carried to the multiple-effect vacuum-pan and reduced to 
the condition of sirup. The sirups are taken into the vacuum strike pan and reduced 
to sugar called masse cuite, containing from 6 to 10 per cent of water. The uncrys- 
tallized sirups together with the water are separated from the sugar by the centrif- 
ugals, and form the molasses. The molasses is either reboiled and a second crop of 
crystals obtained, or is treated in various ways for separating the sugar which it 
still contains. One of these methods which has come into general use is known as 
the Steffen process. Another method consists in separating the salts which prevent 
the crystallization of the sugar by the process of osmosis. A third method consists 
in the use of stroutium salts for the separation instead of lime salts, as in the Steffen 
process; or, finally, the molasses may be subjected to fermentation and distillation 
and the sugar therein contained thus converted into alcohol. 

''The above is the general method used for the manufacture of raw sugar. If re- 
fined sugar is to be made the juices and sirups are passed over bone black to de- 
colorize them and the crystals are washed in the centrifugal in order to make them 
perfectly white. Another method consists in treating the juice with sulphurous 
acid and purifying the crystals by washing them with sirups of varying degrees of 
consistency until all the molasses adhering thereto is washed away." ( U. S. D. A. 
Farmers' B. 3.) 

The results of experiments by the Department, the stations, and farmers show 
that sugar beets with satisfactory sugar content may be grown at least in portions of 
California, Colorado, Michigan, Minnesota, Nebraska, Nevada, South Dakota, Utah, 
Wisconsin, and Wyoming. It remains to be determined whether the economic con- 
ditions will warrant the establishment of factories. If the industry is to be suc- 
cessful not only ample capital for the equipment of factories must be secured, but 
the manufacturer must have assurances that the farmers in his locality will perform 
the painstaking labor necessary to produce good beets and will see to it that the 
quality of the beets is kept up by the use of good seed. 

Detailed information regarding the history and ciilture of sugar beets and the 
process of making beet sugar may be found in the following publications of the U. 
S. Department of Agriculture : Special B. 2S {ISSO); Division of Chemistry B. 5, B. 37, 
B. SO, B. So. (The last two give accounts of experiments in 1890 and 1891.) 

The work of the stations on sugar beets has been in testing varieties, analyzing 
samples of beets grown at the stations and by farmers, and publishing information 
regarding the methods of culture with special reference to the needs of their several 
localities. The earliest work was by the California Station in 1876 and the Connecti- 
cut State and North Carolina Stations in 1878. 

The following list includes most of the publications on sugar beets issued by the 



336 



SUGAR CANE. 



stations: Jrl: 11. 1890, p. 11; Cal. It. lS7G-'77, j>. 50, It. 1S7S-79, p. 53, B. ISSO, . 
J). 3S, It. ISDO, pp. 115, 29G; Colo. B. 7, B. 11, B. 14, R. 1SS8, p. 149, B. 1890, p. 191; 
Conn. State B. 1878, p. 134; Lid. B. IS, B. 31, B. 34, B. 39; Iowa B.8, B. 12, B. 15, B. 
17; Kaus. B. 10, B. 31; Ky. B. 5; Mil. R. 1890, p. 133; Mass. State R. ISSS, p. 139, R. 

1889, p. 170, R. 1890, p\^. 179, 300; Mich. B. 46, B. 08, B. 71, B. 82, R. 1889, p. 84; 
Minn. B. 2, B. 14, B. 21, R. 1888, pp. 102, 395; Mo. B. 17; Nehr. B. 13, B. 16, B. 21; 
Nev. B. 12, B. 13, R. 1891, p. 22; N. Y. Cornell B. 25; N. C. B. {1878), R. 1879, p. 90; 
N. DaJc B. 5; Ohio B.vol. V, 2; Ore. B. 4,B. 17; S. Dale. B. 14, B. 16, B. 19, B. 27, B. 

1890, p. 10; Utah B. 1891, p. 43; Wash. B. 3; Wis. B. 20, B. 30, It. 1891, p. 170; Wyo. 
B. 3. 

Sugar cane {Saccharum officinarum). — A jjerennial plant of the grass family. It 
grows G to 14 feet liigli, has broad leaves shaped somewhat like those of Indian coin, 
and does not produce seed in the United States. It is propagated by planting the 
entire cane. After the first year the growth springs from the stubble of the 
preceding year. Sugar cane has been cultivated in Asia from remote ages, and is 
now extensively grown in tropical countries in both hemispheres. In the United 
States it is not cultivated on a large scale north of Louisiana. Louisiana is the 
great sugar State of the Union and maintains an experiment station for the study of 
questions relating to the growth of sugar cane and the manufacture of sugar. This 
station was first located at Kenner and is now at Audnbou Park, New Orleans. 
Unless otherwise noted, statements in this article are based qu the work of the 
Louisiana Sugar Station. 

Varieties. — Two varieties of sugar cane are popular in Louisiana, the purple and 
the striped or red ribbon cane. At the sugar station the striped cane has given the 
heavier yield and the higher per cent of sugar. The striped cane has more foliage 
and grows lager, but i)roducos less stalks to the acre than the pnrple. The latter 
is believed to be more hardy and to stand a greater degree of cold, and has less ten- 
dency to variation of type than the striped cane. A number of foreign varieties 
were fouud to be identical with the valuable variety La Price. Other promising 
foreign varieties are Mexican Striped, Batavian Striped, Pupuha, and Kokea. Some 
foreign varieties are yearly improving as they become better acclimated. When 
foreign varieties were grown at the stations at Baton Eougo and Calhoun the growth 
was nuich diminished, but in many instances the sugar content was increased. A 
foreign cane called Japanese or Zwinga withstands considerable cold and hence is 
promising for latitudes just north of the sugar-cane belt. It is a hard white cane of 
good length, small diameter, and relatively low sugar content. 

Composition. — Naturally the composition of sugar cane varies greatly with differ- 
ent seasons and localities. The following table gives results of some analyses made 
at the Louisiana Station and at the same time aifords data as to total yield of cane 
planted at different distances. 

Experiments in different widths of rows in stuhhle cane for 1891. 







Averajre 

weight 

of stalks. 


Nu7iiber 
of stalks 
per acre. 


Tield 
per acre. 




Analy 


sis of juice. 




'-2 
H 


6 
m 
o 

o 

3 

m 


6 

3 


Purity 
coefficient. 




Per 
cent. 


Pounds. 




Tons. 


Per 

een t. 


Per ' 
cent. 


Per 
cent. 




3 rows 3 feet wide 


9.70 


2.38 


34, 813 


41.45 


14.53 


10.91 


1.61 


75.09 


3 rows 4 feet wide 


9.55 


2.42 


27, 720 


33.21 


14.09 


10.50 


1.60 


74.52 


3 rows 5 feet wide 


10.84 


2.46 


30, 520 


37.60 


13.79 


10.50 


1.42 


76.14 


3 rows 6 feet wide 


9.81 


2.56 


28, 140 


36.05 


14.03 


10.30 


1.73 


73.41 


3 rows 7 feet wide 


9.37 


2.59 


27, 560 


35.66 


14.63 


11.40 


1.42 


77.92 






2.76 


25, 564 


35.15 


14.26 


10.50 


1.69 


73.63 







SUGAR CANE. 337 

Analyses of full grown but immature cane cut September 25 indicate that a ton 
of cane clelivored at the mill removes from the soil 1.5 pounds nitrogen, 2.17 pounds 
potasli, 1.48 pounds phosphoric acid, and 0.8 pound lime. 

Culture. — The laud is prepared with very large plows. The stalks of sugar cane 
are i)laced at the bottom of a furrow and covered. A single coutinuous line of canes 
is occasionally planted, but usually two or more stalks are laid side by side, making 
double, treble, or quadruple lines of plant cane. Two stalks have given better 
results than any other number. Late iall or early winter planting causes an earlier 
spring growth than spring planting and is therefore preferred. The stalks are 
usually cut into sections, so that in cultivation the planted stalks are not so easily 
plowed up. Experiments in cuttiug r.y. not cutting plant cane showed a loss in ton- 
nage from cutting. The same experiment repeated another season, but on cane from 
the stubble, showed injurious effects as the result of cutting the stalks into sections. 

Cane rows are usually 5 to 7 feet wide. Experiments have resulted in a heavier 
tonnage from 3-foot rows than from any other, but proper cultivation of such nar- 
row rows is impracticable and the amount of cane required in planting is very great. 
After making allowance for the extra amount of «eed cane necessary, many experi- 
ments indicate that it would be economical to narrow the rows as far as is consistent 
with good cultivation (see table above). 

Using two stalks and a la]), the following amounts of cane are required to plant an 
acre: In 3-foot rows, 9^r tons; in 4-foot rows, 7 tons; in 5-foot rows, 5.6 tons; in 6- 
foot rows, 4f tons; in 7- foot rows, 4 tons. 

It is customary to plant the whole stalk, but the Louisiana Station has shown 
that the upper portion of the stalk, the poorest for sugar-making, equals or sur- 
passes the richer lower portion for seed. From experiments it seems that stubble 
cane is the equal, if not the superior, of plant cane for seed. Stripping off dead 
leaves during growth and preventing the growth of all shoots, except the original 
sprouts, have not giveu favorable results. 

Sugar cane is given clean culture till June, when it is laid by. 

Surface irrigation, subirrigation, and tile drainage all proved very profitable for 
cane in south Louisiana. The average of many experiments at Kenner, Louisiana, 
showed a gain of 672 pounds of sugar per acre, or 4.38 tons of cane, due to tile 
drainage. 

Manuring. — The soil of the sugar belt of Louisiana is rich in potash, and hence 
this element in fertilizers has giveu no striking and immediate result. A combina- 
tion of nitrogen and phosphoric acid is needed for sugar cane. An acre needs from 
24 to 48 pounds of nitrogen, which can be most cheaply supplied in 350 to 700 pounds 
of cotton-seed meal. The nitrogen from sulphate of ammonia has been slightly 
more effective, bi;t its cost prohibits its use. The soluble phosphates in combina- 
tion with nitrogen have been slightly beneficial; 40 to 70 pounds of phosphoric acid 
per acre is the amount recommended. Pea vines turned under gave an increase, 
extending even to the second year's stubble. Plats from which pea vines had been 
cut for hay gave a good yield, but smaller than where vines were turned under. 

An excessive quantity of nitrogen produces a heavy tonnage of low sugar content 
and of a character difficult to work up into sugar. At the Mississippi Station ashes 
used as a fertilizer increased the percentage of pure sugar. 

Potation. — When properly fertilized a field may remain in cane for a number of 
years. Exhaustive crops should uot precede cane. One of the best preparations for 
cane is a crop of peas, which should be turned under in the fall. 

Hakvesting. — Sugar cane is stripped of its leaves, cut, and hauled to the sugar 
mill in November or December. The yield per acre at the Louisiana Sugar Station 
has usually been between 30 and 40 tons of cane, each ton yielding from 125 to 240 
pounds of sugar, besides molasses. On poor upland, at Calhoun, Louisiana, and 
with a cheap mill, each acre in sugar cane gave 1,600 pounds of sugar and lOGj 
gallons of molasses, or a total value of $85.35 per acre. 

20U4— :r^o. 15 ^22 



338 SULLA. 

Sugar-making. — Sugar is manufactured either by the roller-iiiill system or by the 
diifusion process. The plant for the latter is expensive, consisting of tanks, vacuum 
pans, centrifugals, etc. The advantage of the diffusion process over grinding lies 
in the more complete extraction of the sugar by the former process. The Louisiana 
Station, under the diffusion system, has extracted from 93.58 per cent to 96.10 per 
cent of tlie total sugar in the cane, .and has secured more than 240 pounds of sugar 
from a ton of cane. 

The apparatus for sugar-making on a small scale is described in La. B. 5, '2d scr 
This outfit is said to cost from $50 to $300. Its essential parts are a roller mill (lor 
horse power), a sulphur box, in which the juice meets the fumes of suljjhur, and au 
evaporator or cooker. After sulphuring, the juice is neutralized with lime. After 
the juice has cooked to a thick sirup it is poured into a cooler. Here stirring induces 
graining, after which in another vessel the liquid portion, molasses, is allowed to 
drip or drain away the molasses. With this outfit at the Louisiana Station at 
Calhoun, each ton of cane yiehled 132.08 pounds of sngar and 105.50 pounds of 
molasses. 

(Fla. B. 16; La. B. 7, B. 10, B. 14, B. SO, B. S3, B. S7, B. 28, and B. 5, B. 6, B. 7, B. 
8, B. 9, B. 11, B. 14, 2d ser. ; Miss. R. 1889, p. 20; S. C. R. 1889, p. 343.) 

Sulla (if«Z^s«rMmcoj-OHar/«;n) [also known as Soola clover or French honeysuckle]. — 
A perennial leguminous plant, somewhat resembling red clover. For analyses, see 
Mass. Stale R. 1890, pp. 292, 297, R. 1891, pp. 316, 323. At the Massachusetts State 
Station (ii. 1890,p.l74)%\\\\a, made a healthy and vigorous growth, shading the 
ground well. It is proof against the average winter. At the Nebraska Station {B. 6) 
it made a small growth. 

, Sumac (Rhus spp.). — In Cal. R. 1882, p. 108, are notes upon the south European 
or tanner's sumac, R. eoriaria, and incidentally ui)on American species. In view of 
the approaching exhaustion of the oak bark suitable for tanning in California, and 
of the rather low tannin content of the sumacs there nati\ e, it is deemed a matter 
of no small importance that the tanner's sumac Avill thrive in the State. "Its 
growth here in Berkeley has been astonishing, and it has proved itself hardy in the 
open air, even when very young." It is judged, therefore, that it will prove adapted 
to '* the coast region of the State generally, its true place being no doubt on our 
poison-oak lands." It is easily propagated, pieces of subterranean runners readily 
forming plants in one season. Considerations are adduced tending to show tiiat its cul- 
ture would be profitable. It is pointed out that, notwithstanding a large consumption 
of the product of Eastern species, the price of the Europeaa sunuic is still twice as 
great, the former containing a coloring matter which prevents its use for white 
leather. To th^ suggestion that this difticulty may be overcome bv picking early in 
June, when the coloring matter is not present, it is objected that the foliage at that 
time is so full of water as greatly to increase the expense. The method of culture 
and handling the tanner's sumac as practiced in Europe is described. 

Sunflower {Helianihus annuus).—Au annual plant growing 10 or 12 feet high. Its 
showy flower head, with large yellow rays, contaius numerous large seeds, which 
yield about 15 per ceut of oil, used for adulterating olive oil, and for other 
purposes. The seeds are also useil as food for animal. . The New Vork State Station 
planted sunflower seed in hills 42 by 44 inches apart, four kernels to the hill. Tlie 
culture was the same as for corn. The yield of seed was 50 bushels, or 1,150 pounds 
per acre. The air-dry seed contained 20.50 per ceut of fat and 15.88 per cent of 
albuminoids. Drying the heads under cover is recommended. 

Superphosphates. — See Phosphates. 

Sweet corn (Zea mai/s var.). — See also Corn. The v.arieties of this group have 
often been consulered chiefly in tests of their merits for the table, but also some- 
what with reference to use as forage. 

Vakietie.s.— Tests are recorded in Colo. R. ISSS, p. 150, R. 1889, pp. 32, 102, 121, R. 
iS90, pp. 197, 210; Conn. State li. 1889, p. 232; III. B. 4, B. 8, B. 13; lud. B.18, B.31, 



SWEET POTATO. 339 

B. S4, B. 38; Ky. B. S2, B. 3S; La, B. 3, 2d ser.; Me. E. 1890, p. 103; Mass. Hutch B. 
7; Mich. B. 57, B. 70, B. 79; Minn. R. 1886, p. 340 R. 1888, p. 243; Nebr. B. 12, B. 19; 
Nvv. R. 1890, p. 19; N. Y. State R. 1882, p. 135, R. 1883, p. 47, R. 1884, p. 156, R. 1889, 
p. 320 R. 1800, p, 287; N. C. B, 74; Ohio R. 1884, p. 139, R. 1885, p. 123, R. 1886, p. 
178, R. 1887, p. 243; Fa. B 10, R. 1888, p. 145; Tenn. B. vol. Ill, 2; Utah B. 3, B. 
12; Vt. R. 1889, p. 135, R. 1890, p. 157. 

lu the Connecticut tests lor 1889 seed of two varieties from Eastern and Western 
sources was compared, tlie data including analyses of the product. The Massachu- 
setts Hatch test of 18J0 also included Eastern and Western seed of three varieties, 
and analyses for sugar content of all varieties are given. No very distinct conclu- 
sions were obtained in either case. In N. Y. State R. 1884, p. 156, full descriptions 
are given of 33 varieties, which are classified according to size of ear stalk, form of 
kernels, color of cob and kernels, etc. III. B, 4, B. 8, and B. 13 give the results 
of extensive garden tests of varieties. Full descriptions are given with classifica- 
tion as early, 'medium, or late, and according to color of ear. In the last of these 
bulletins a revision of the previous grouping is made so as to T)ring together all 
varieties which were substantially alike, and 49 were still found distinct enough to 
be left separate. The synonyms are given with the descriptions. 

Composition. — See Appendix, -I'ables I and III. Analyses with reference to sugar 
content are given in Mass. Hatch B. 7; Mass. State R. 1891, p. 336. 

In Me. R. 1889, p. 287, the manurial and food ingredients of four lots of sweet coru 
are given for stalks, husks, kernels, and cobs, separately. The kernel was found to 
contain only about 21 per cent of the total phosphoric acid, 22 jier cent of the pot- 
ash, and 41 per cent of the nitrogen, showing that the kernel might be sold, and yet 
a large part of the fertilizing ingredients retained on the farm. 

The successful crossing of sweet and flint corn is noted in Ohio R. 1883, p, 64. An 
experiment with fertilizers on sweet corn is reported in N. H. B. 10. 

Germination tests of the seed are recorded in III. B. 8; Me. R. 1888, p. 141; Mich. 
B. 57; N. Y. State R. 1883, p. 68; Ohio B. 1885, p. 153; Ore. B. 2. 

Sweet potato {Ipomwa batatas). — Variety tests are reported as follows: Jrlc. R. 

1889, p. 91, R. 1890, p. 123; La. B. 13, 2d ser.; Nebr. B. 12, B.19; N. Y. State R.1S89, 
p. 326, R. 1890; p. 296; N. C. B. 74. 

In La. B. 13, 2d ser., descriptions are given of 14 varieties, of which the forms of 
leaves are figured. These are placed in four classes, according to form of tubers 
(which are figured) and according to quality, as mealy or sugary. In the test at this 
station, besides yield and size of tubers for 14 varieties, the effects of frosts on the 
vines were observed. 

The tests in New York were to answer the question whether the sweet potato 
could be successfully grown in that State. The results at the station and in trials 
made by farmers were quite favorable. Directions for culture are given. A trial 
in Colorado {R. 1890, p. 205) indicated profit in growing sweet potatoes in that State 
also. 

Composition. — Analyses of the vines of two varieties occur in Ga. B. 4; of vines 
and tubers together for each of five varieties. Ark. R. 1890, p. I^i5 ; of vines and 
tubers separately for five varieties, Ga. B. 13; of tubers ot fourteen varieties, La. 
B. 13, 2d ser.; of tubers showing the effects of different fertilizers, N.J.R. 1892, p. 
132. The nutritive ratio for the vines as determined at the Georgia Station (B. 4) 
was about 1:5.89. The analysis of the vines, as judged at the Arkansas Station, 
showed them to be very va'uable as food for stock, by which also they were found to 
be relished at all times. (See Appendix, Table II.) 

CULTURK. — In Ala. College B. 5 {1887) it is urged that the sweet potato is the root 
crop suited to the cotton States instead of the turnip and beet, so much advocated in 
the North and in Europe. At this station {B. 31, n. ser.) the results of planting 
large vs. small seed justified the use of the former. At the Arkansas Station (R. 

1890, p. 127) high and low culture were compared, the result favoring the latter. 



340 SWEET POTATO, BLACK ROT. 

Removing four-fifths of the vines when well grown resulted in a large loss to the 
crop. 

In Ga. B. 11 and B. 17 methods of culture are discussed in some detail with recom- 
mendations. Experiments in planting at dittcrent distances favored the distance of 
2 by 3^ feet, 2J by 3.V following closely. Hill and flat culture were also compared 
{B. 17), with the advantage on the side of the latter. The difference in the result 
from planting large and small tubers was very small. Expeiiments at the Louisi- 
ana Station {B. 13, 2d ser.) indicated that plants must be set at least lo inches apart 
in the row for maximum yield. Some cultural notes occur in N. J. B., 1891, p. 124. 
Directions for sweet-potato culture are given in N. Y. Slate R. 1889, p. 326. At the 
Tennessee Station (J5, vol. Ill, 1) the results of several earlier and later plantings 
were compared, showing for those made from May 18 to .June 1 a larger yield with 
less unmerchantable tubers than for those made from April 27 to May 11. 

Manuring. — Experiments with fertilizers on sweet potatoes are recorded in Ala. 
College B. 5 {1887), B. 3, n. ser.; Ark. It. 1889, p. 91, E. 1890, p. 127; Del. B. 11; Ga. 
B. 11, B. 17; La. B. 27 {North La. B. 1889, p. 488), B. 8, 2d ser., B. 13, 2d ser.; N. J. 
B. 34, B. P, 11. 1883, pp. 16, 57, 96, li. 1890, p. 150, B. 1891, p. 124. 

Stohage. — The preservation of sweet potatoes has been somewhat investigated, 
especially at the Georgia Station. In view of the successful experience of a citizen 
of the State in preserving sweet potatoes in a pit under glass upon a floor with 
another floor above where they had light and air, similar conditions were secured 
for trial at the station {B. 2, B. 3), a similar pit being prepared and use being made 
also of a dry well. Of the potatoes placed in the pit November 23, all but 7 per cent 
wire sound April 1, but of those in the well nearly all were lost. The conditions of 
temperature and moisture were much the same, but there were some differences in 
circumstan( es of digging and amount of light. The subject was deemed to require 
further investigation, and expei iments with other methods, as noted in B. 11, B. 17, 
have also been undertaken. At the New York State Station {R. 1890, p. 206) tubers 
packed in dry road dust and kept at a temperature of 60*^ continued fit for the table 
till after the middle of January. At the South Carolina Station {B. 5, n. ser.) exper- 
iments were made in keeping small quantities of sweet potatoes packed with various 
materials in barrels. The materials used were sand, cotton seed, cotton hulls, dam- 
aged lint cotton, wheat bran, newspapers, and hay, of which dry sand and cotton 
hulls ga\e the best results. "Wrapping each potato with paper induced rapid 
decay, ' but "a double lining of paper next the barrel was fairly effective in keep- 
ing out cold and preventing rot." The keeping qualities of large and small tubers 
appeared about equal. 

In Ark. R. 1890, p. 127, where the tops of sweet potatoes are recommended for 
feeding stock, it is advised that they be ensiled, as thej^ do not cure readily into 
hay. 

Sweet potato, black rot {Ceratocyslis Jimbriata). — A potato affected with this 
fungous disease will exhibit one or more dark brown patches of irregular outline. 
'I he spots spread with considerable rapidity, and when about an inch in diameter 
the center breaks up in an irregular way. This fungus is usually present at dig- 
ging time, but is then so undeveloped as to pass unnoticed. It is very different 
from tlie soft rot, in that it is dry and inoffensive. Its spread is worst after digging, 
and any cut or bruised place will furnish a good place for its attack. This disease 
takes on several forms, and each is supplied with spores for its rapid spread. In 
every case the spores are formed underground, and how long they can retain their 
vitality is unknown. Wherever black rot is bad sweet potatoes should not be 
planted for some time. It is important also that healthy sets should be used. The 
seed potatoes and young plants might be advantageously treated with fungicides 
in the hotbed. It is well established that plants grown from diseased "seed" will 
spread the disease. All the spores of the fungus may be killed by heating the soil 
of the bed to a high +emperatui-e for several hours. This method of sterilization is 
only applicable to hotbeds. {Del. R. 1890, p. 90; N. J. B. 76, B. M.) 



TAMARIND. 341 

Sweet potato, dry rot {Phoma hatatw). — A fungous disease, in which the upper 
end of the root becomes dry and wrinkled, and numerous small pimples appear over 
its surface. The whole substance of the potato is attacked, and the usually plump, 
juicy tissue is replaced by a dry powder, making the root worthless. A rotation of 
croi>s, care in selection of seed, and the destruction of all diseased refuse are advised 
as preventive measures for this and other diseases of sweet potatoes. (N. J. B. 76.) 

Sweet potato, leaf blights. — Tbe disease caused by the fungus Phi/JIosiicta hata- 
iicola confines itself to tbe leaves of the sweet potato, and is troublesome in propor- 
tion to its abundance. It is distinguisbed by spots which are small at first but 
increase and coalesce xmtil a considerable portion of the leaf is involved. 

Another disease of the leaves of the sweet potato is the leaf mold, caxised by the 
fungus CysUqms ijiommv-paiidurana'. With this disease the leaves first lose their deep 
green color, and are more or less covered with brown patches which soon become 
dead and nearly black. Upon the under side there may be seen small patches of a 
whitish color. These places are where the skin is broken and multitudes of spores 
are escaping. There is another form of this fungus which is said not to grow on the 
cultivated sweet potato but the wild sweet potato or morning glory, sometimes 
called Man-of-theearth. This fungus produces gall-like bodies, filled with spores by 
which to carry itself over the winter. All such plants should be exterminated as a 
precautionary measure. The use of any of the more common fungicides will no 
doubt prove beneficial in the case of both these diseases. (N. J. B. 76.) 

Sw^eet potato, soft rot (Ehizopus nigricans). — A fungous disease most abundant 
in the storeroom. It is liable to show in spots where the skin has been broken by 
digging or hauling. Tbe potato becomes softened at the point of attack. From this 
point it spreads very rapidly until the whole becomes a soft, worthless mass. It may 
sometimes be present at the time of digging, but not usually. Dampness aids in the 
rapid growth. Sweet potatoes should be kept in an airy, dry room, at about the 
ordinary temperature of a living room. Above all they must be kept dry, {N. J. 
B. 76.) ' 

Sweet potato, soil rot (Acrocystis batatas). — This is one of the most destructive 
as well as least understood of the sweet potato diseases. It is known to attack the 
potato only through the very small rootlets, not being able to penetrate the epider- 
mis of the larger roots. The infested portion ceases to grow and the result is a small 
deformed root. Where the soil has become thoroughly infected it is almost impos- 
sible to grow this crop until several years have intervened. It is thought the char- 
acter of soils and fertilizers may have something to do with the rapidity of growth 
and spread of this fungus, but of this little is kuown. (X. J. B. 76, B. M.) 

Sycamore {PIata))us spp.). — An investigation of the fuel values of several native 
woods by the Georgia Station (B.S) included that of the American plane-tree, or 
sycamore {P.occidentaUs). A full ash analysis is given. For analysis showing fer- 
tilizing constituents of ash see Appendix, Table V. 

The "oriental sycamore" (plane-tree) is noted in Cal. E. 18S5-S6, p.121, as "a, 
beautiful straight-growing tree of very rapid growth, seemingly well adapted to our 
climate. For avenues and street planting it is well suited. The timber is valuable 
and used for furniture and other cabinet work." 

Sylviuite. — See Potash. 

Syrphus flies. — Small two-winged, rapid-flying flies, thelarvne of which are very 
destructive to plant lice. The larvae are maggots resembling leeches in shai)e. In 
color they are usually rather green, becoming grayish as they grow older. They are 
very active in their search for plant lice, the juices of which they suck. As their 
appetites are always good and their feeding capacity nearly unlimited they destroy 
very many lice in a short time, making them especially A^aluable in protecting the 
grain crops. (Mich. B. 18S9, p. 251; Nebr. B. 14; N. J. B. lS90,p. 502.) 

Tamarind {Tamarindus indica). — Tbe tamarind as tested at the California Berkeley 
Station (iJ. lS8G,p. 67) did not make much progress either outdoors or indoors. 



342 TANKAGE. 



Tankage — The dried residue from tauks in which fat has been rendered. (See 
Fertilizers and Appendix, Table V.) 

Tares —See Vciclx. 

Taro (Colocasia anfiquorum var. escitlcnfa). — This food-plant of the Pacific islands, 
■besides being cultivated for ornament here and there in California, has given some 
signs of attaining economic importance. In Cal. B. 95 an account is given of its 
qualities aud the method of growing it, and tubers are offered for distribution. 
"The tuber or corn is highly palatable and nutritious either boiled, baked, or made 
into bread. The leaves are also said to be palatable cooked as spinach." Taro may- 
be grown in common garden soil or in wet places, even enduring complete sub- 
mergence. 

Tennessee Station, Knoxville. — Organized by the trustees of the University of 
Tennessee June 8, 1882, and reorganized under act of Congress in 1887 as a depart- 
ment of the University of Tennessee. The staff consists of the president of the col- 
le"-e director and botanist, assistant director, chemist, agriculturist, horticulturist, 
and assistant chemist. The principal lines of work are botany, soils, field experi- 
ments with fertilizers, field crops, vegetables, and fruits, and feeding experiments. 
Up to .January 1, 189.3, the station had published 2 annual reports and 27 bulletins. 
Revenue in 1892, $1.5,000. 

Teosinte {Euchlce.na hixnrians). — A grass of tropical nativity, closely allied to 
and somewhat resembling Indian corn. It is said to have been introduced into this 
country from Central or South America, although it was first cultivated in Aus- 
tralia. In its native habitat it grows freely, often attaining a height of from 10 to 
15 feet in a few months. It "suckers out" or "tillers" to a remarkable degree, 
often as many as thirty to fifty suckers springing from a single stalk. In this coun- 
try the climate is not hot enough nor are the seasons long enough to ripen the seed, 
except in a very few places. It is a tall and rapidly growing plant, having a large 
number of long leaves, greatly resembliug the blades of corn. Teosinte, while re- 
quiring a semi-tropical climate to mature its seed, will do well as a forage plant as 
far north as Kansas and Pennsylvania. {Kans. B. 18, B. 1888, p. 65, E. 1889, p. 43; 
Fa. B. 1888, p. 44.) In Michigan it has been grown 4 or 5 feet high, with stalks 
small and leaves long and narrow. It was there planted too close or it might have 
done much better. It was tried in Vermont, but did not give satisfixction ( Vt. B. 
1888, p. 15). In Kansas it has been tested for several years and is well liked as a 
forao-e plant. It stands drought very well, much better than corn, and the yield is 
enormous, the average annual crop for three years at the Kansas Station having been 
a little more than 23 tons of green forage per acre. It is of especial value as a green 
fodder when other forage is dried up. Stock of all kinds seem fond of it. There is 
no waste either when green or dry, as the stalks are tender, and cattle eat leaves and 
all. In Kansas two crops may be cut in the course of a season, but the best results 
are obtained by a single cutting in September, before there is any frost. It should 
be planted in rows 3 feet apart and thinned until the plants are about a foot apart. 
To plant in this manner one pound of seed will be required for an acre. When so 
planted, it will often sucker out until twenty or more stalks are borne on a single 
stool. {Bans. B.IS, B. 1888, p. 65, B. 1889, p. 43.) In Texas it has given good results 
wherever tried, as both a green and a dry forage. The quality and quantity equal, 
if they do not exceed, any other forage plant. It is said to be perennial in its native 
region, but experience has shown that it must be treated as an annual in this coun- 
try. It grows to a height of 9 feet in Texas and produces three crops a year, but 
does not mature its seed {Tex. B. S, B. 13, B. 1888, p. 42). In Louisiana it has been 
grown to a considerable extent and in some parts has matured seed {La. B. 8, 2d 
ser., B. 1891, p. 11). Three crops are usually cut, but a single cutting between Sep- 
tember 15 and 30 will be found to give a yield of superior quality, and the quantity 
will be but little less than the total l*)r three cuttings. In Georgia the yield is 






TOBACCO. 343 

about 19 tons per acre on the average and the fodder is considered of a supcaior 
qnality (Ga. li. 12). At tlie Oregon Station {B. 4) teosinte is not a success, but is 
said to do fairly well in tlie soutbcru part of the State. 

Analyses of te sinte are given in Uam. State It. 1889, pp. 17S, 200, It. 1801, pp. S16, 
S22; Tex. D. 13; Ga. B. 12; 0. E. S. B. 11. 

Texas blue grass. — See Grasses. 

Texas fever. — See Southern cat lie fever. 

Texas Station, College Station.— Organized uuder act of Congress January 
25, 1888, as a departineut of the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas. 
The staff consists of the president of the college, director and agriculturist, chem- 
ist, veterinarian, mycologist and assistant chemist, assistant agriculturist, assistant 
to director, and assistant chemist. The principal lines of work are field experi- 
nuMits with tield crops, vegetables, and fruits; diseases of plants; feeding experi- 
ments; veteriniiry science and i)ractice; and dairying. Up to January 1, 1893, the 
station had published 4 annual reports and 25 bulletins. Keveuue in 1892, $18,972. 

Thistles. — See Weeds. 

Thomas slag. — See Phosphates and Fertilizers. 

Timothy. — See Grasses. 

Tobacco (Xicoliria tabacnm). — An annual plant growing from 3 to 6 feet high, with 
large ovate leaves sometimes 2 feet hmg and 1 foot wide. 

In 1889 the United States produced 488,225,896 pounds of tobacco. Of this amount 
Kentucky produced 45.44 per cent. The other principal tobacco-growing States are 
North Carolina, Virginia. Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Wisconsin, and Connect- 
icut. 

Varieties. — There are many varieties of tobacco, and the proper choice between 
these depends on the character of the soil and climate and on the market. The fol- 
lowing are recommended by the Alabama Statinn: 

"For dark, heavy, rich shipping, the James River White stem, James River Blue 
Pry or, and Medley Pry or; * * * for sweet fillers. Sweet Ornico, and Flanagan; 
for stemming into strips for the European marlcet, Hester, Tuckahoe, and Big Ori- 
noco; for mahogany wrappers, Flan.igan, Primus, and Long-Leafed Gooch; for cut- 
ters, Hyco, Yellow Orinoco, Granville Yellow, Yellow Pryor; for yellow wrappers 
and fillers, Sterling, Granville, White Stem, Yellow Orinico, and Yellow Pryor." 
White Burley is largely srowu on limestone soils. Colo. B. 10 states that Havana 
Seed Leaf is best for that State. In Colorado the White Burley matured earliest and 
was easily cured. Other cigar tobaccos, easily handled, were Connecticut Seed Leaf, 
Vuelta Abajo, and Missouri Broad Leaf. The Florida Statioa states that cigar tobacco 
of excellent quality has been grown on the station farm. 

CoMPOSiTiox. — Analyses reported in Ta. i?. i^ indicate that a crop yielding 1,000 
pounds of leaf tobacco contains the following amounts of fertilizing constituents in 
the entire plant: Nitrogen, 66.75 pounds; ^jhosphoric acid, 8.68 pounds; potash, 85.41 
pounds; lime, 68.94 pounds. 

(See also Colo. B. 10; Conn. State B. 1884, p. 07; Ey. It. 1888, p. 27; N. Y. State B. 
71 {1883).) 

CULTURK. — Pr(parafiov of seed bed. — Tobacco seeds are planted in hot beds, cold 
frames, or open-air beds, according to the time when sown and the climate of each 
locality. The young plants are sensitive to cold, and hence in the seed bed usually 
require the protection of brush, cloth, or glass. Newly cleared land, well drained, 
but not delicient in moisture, is preferred for the seed bed, since it is more nearly 
free from g^-ass and weed seeds than old laud. But clean cultivated laud, made very 
rich with well-rotted manure, or with fertilizers, will answer. All manure applied 
to the seed bed should be free from grass seed, and should be applied about a month 
before the tobacco seed is planted. Still further to destroy weed seed and to furnish 



344 TOBACCO. 

a potassic fertilizer, the bed should be burned. Tliis is done by building on the spot 
a lir« of brush or wood, letting it buni about an hour in one place and then drawing 
the tire on to another part of the bed. Avoid burning when the ground is wet. 
After tlie ashes cool all lumps of charcoal are raked off. If a large bed is to be pre- 
pared it may be broken both ways with the colter. For a small bed on new ground 
an old ax may be used, cutting into the ground till the bed is divided by the ax fur- 
rows into sections about 6 inches square. In this way all roots are cut into pieces 
about 6 inches long. The soil is then fined with mattock or rake, and all roots arc 
taken from the bed and manure worked in. In all of this preparation the subsoil 
should not be brought to the surface. For an open-air bed or cold frame, boards 
should be placed around the bed, making the frame about 20 inches high on the 
noi'th side and 10 inches on the south side. A covering of thin cloth is then put on 
and held in place by various devices. 

Sowing the seed. — Different amounts of seed are recommended by various authori- 
ties. Ala. College B. 37 and N. C. B. 86 recommend one tablespoouful for every 100 
square yards of seed bed. A good stand means about 1,000 plants per square yard 
{Ala. B. 37). A later sowing will guard against the calamities which so frequently 
destroy the young plants. Avoid seeding too thick or the plants will be dwarfed. 
The seed is mixed with ashes, or other light colored substance, and usually sown 
broadcast over the surface. Sowing half the seed in one direction and then cross- 
sowing the remainder will secure an even distribution of seed. 

The seeds are covered by whipping the soil with a light brush, by tramping with 
the feet, or by rolling. Fine brush, placed on the bed after the plants are up, serves 
to protect from frost and to preserve the moisture in the soil. The bed must be 
well drained, and all drains should be so arranged that no water can flow over any 
of the seeded surface, since the drift would cover the seed too deeply. 

Date of seeding. — The date of seeding varies with the latitude. The aim is to sow 
as early as possible without sitbjecting the plants to excessive cold. Late sowings 
suffer most from insect ravages. In Florida the seed may be sown as early as Janu- 
ary 1. In Virginia, the middle of February is an early date for sowing. In Colo- 
rado seeding about April 1 in hot beds was successful. 

Treatment of young plants. — The seed bed should be located near a water supply, as 
it is necessary, by frequent waterings, to keep the plants growing rapidly. When 
the leaves are as large as a quarter of a dollar the cover of the frame is removed, or 
it may be removed sooner if the seed has been sown late and the weather is warm. 
Applications of dilute liquid manure will hasten the growth, or other manures may 
be applied when the leaves of the plants are dry. If glass has been used as a 
covering of the seed bed, it is especially important that the plants should be gradu- 
ally hardened before transplanting. 

Preparation of the field. — Prepare the land, as for a garden, by several plowings 
and harrowings. Lay oft" the rows about 3i feet apart, applying the fertilizer in the 
drill, and with turn-plow throw up beds above the fertilizer. On heavy soils, hills 
about 3 feet apart are formed with the hoe. On sandy soils, the elevated bed is 
sufficient. The distance at which plants should be set varies with the variety 
grown, with the character of the soil, and with the climate. At greater distances 
than indicated above, tobacco increases in size and coarseness. When more 
crowded, the size and weight of tobacco are decreased, while silkiness and close- 
ness of texture are gained. The Colorado Station recommends 3 feet by 2 feet for 
Havana varieties, or 4 feet by 3 feet for the larger kinds. 

Transplanting. — A tobacco plant should have leaves at least as large as a silver 
dollar before it is set in the field. The proper time for transplanting is when the 
largest leaves are about 2^ inches wide. If possible, choose showery weather; but 
by watering after transplanting, tobacco plants may be set outin dry weather. One 
man drops the i)lants at regular intervals and another following sets the plant in a 
hole made by a sharpened stick, pressing the earth firmly about the roots. 



TOBACCO. 345 

The plant bed must bo tliorongbly wet before the plauts are drawn. The season 
for transpJautiug varies -with the latitude, from April to June. 

Cultiral ion. —As soon as the plauts are firmly rooted the earth near the hill is cul- 
tivated with a hoe. During the season the plow may be used in several cultiva. 
tions, but after the tobaceo plants have attained considerable size only hoe cultiva- 
tion is practicable. 

Topping, priming, and sprovfing.—AB soon as the buttons, which would develop 
into blossoms, appear topping is in order. This consists in pinching off with the 
tinger nails the flower shoot and some of the upper leaves of the plant. Priming or 
pruning, which is done at the same time as topping, consists in taking off 4 or .5 of 
the bottom leaves. On the bright varieties these lower leaves are sometimes allowed 
to remain as a protection to the other leaves. 

The number of leaves left after top])ing and priming varies from 8 to 13, according 
to the class of tobacco. The smaller number of leaves gives a heavit^r, stronger 
grade of tobacco. After topping, sprouts or suckers put out from the axis of every 
leaf. To break these olf and to pick off the worms, which at that season are plen- 
tiful, the laborers must go over the crop at least once every ten days. 

Manuring.— In Conn. Stale R. 18S4, p. 104, the following statrments occur: 

"It would be going too far to assert that the use of chlorides (muriates) of fish 
or slaughter-house fertilizers mnfit hirariahly produce tobacco of inferior quality. 
* * * The tobacco-grower will, however, do well to avoid the use of the above- 
named fertilizers, which experience in all countries agrees in indicating to be as a 
rule likely to injure the burning (luality of the leaf." Colo. B. 10 quotes European 
authorities on the same subject. "Their [Schloesing's and Nessler's] experiments 
show that potiish salts, sulphates, and carbonates act beneficially upon the quality, 
while the chloride injures it." At the Kentucky Station nitrate of soda gave a little 
larger yield of tobacco than did cotton-seed meal or sulphate of ammonia. Ky. B. 
28 also states, as a result of experiments on the soil of the experiment farm, that 160 
pounds of the nitrate of soda per acre or 340 pounds of cotton-seed meal furnished 
sufficient nitrogen for the tobacco crop. The conclusion was also reached that more 
than 160 pounds of either sulphate or nitrate of potash would increase the yield. 
The muriate gave the larger crop. No test was made as to the effect of the various 
potash salts on the burning quality of tobacco. In this series of experiments every 
fertilizer used, nitrate of soda, acid phosphate, and sulphate of potash, and every 
combination but one, afforded considerable net profit. The highest net profit re- 
sulted from the use of a complete fertilizer, and was nearly equaled by the profit on 
a plat fertilized with sulphate of potash and nitrate of soda. 

The following table embodies the results secured by a Virginia tobacco-planter, 
R. L. Eaglaud, of Halifax County, who conducted the experiment for the Virginia 
Station. 



346 



TOBACCO. 



Effects of different fertilizers on tobacco. 





Kinds of fertilizers. 


u 
c 

ca 

p. 

■s* 

o 

a 


Yield of the various grade's per acre. 


Financial results. 


a 

o 
d 


■3 

00 


'i 

-a 

1 

m 




p 

1 


So 

§ 
m 





P 

g 
P- 

3 
5 


Cost of fertili- 
zers per acre. 

Value of to- 
bacco per acre. 


Value of in- 
creased yield 
per acre'. 


u 
1 


f 

r 
1 

2- 

I 

■1, 
•1 

1 


Sulphate of aramonia 


Lis. 
SO- 
SO 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 
130 

186 

112 
123 

160 
66 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


, 


$45. 22 

41.92 

60.62 
44.16 

23.65 




Sulphate of potash. . 

Acid phosphate 

Nitrate of soda 

Dried blood 


120 (■ 
114J 
72 1 
80 ! 


105 1 3C7 

i 

1 


135 ■ 298 


1, 035 i$8. 25 
i 


$131. 20 

127. 90 

146. 60 
130. 14 

109.63 
85.98 


$36. 97 


Sulphate of potash.. 

Acid phosphate 

Dried blood 

Sulphate of potash. . 

Acid phosphate 

Nitrate of soda 

Sulphate of potash . . 

Acid phosphate 

Sulphate of iininionia 
Sulphate of i)otash. . 

Acid jihosphate 

Unfertilized 


120 1" 

160 1 
120 j- 
114 J 
1431 
120 j- 
114 J 
1001 
120 i 
II4J 


105 

170 
127 

100 
44 


253 

363 

278 

209 
240 


115 

121 
140 

94 
132 


354 

280 
250 

267 
280 


1,013 

1,046 
946 

887 
762 


8.25 

8.25 
8.25 

8.25 


33.67 

52.37 
35.91 

15.40 














1 











Dried blood not only gave the largest yield, but the color of tobacco on that plat 
was blighter during growth and after curing. There was less field-fire where dried 
blood and nitrate of soda were used, separately or iu combination, than where no 
fertilizer was applied. The unfertilized i)lat had by fir the most stalk rot or "hol- 
low stalk." In every case the use of a complete fertilizer was profitable. 

Rotation.— Wheat is frequently sown after tobacco (JV. J. R. 1882, p. 97). The 
North Carolina Station suggests that crimson clover should be sown after tobacco. 
The crops preceding tobacco in a rotation should be of such kind as draw the least 
potash from the soil. 

( UKiNG.— From eighty to one hundred and twenty days after transplanting the 
plants are ready for harvesting. When ripe enough to cut, the leaves have turned 
to a light shade of green or greeni.sh yellow, and have become thick and brittle, so 
that the leaf cracks when folded together between the thumb and finger. 

With a large knife tUe stalk is split about two-thirds of the way to the ground, 
and i.-s then cut off several inches below the split portion. Alter wilting in the field 
so as to become limber, 8 or 10 stalks are strung on a stick about 4^ feet long, the 
split stalk strad'Hing the stick, leaves luinging down. 

These sticks, with their burdens, are laid across joists in the tobacco barn— a tall, 
closely built structure. Barns may be built for from 1 to 5 or more tiers. Heat 
from furnaces is conveyed by two sheet-iron return fines, about 12 inches in diame- 
ter, which are near the fioor. The fires are kept up night and day for two to four 
days. There are several methods— or, rather, beat foruiulas-ior curing tobacco, one' 
«f the most popular of which is the hagland method, iu which the temperature of 
the bam is regulated as follows: 

(1) Sapping process.— 90° F. for two to three hours, tUen advancingrapidly to 125°, 
to remain only a few minutes; then cut off heat and descend to 90°. 

(2) Yellowiny process.— 90° for twenty -four to thirty hours. 



TOBACCO WORM. 347 

(3) Firing color. — 100° for four hours; then iucreasing 2^° every two hours; then 
110^ to 120^ Tor four to eight hours. 

(4) Curing ihe leaf. — 120*^ to 125° for six to eight hours. 

(5) Curing stalks and stem. — 125° to 170°, by au increase of 5° each hour. Con- 
tinue at 170° for twelve to hfteen hours. 

While the above is a standard method, expert tobacco curers diverge from it when- 
ever the eye and touch indicate the need of a ditierent temperature. 

Tobacco is also cured by the direct heat of charcoal and by sun curing. 

After curing, by the Ragland or some similar method, the tobacco is taken down 
from the barn and bulked. Before marketing the leaves are stripped from the stalks, 
assorted, and tied into bundles. It is further manipulated in the tobacco factory 
and conies out as cigars, plug tobacco, smoking tobacco, etc. 

More recent and less extensively used than the stalk-cure method just described is 
the system of leaf cure. In tliis the leaves, as they ripen, are broken from the grow- 
ing plant, tied into bundles, and cured by flue heat in atobacrobarn. The North Car- 
olina Station {B.S6) reports an experiment comparing the two systems. The prod- 
uct from half an acre, with the stalk cure, was 32(5.25 pounds of tobacco, worth 
$38.29. From the same area the leaf cure gave 454 ponnds, worth $68.14. The cost 
of curing the half acre by the stalk-cure process was $5.40; by the leaf-cure method, 
$9 59, which leaves considerable financial margin in favor of the leaf-cure system. See 
also Conn. State R. 1S91, p. 176. 

Tobacco stems. — This waste product of a tobacco manufactory is rich in potash, 
and contains considerable nitrogen and phosphoric acid. As a fertilizer for corn it 
proved valuable in Kentucky (£. 17). (See also Conn. State E. 18S9, p. 114; N. C. B. 
May, 1S83, R. lSS8,p. 63.) 

{Ala. College B. 37, n. ser.; Colo. B. 4, B. 10, R. 18S8, p. 58, R. 1889, p. 123; Conn. 
State R. 1891, p. 168; Fla B. 12, B. 15; Ey. B. 28, R. 1888, p. 36; La. R. 1891, 2>. IS; 
Md. B. 5; Nebr. B. 6; Nev. R. 1891, p. 17; N. C. B. 86; N. J. B. A {1882), R. 1882, p. 
92; N. Y. State B. 20 {1882); Fa. B. 12, B. 14 {1892).) 

Tobacco, pole burn. — A fungous disease which greatly injures the tobacco crop 
in certain seasons. Damp, sultry weather, if of long duration, at the time of curing, 
will nearly alwaysdevelop thisdisease. Atfirst the disease is confined to the midrib 
and veins, but it soon spreads and causes considerable portions of the leaves to 
become black and brittle. If examined with a microscope fungi (a species of Clado- 
sporium) will probably be found to be present, together with immense numbers of 
bacteria. It is thought probable that the bacteria develop after the fungi, and that 
they cause the pole burn. Pole burn may be remedied to a great degree, if not 
wholly preventeil, by careful attention to the details of curing. The house should 
be arranged for ventilation and artificial heat, as well as to keep out the damp air 
when too abundant. Of course all moisture can not and must not be excluded, but 
it should be controlled. Various plans and suggestions have been made, the object 
of which is to hasten drying and prevent loss from pole burn and stem rot. {Conn. 
State R. 1891, p. 168.) 

Tobacco, stem rot {Boirytis lotigihrachiata). — A fungous flisease affecting the crop 
while drying. If stems affected with this disease are examined there will be found 
patches of a velvety white fungus. This spreads rapidly, especially along the veins 
of the leaves, causing more or less decay. The spores seldom ripen upon the stalks 
while hanging in the barn, but they will do so on the stalks which are thrown aside as 
worthless. All such infected stalks should be burned and the barn fumigated, before 
and after curing, with sulphur kept boiling for two or three hours while the barn 
is tightlj^ closed. The sulphur may be boiled over a kerosene stove. {Conn. State 
R. 1891, p. 184.) 

Tobacco ■worm {Phlenethontins Carolina). — The adult insect is a large gray hawk 
moth often seen flying about .Jamestown or .Jimson weed in the dusk of the evening. 
There are usually two broods each year. The first brood works almost entirely upon 



348 TOMATO. 

tobacco, thi second on the tomato. The latter enters the ground and as a pnp:i 
spends the winter there. The grub or caterpillar is nearly 2 inches long, light green 
with white bands on the sides and a long liorn on the posterior end. 

The usual remedies are hand picking the worms and poisoning the moths, which 
sip the nectar from the .Jimson flowers with their long proboscides. If a half tea- 
spoon fnl of sweetened water containing a little Paris green be placed in the flowers a 
little before dusk, many moths will be poisoned. 

Many growers plant seeds of the Jimson weed with their tobacco for this reason. 
{Ky. B. 40; N. C. B. 7S ; S. C. li. 18SS, p. 36.) 

Tomato {Liicopersicnm spp.). — The tomato has apparently been more widely and 
thoroughly investigated at the stations than any other garden vegetable. This is 
owing to the immense demand for the fruit in the general market and for canning, 
as also its extensive domestic culture. The annual crop in New Jersey is estimated 
(iV. J. B. 03) to be worth $1,000,000, and there are stated to be 73 tomato canneries 
in that State. With somewhat less definite statistics the Virginia crop is estimated 
(Va. B. 4) at the same figure, and the number of canneries wholly or partly devoted 
to tomatoes at 80 and perhaps 100. 

Historical notes on the origin and introduction of the tomato by Dr. E. L. Sturte- 
vant are given in Md. B. 1889, p. 18, with some classificatory matter and synonymy. 
In N. Y. State B, 1887, a classification according to species and main types by the 
same authorit.y is given with full English and foreign, especially old, synonymy, 
descriptions of 65 varieties now current with their synonyms, and an index to all the 
names. The tomatoes of present cultivation are all referred to two species, L. encii- 
lentum, embracing the great mass of varieties, and L. pimpinelJifoUum, the currant to- 
mato. The former has two main types, var. ceraslforme, the cherry tomato and var. 
vulgare, embracing the ordinary market tomatoes. 

In Mich. B. 48, where a synopsis of 45 varieties is given, the same specific classi 
fication is used, but five main types under L. esoilentnm are recognized, viz, the 
cherry, the pear-shaped, the common (vulgare), the large-leafed, and the upright or 
tree. These are describeil and figured. This classification is also adopted in N. Y. 
Cornell B. 32. The cherry tomato is here taken as the probable starting point of the 
cultivated tomatoes, and the evolution of main types is traced from that point. 

Vaiueties. — Tests .are reported as follows: AJa. Coller/e B. 3, B. 7, n. ser., B. 20, 
n. ser.; Ala. Canebrake B. 2; Ark B. 1SS9, p. 100; Colo. B. ISSS, p. 133, B. 1889, pp. 41 _ 
104, 119, B. 1800, 2)p. 41, 206, B. 1891, p. 207; Ga. B. 11, B. 17; Ind. B. 31; Eans. B. 1888, 
p. 271, B. 1889, p. 198; Ky. B. 32, B. 38; La. B. 16, B. 3, 2d ser.; Md. B. o, B. 11, B. 
1889, p. 26. B. 1891, p. 400; Mass. Hatch. B. 7; Mich. B. 48, B. 57, B. 70, B. 70; Minn. 
B. 1888, pp. 256, 261; Mo. B. 13; Ncbr. B. 6; N. Y. State B. 1882, p. 138, B. 1.883, p. 
193, R. 1884, p. 221, B. 1885, p. 179, B. 1887, p. 328, B. 1889, p. 327, B. 1890, p. 297, B. 
30, N. Y. Cornell B. 10, B. 21, B. 32; N. C. B. 72, B. 74; Ohio R. 1883, p. 139, B. 1884, 
p. 146, R. 1885, p. 134, B. 1886, p. 168, B. 1887, p. 231; Ore. B. 4, B. 7, B. 15; Pa. B. 
10, B. 14, R. 1888, p. 150; Vt. B. 1889, p. 138, R.1890, p. 178; Va. B. 4, B. 9, B. 11; W 
Va. B. 20. 

The upright or tree tomato, planted in many tests, is especially noticed in Mivn 
B. 1888, p. 256; and in N. Y. State R. 1886, p. 169, the success is noted of an attempt; 
to secure a cross having the habit of this variety, bat yielding smooth fruit maturijjg 
early. The short life of varieties is remarked upon in N. Y. Cornell B. 10, where ten 
years is considered to be the average profitable period for varieties. In N. Y. Cor- 
nell B. 21, the eff"ects of careful and persistent breeding on the station stock is noted 
as showing itself in great uniformity .and remarkably regular and handsome fruits. 
In the station selections of seed, it is stated, greater consideration is invariably given 
to the character of the stock plant itself than to that of individual fruits, and facte 
are adduced justifying this course. 

A scale of points for the ideal tomato, it is thought (N. Y. Cornell B. 10, B.32)f 
would be nearly as follows: Vigor of plant, 5; earliness, 10; color of fruit, 5; 



TOMATO. 349 

solidity of frnit, 20; shape of fruit, 20; size, 10; flavor, 5; cooking qualities, 5; 
proiluctiveness, 20. 

A keeping test conducted two seasons is recorded iu X. Y. Cornell B. 32, The small 
and unimportant vaiieties kept longest. Solidity did not seem to insure a good- 
keeping quality, nor did this quality seem to be very closely associated with varie- 
tal character. 

Skeds. — Germination tests are reported in Ala. College B. 2 {1887); Ark. li. 1889, 
p. 95; Me. It. 1888, p. 141, R. 1889, p. 150; N. Y. State li. 1883, pp. 61, 71; Ohio li. 
1884, p. 198, E. 1885, pp. 167, 173; Ore. B. 15; Pa. B. 1889, p. 164; S. C. R. 1888, p. 
70; Ft. R. 1889, 109. 

Composition. — See Appendix, Table III. The physical characteristics of 28 varie- 
ties, i. e., the percentage of flesh and the number of cells, are shown in Md. B. 11, 
R. 1889, p. 34. In general "the greater the number of cells iu a fruit the higher is 
the percentage of solid flesh." 

An analysis of tomato fruit occurs in X. Y. State B. 1882, p. 24. In Md. R. 1889, p. 
67, are given deternunations of sugar, acids, etc., for 66 varieties or strains; of 
food constituents for 6 varieties, with average of sugar, acids, etc., for two samples 
from each of eleven plats differently fertilized and one not fertilized, and average 
for each treatment; of sugar, acid, moisture, etc., for samples taken on fourteen 
days, placed in comparison with the weather record; and a comparison of acid and 
sugar determinations of fresh fruit and diy substance. The last was regarded as 
making it evident that there was a loss or change of both sugar and acids in the 
process of drying. In Md. B. 11 approximate estimates are given of the quanti- 
ties of the three fertilizing ingredients per acre removed by this crop, and of the 
amounts of the same left per acre in the roots and stubble of this and several 
crops. It appeared that the tomato is not an exhausting crop as compared with 
others. In N. J. B. 63 are given analyses with reference to food and fertilizing con- 
stituents of 12 samples of tomato fruit from as many plats differently fertilized. 
The fertilizing ingredients are shown in amounts removed per acre, and a compari- 
son is made iu this regard with sweet and white i)otatoe8 and several cereal crops. 
Va. B. 4 contains analyses showing food constituents of the fruit and fertilizing 
constituents of the vines. 

Culture.— At the New York State (/?. 1884, p. 223, R. 1885, p. 181) and Ohio Stations 
{R. 1885, p. 134) the testimony of experiments with regard to earliness was found 
quite irregular, many of the so called varieties being merely strains, with the char- 
acter not well tixed. 

At the Ohio Station {li. 1883, p. 140, R. 1885, p. 134) it was observed that the finest, 
if not the earliest, fruit was secured by selecting seed from the first good fruits, or 
from plants giving the most earlj' fruits. At the Michigan Station {B. 48, B. 57) there 
was a slight apparent gain in the angular sorts from selecting seed from first ripe 
fruit, and a slight ai:)parent loss in the smooth varieties; but it was judged that 
little was to be gained by such selection. The effect of using immature seed was 
tested at the New York State Station through several years {R. 1884, p. 224, R. 1885, 
p. 182, R. 1889, n. 329, R. 1890, p. 299.) The di gree of greenness at which seed would 
gei miuate seemed rather remarkable. The green seed was found to mature its fruit 
earlier, but the vigor of the plant was impaired. In one case immature seed from 
plants grown from immature seed was taken. At the Wisconsin Station {R. 1891, p. 
152) the experiment was also taken up with sijuilar results. Here seed was employed 
which had been selected from ripe and unripe fruit through six generations. The 
effects upiin fruit, vines, and seed are stated in detail, with some graj)hic illustrations. 
It did not appear that the feebleness of the plants increased after the third genera- 
tion. As practical lessons it was suggested that the tomato might be rendered more 
productive and earlier by a treatment reducing rhe native vigor of the plant as by 
growing on poor, dry soil, etc. ; and that the health of the plants is dependent in a 
measure upon the quality of the seed. used. At the Now York Cornell Station {B. 32, 



3£0 TOMATO. " 

B, 45) little appeared to be gained by selecting seed from first ripe fruit without 
re^iard to tlie cli;ira<ter of tlie plant. 

Frequent or at least some transplanting of seedlings to secure stocky plants is 
reconnnended in N. Y. Cornell B. 21, B. 32, B. 45; Va. B. 4, B. 9. Experiments were 
made at the Maryland Station {B. 11, B. lS91,p. 407) comparing pot-grown plants 
for setting with those transplanted in the ordinary way, with results regarded as 
decidedly in favor of the former. Tin cans with both tops and bottoms melted off 
were used There was no wilting or checking of growth, and the pot-grown plants 
produced more fruit than the transplanted, a large part of it earlier in the season. 
At the New York Cornell Station {B. 10) a decided advantage in earliness and yield, 
with s*^ocky and vigorous plants, was gained by early planting under glass. At the 
New Yoi'k Cornell Station {B. 21, B. 32, B. 45) experiments were made resulting in 
favor of early setting of plants in that latitude. The first year, though the plants 
were set in cold, wet, and dark weather, they gave earlier results than those set 
when the weather was settled, and nearly five times as large a yield. The second 
year, when the weather was cold and dry, the advantage was on the same side, but 
less striking. At the same station {B. 21, B. 32, B. 45) tests of cuttings as compared 
with seedlings have given conflicting resnlts. A method of setting tomato plants 
economically on a large scale is described with figures in Va. B. 9, B. 11. The plants 
are dropped in open furrows about 5 inches deep, being placed against the vertical 
side, and are covered with a hoe. 

The supporting of tomato vines on a stake, frame, trellis, or platform has been 
tried as reported in Ky. B. 32; Mich. B. 79; N. Y. State B. 30, R. 1890, p. 297 
N. Y. Cornell B. 32. Some form of support is in all cases approved, at least for gar- 
den practice. Of several different devices used at the Michigan Station, a pair of 
wires fastened to each edge of 6-inch fence boards seemed the most available. At 
the New York Cornell Station a wooden rack with parallel slats on each side the 
row, and other pieces laid across, was found to give g6od results. Trimming the 
vines has been tried at the Kentucky (B. 32), New York State (R. 1890, p. ^57),. and 
New York Cornell Stations {B. 21, B. 32). Conclusions were rather favorable to the 
practice, at least in gardens for home supply. At the Kentucky Station the fruit 
from tri'.nraed vines appeared to be of better quality. Training to a single stem 
supported by a stake, according to N. Y. Cornell B.32, B. 45, '-greatly increases the 
yield per square foot, gives earlier fruit, and decreases the injury from rot " 

Attention has been given at the New York Cornell Station {B. 28, B. 32) to the 
winter forcing of tomatoes, which, it is judged, may be carried on with profit, 
though it requires close attention. B. 28 is devoted to this subject, and a full 
account is given with graphical illustration of the appliances and methods requisite 
to success. Some of the points made are tliat an abundance of sunlight is essential, 
a rich soil liberally fertilized is demanded, that winter tomatoes like a brisk bot- 
tom heat, that they must be trained, and that in midwinter the flowers must be 
j)olliuated by hand. Methods of obtaining a second crop are described, and some 
attention given to insects and diseases; but these subjects are more fully treated in 
N. Y. Cornell B. 43. In Ohio B. 43, while it is thought that with th(! prices obtain- 
able in most parts of the West winter forcing will not pay, it is believed that the 
greenhouse can be used to good advantage in growing a tomato crop after the sea- 
son for lettuce and other winter croi:)s is over. The expense is comparatively 
light, and the demand for the house-grown tomatoes during strawberry and rasp- 
berry time has been surprising. Practical directions for carrying on such culture 
are given. 

Manlking. — Experiments at the New York Cornell Station for two years (B. 10, 
B. 21) indicated that excessive manuring, contrary to a somewhat prevalent 
opinion, does not dimininish but increases the yield; yet whether it pays on the 
whole is doubted. Experiments with fertilizers upon tomatoes have been rather 
frequent, esiiecially comparing the eilccts of nitrate of soda, considered almost a 



TREE CRICKET. 351 

specific for this plant, with that of other applications. Trials aro recorded in Ark. 
R. 1890, p. 29; Del. B. 11; Ga. B. 11, B. 17; Md. B. 11, R. lSS9,p. 43, R. 1891, p. 410; K 
J. R. 1889, p. 102 ( ?. 6S), R. 1890, p. 10.2, {B. 79), R. 1891, p. 85, B. 0; N. Y. State R. 
1891, p. 490; N. Y. CorndJ B. 10, B. 21 (as above), B. 32; Fa. B. 11. The New York 
Cornel] Station {B, 45) thus sums up the results of experiments with nitrate of 
soda: "Upon fairly good soil, which contains some vegetable matter, nitrate of 
soda gives good results as a tomato fertilizer. We have formerly found that upon 
very poor soils it gives little or no beuetit. It must be remembered, however, that 
nitrate of soda is an incouiplote fertilizer and that it should not be relied upon for 
a permanent treatment of laud. It is simply a source of nitrogen." 

Tomato, bacterial blight [also called Southern tomato blight].— A disease which 
has been most injurious in the Gulf States, but has also been observed in New York 
(iV^. Y. Cornell B. 45). It may be recognized by the sudden wilting of the plant, 
especially the younger parts. The older leaves turn yellow and hang down the 
stem. Spots may be found upon the stem aud leaves, resembling the water core of 
apples. In plants long aflected, the green stem becomes brown and its lower leaves 
yellow and slimy. The attack may come at any time, either in the hotbed or in the 
field. Upon examination, the above-mentioned water cores will be found to be 
swarming with bacteria. As no trace of any other fungus is to be found, and innoc- 
ulatious spread the disease, it seems to be well established that the bacteria are the 
cause of the disease. A disease similar in every way attacks the potatoes in the 
same localities, and experiments tend to prove them identical. 

The use of Bordeaux mixture is recommended as a preventive measure. All affected 
plants should be removed and burned. (Miss. B. 19.) 

Tomato, leaf blight {Cladosporiiim fulvum).—A fungous disease which causes 
rusty brown patches to appear on the under side of the leaves. As these patclies 
spread the leaf becomes yellow and wilted and finally falls from the plant. When 
the attack is severe it may kill the whole plant. As moisture is very necessary for 
this fungus, trimming and trellising will lessen the liability of attack. The use of 
Bordeaux mixture or carbonate of copper will hold the disease in check. {Conn. 
State B. Ill, R. 1890, p. 95.) 

Tomato rots. —The fungus Phyfophthora infestuns which produces potato rot also 
attacks the leaves, stems, aud especially the green fruits of tomatoes. For treat- 
ment see Potato rot. A species of Macrosporium produces roimdish decayed areas, 
becoming black, upon the fruit, and Fusarium hjcoptrswi attacks the riie fruit only^ 
forming a thick mold over it, at first white, then reddish salmon colored. Both 
these diseases may be held in check by removing-any diseased fruit at once and by 
Ijurning or burying it deeply to prevent the scattering of the spores. {Conn. State 
R. 1890, p. 95.) 

Tomato worm {Phlefjethontius eeleus).—The larva of an insect greatly resembling 
the tobacco worm. For description and treatment see Tobacco worm. Several ani- 
mal and fungous parasites tend to keep them from increasing rapidly. {Conn. 
State R. 1890, p. 96; Ga. B. 6. 

Tree cricket {JEcanthna nlveus) —A small, greenish-white, cricket-like insect that 
spends most of its time in trees. It is said to make a sound very much like the katy- 
did. In the fall the females lay their eggs in holes made in raspberry or blackberry 
canes, by thrusting their long ovii)ositors more than half way tlirough the canes. 
Ten to twenty eggs are thus laid in an irregular line of punctures; these punctures 
weaken the cane so as to cause it to split. The infested canes should be cut out 
and burned in the winter or early spring The young of this cricket feed largely 
upon plant lice, causing the destruction of great numbers of them. On this account 
it may not always be advisable to destroy them. They are said to infest grapevines, 
and the young twigs of fruit and other trees. There are numerous parasites attack- 
ino- them aud they are not liable to become dangerously numerous. There are 



352 TUBERCULOSIS. 

several other species besides tlie one given, but they are less common, (Nebr. B. 14; 
N. Y. Cornell B. 23; N. Y. State B. 35; N. C. B. 78; Ohio B. 1888, p. 154, B. vol. II, 1.) 

Tuberculosis. — A specific infectious disease due to a minute parasite, Bacillus 
tuberculosis. Tuberciilosis attacks man and most of the domestic animals. Cattle 
are especially liable. It is rare in the horse. It may be transmitted from the lower 
animals to men or from men to the lower animals. The tubercles which give the 
disease its name may be present in almost any part of the bodj', but especially in the 
lungs. These tubercles are at first globular masses about the size of millet seed. 
They increase in size, become yellowish, and may unite to form a collection of dis- 
eased matter even larg^.r than an apple. If the disease affects the surface of an 
organ, the growth is hard and nodular. While there are many means through which 
the disease is transmitted, its spread is supposed to be due chiefly to the sputum and 
breath of diseased persons and animals. When dry, the germs float in the air and 
are inhaled and deposited in the lungs. Some systems are less resistant than others, 
and a slight inflammation of the mucous membrane and a depression of the system 
are among the causes predisposing to the disease. The danger is thought to increase 
with the number of germs, and hence ill-ventilated apartments, where the vitiated 
air is not sufficiently diluted, are favorable to the progress of ttiberculosis. 

In the early stages the symptoms are not always plain. A short dry cough is 
present, sometimes very noticeable after active exertion. The animal becomes poor, 
the coat rough, the eyes sunken. Sometimes tenderness and pain are evinced when 
the side of the chest is touched, and the normal sound of the lung becomes changed- 

In cows, nymphomania frequently accompanies tuberculosis. When the udder is 
attacked the swelling there is painless and the milk at first is apparently normal. 

Occasionally an animal rallies, but usually the progress is unifoi'mly downward. 
Sometimes the course of the disease is quick, and again the decline extends through 
months or years. Medical treatment is useless. The tuberculous animals should 
be slaughtered and the stables thoroughly cleansed and disinfected. 

A cold climate is believed to be less favorable to the distribution of tuberculosis 
than a warm one. The discoverer of Bacillus tuberculosis has shown that for devel- 
opment it requires a temperature between 86° and 104° F. Its period of incubation 
is about two weeks. Of more than five thousand cattle killed in the neighborhood 
of Baltimore, examinations showed that more than 3 per cent were affected with 
tuberculosis (Pa.B.Sl). 

Some animals inherit tuberculosis, but far more frequently it is acquired through 
the mother's milk, from human sputum, or from stabling Avith diseased animals. 
{Me. B. 1890, p. 59). 

Experiments at the Pennsylvania Station {B.21) confirm those made elsewhere in 
indicating that tuberculin, commonly known as "Koch's lymph," may be used by 
veterinarians as a sure means of determining whether cattle are affected with tuber- 
culosis. 

Investigations reported in Mass. Hatch B.8 tend to show that milk from tubercu- 
lous cows may contain the germs of the disease even when there is no lesion of the 
udder. There is a growing belief that tuberculosis is often transmitted to human 
beings through the milk of tuberculous cows. The importance of the subject 
demands that every precaution should be taken to keep milch cows free from this 
dread disease. 

Turnip {Brassiea campestris). — Varieties have been tested as recorded in Ala. College 
B. 3, n. ser.; Colo. B. 1889, p. 103, B. 1891, p. 106; Md. B. 1889, p. 65; Mass. State B. 
1888, p. 141; Minn. B. 1888, p. 262; Nebr. B. 12; N. Y. State B. 1882, p. 123, B. 1884, 
p. 197, B. 1885, p. 118; Ore. B. 4; Pa. B. 1890, p. 157 ; Vt. B. 1889, p. 142, B. 1890, p. 
179. In N. Y State B. 1887, p. 168, a classification of varieties is given, based upon 
form and color of root. Forty-one varieties are fully described, English and foreign 
synonyms given, and all names indexed. The Feltow turnip, a very small variety, 



VERMONT STATION. 353 

with a peculiar flavor in the outer rind, is described with the others (also in N. 
Y. State R. 18S2, p. 124, where it is said to be recommended for pickling). 

For composition see Appendix, Tables I and II. 

The root system of a sample of turnip was examined at the New York State Sta- 
tion {11. 1SS6, p. IGO) and found to be surprisingly small; this was thought to be 
accounted for by the small amount of nourishment stored up by the turnip and the 
abundance of moisture in the soil at the time when the turnip is growing. The 
deepest root did not extend beyond 18 inches, and the longest of the horizontal 
roots (which were few in number) reached no farther. 

Experiments with fertilizers on turnips are reported in Ala. College B. 3, n. ser.; 
N. J. R. ISOlfp. 139. A keeping test of varieties is recorded in Ala. College B. 5, n. 
ser. 

Germination tests of turnip seed are reported in Pa. B. S ; Ft. R. 1889, p. 110. 

Turnip, white rust, and downy mildew. — The fungi Cjjstopiis caudidiis und Pero- 
nospora parasitica are frequently quite abundant upon turnips and may cause con- 
siderable loss. The best way to guard against these, or any other diseases of this 
crop, is to Iveep the fungi in check by carefully destroying all refuse left in the field. 
The crop niigiit also be protected from attack by the use of any of the more com- 
mon spraying compounds. (Mass. State R. 1S90, p. 222; N. J. R. 1890, p. 350.) 

Twig girdler {Oiicideres cingiilattis). — The adult insect attacks numerous trees, hut 
seems to bo worst upon pear trees. It is a brown or grayish-black beetle oi'e-half 
to three-fourths inches long, with two long horns or ''feelers." Across the back is 
a rather conspicuous gray band. In autumn the female lays her eggs beginning at 
the end of a twig and depositing an egg below each bud. She then girdles the twig 
between the eggs and trunk, cutting it so deeply that it usually falls from the tree. 
The object of this is to furnish dead wood for the larvae, which are unable to dex'elop 
in living wood. The eggs hatch and the larvte undergo their transformation by 
spring to come forth as perfect insects. The ouly successful method of destroying 
them is to collect all fallen twigs and all girdled ones on the trees and burn them 
before the eggs hatch or the larvae escape. The adults are very shy and nothing can 
be done with them. {Fla. B. 9; Ga. B. 6; N. Mex. B. 2; N. C. B. 78.) 

Utah Station, Logan. — Organized in 1889 under act of Congress as a department 
of the Agricultural College of Utah. The staff consists of the president of the col- 
lege and director, horticulturist and entomologist, chemist, consulting veterinarian, 
farm superintendent, and clerk and stenographer. The principal lines of work are 
field experiments with field crops, vegetables, and fruits, feeding experiments, and 
irrigation. Up to January 1, 1893, the station had published 2 annual reports and 19 
bulletins. Revenue in 1892, $15,972. 

Velvet grass. — See Grasses. 

Verbena mildew {Oidium erysiphiodes). — A fangous disease which appears in 
white mold-like patches on the leaves and young shoots. It is especially bad on 
verbenas, but is liable to attack any house-grown plant. It may be kept in check 
by spraying the plants with a solution of potassium sulphide, one-fourth ounce to a 
gallon of water. This should be applied about twice a week. No doubt some of 
the copper compounds would be found equally effective. (N. Y. Cornell B. 37.) 

Vermont Station, Burlington. — Organized under State authority December, 1886, 
and reorganized under act of Congress in 1888 as a department of the University of 
Vermont. The staff consists of the president of the college, director, chemist, 
botanist, entomologist, veterinarian, assistant chemist, superintendent of farm, 
dairyman, stenographer, and treasurer. The principal lines of work are chemistry, 
analysis and control of fertilizers, field experiments with fertilizers, field crops, 
vegetables and fruits, diseases of plants, feeding experiTuents, entomology, and 
dairying. Up to January 1, 1893, the station had published 5 annual reports and 
30 bulletins. Revenue in 1892, $20,000. 
2094— No. 15 23 



354 VERNAL GRASS. 

Vernal grass. — See Grasses. 

Vetch. — This name is properly used to designate leguminous forage plants of the 
genus Vicia, hut is also api)lied to kindred phxnts of other genera. Common orspring 
vetch ( V.saUra) is a slender twining plant which hegins to grow late in the winter 
or early in the spring. In Michig in, the young plants are easily killed by frost 
{Mich. B.GS). In Nebraska it remained green till the beginning of winter and com- 
pared favorably with red clover {Nebr. B. G, B. 12). 

Vetch thrives best when sown with grain, by which the slender vines are sup- 
ported. At the Connecticut Storrs Station {B.6) 1 bushel of oats and 2 bushels of 
vetch per acre gave a yield of 8.6 tons of green forage. At the Oregon Statinn {B. 4), 
vetch gave a good yield of excellent lorage. 

See also Ga. B. 7 ; Iowa B. 11; Me. li 1SS9, p. 167 ; Mass. State, B. iSS9, p. 190, li. 
1890, p. 172; Mich. B. 47 ; N. C. B. 73; S. C. R. 1888, p. 130. 

Russian or hairj' vetch ( V. villosa) is densely hairy. In Nebraska it proved very 
hardy, withstanding dry weather {Nebr. B. 12). At the Pennsylvania Station {R. 
1887, p. 139) it produced a greater amount of dry matter than red clover. For analy- 
sis, see Mass. State R. 1889, p. 180; Pa. R. 1887, p, 139. 

Winter vetch {Lathyrus hirsutus,) is sown early in the fall. By February, in 
Mississippi, the plants make a dense growth, and continue to grow till hot weather, 
Stock are fond of vetch, and the plant bears grazing well. "For the Gulf States, 
this is by far the most valuable of the many species which are sold under the general 
name of vetch, making a heavier growth, being eaten more freely, and reseeding 
itself more fully" {Miss. B. 20). 

Lathijrus sativiis proved a valuable early forage plant at the Mississippi Station 
{R. 1889, pp. 21,31). 

Chinese vetch {Lathyrus sp.) was also a success at the Mississippi Station {R. 1889, 
p. 31). 

Violet diseases.-^Few plants are subject to as many diseases as the cultivated 
violets. One of the worst is the anthracnose, Glmosporium violce. This begins at 
the edge of the leaf and continues to spread until the whole plant is affected. A 
leaf-spot disease, Cercospora violce, is conspicuous on account of the large, dead, ashy 
spots it produces on the leaves. Another spot disease is caused by Phijllosticta viola. 
It may be distinguished by its straw-colored spots. A genuine mildew, Peronosporu 
viohe, sometimes causes considerable loss. This does notproduce any definite spf>t8, 
but the whole affected plant withers and dies. There is a mold, Zygodesmus alhidns, 
which produces upon the leaves patches white as flour, while its branching filaments 
are pushed everywhere through the leaf tissue. No doubt most or all these diseases 
could be prevented or controlled by the use of some of the common spraying solu- 
tions. There are two root diseases, one of which is caused by minute nematode 
worms forming root galls. The other causes the plant to turn yellow and die. 
Change of soil may prevent these diseases. {Conn. State R. 1891, p. 161; N. J. R. 
1890, p. 362.) 

Virginia Station, Blacksburg. — OrganTsed under act of Congress May, 1888, as a 
department of the Virginia Agricultural and Mechanical College. Thestaff consists 
of the president of the college and director, vice-director, horticulturist, entomolo- 
gist aTid mycologist, biologist, agriculturist, chemist, veterinarian, assistant horti- 
culturist, assistant chemist, and treasurer. The principal lines of work are field 
experiments with fertilizers, field crops, fruits, and A^egetables, and veterinary 
science and practice. Up to January 1, 189B, the station had published 2 annual re- 
ports and 23 bulletins. Revenue in 1892, $17,527. 

Walnut tiees (J«.r/7a«s spp.). — The native black walnut {J. nigra) has received 
some notice as a forest and nut-bearing tree. A description from an economic point 
of view occurs in Ala. College B. 3, n. ser., mentioning its well-known dark and fine- 
grained wood, the oil afforded by its nuts, and other useful products. It is rap- 



WEBWORM, FALL. 355 

idly disappearing and likoly soon to bo lost to the forests of the State ■witliout pro- 
tection. Artificial plantations are recommended. 

It is approved by the Sontli Dakota Station {B. 2S) for onltivation in the sonth- 
ern half of that State, thongh not expected to thrive as in the East. It has been 
planted as a nut or forest tree at the California Stations, as also a native species, J, 
riipestris (B. lS88-'89, p. 19G). 

The English walnut {J. regia), also known as Madeira nut, is being tested at the 
California, Michigan, and New Mexico Stations {Cal. R. lSSS-'S9,pp. 87, 110, 137, 196, 
B. 1890, pp. 270, 280; Mich. B. 55, B. 67, B. 80; N. Mex. B. 4 ) 

The Japan walnut (./. siehoJdi) has been planted at the Michigan South Haven 
Substation (Mich. B. 67, B. 80), and found to make a vigorous growth. The foliage 
and habit of growth indicated close relation with the butternut (./. cinerea). 

For white walnut see Butternut. 

"Washington Station, Pullman. — Organized under act of Congress March 9, 1891, 
as a department of Washington Agricultural College and School of Science. The 
staff consists of the president of the college and director, agriculturist, horticultu- 
rist, forester and botanist, veterinarian, and chemist. The principal lines of work 
are fie^d experiments with field crops, vegetables, and fruits, and forestry. Uj) to 
January 1, 1893, the station had published 1 annual report and 6 bulletins. Reve- 
nue in 1892, $1,5,000. 

Water in feeding stuffs. — See Feeding fa-'-m animals and Appendix, Table I. 

Water, ■warm vs. cold, for co'wrs. — See Cows. 

Watermelon {CHrullas vulgaris). — Variety tests of the watermelon are reported 
in Ala. Colltge B. 2, n. ser., B. 20, n. ser., B. 28, n. ser.; Colo. B. 1889, pp. 101, 121, B. 1890, 
pp. 192, 212; Fla. B. 14 ; Ky. B. 32; La. B. 27, B. 3, 2d ser.; Minn. R. 1888, pp. 251, 260; 
Nehr. B. 12; Nev. B. 1890, p. 17; N. Y. State B. 1885, p. 123, B. 1886, p. 238, B. 1887, 
p. 321, B. 1888, p. 127; Tenn. B. vol. V, 1; UtahB. 3. 

A thorough investigation of the watermelon with reference to its availability for 
the manufacture of sugar was undertaken at the California Station, as reported in 
B. 1878-79. A physical analysis showing proportions of seeds, pulp, and rind, proxi- 
mate chemical analj'ses of these components, and a sugar analysis of the juices 
are given. The cane sugar was found to average only about 2.66 per cent by weight 
of the juice, far too little to make the watermelon a profitable source of sugar. It 
was thought, however, that a bright and palatable sirup, not liable to granulatiun, 
might be advantageously produced; but on experiment it was found that the sirup, 
whether i)uritied by skimiuiug or defecated with lime, turned so dark-colored that 
it could hardly be acceptable in the market. 

Some notes on the extent and method of watei'melon culture may be found in Fla. 
B. 14; Tenn. B. vol. V, 1. 

At the Alabama College Station (B. 28, n. ser.) the experiment was tried of planting 
separately seeds from the stem end, the middle, and the blossom end. The seed fi-om 
the middle third gave earlier and larger fruit and more by weight per acre. The 
seed in the middle ripen earlier, but it was thought that if the seed melon had been 
left till all the seeds had matured the difference might have been less uuirked. 

In experiments in herbaceous grafting at the New York Cornell Statiou (J5. 25) 
muskraelon vines were found to unite with watermelon, these and cucumbers with 
the wild cucumber (Echinocystis lohata). In the same bulletin are reported observa- 
tions on the watermelon aud other cucurbits, showing that the stamiiuito flowers ai'e 
earlier aud much more numerous than the pistillate. 

Germination tests of watermelon seed are reported in Ohio B. 1884, p. 196, B. 1885, 
p. 177; Ore. B. 2; Vt. B. 1889, p. 106. Tests of the seed of the citron melon are re- 
corded in Ohio R. 1884, p. 196, B. 1885, p. 168. 

Wattle trees. — See Acacia trees. 

Webworm, fall (Hiiphantria cunea). — An insect very destructive to many shade 



356 WEBWORM, GARDEN. 



1 



uud fruit trees, especially the ash, waluut, butternut, elm, hickory, willo-w, apple, 
pear, aud cherry. 

The full grown worm is usually about an inch long, and covered with whitish 
hairs. Its general color is yellowish green, with black along the back and spots of 
black along the sides; under sides usually brown; head and legs black. The worms 
may be contbunded with tent caterpillars, but the fact that the web worm feeds (Oi/Zt- 
in its web, enlarging it as more food is needed, and the tent caterpillar feeds ivilhoitt 
its web, easily distinguisues them. The moth is about an inch across the wings, 
white or spotted on the forewings. The eggs are laid upon the leaves in May or 
June. This is for the first brood, and the average number of eggs is 500. 

They soon hatch and the caterpillars spin a web, enlarging it as necessity de- 
mands until they are mature, which is in about a month. They then desert the 
web and seek the ground, where tliey become transformed into perfect insects. The 
second brood appears in August and September, and on account of their greater 
numbers prove the more destructive. The fall webworms have many natural ene- 
mies, which ordinarily keep them in check. When abundant and destructive, burn- 
inf the nests or spraying arsenites about them will kill the worms. In the extreme 
north but one brood a year is to be expected during an ordiuary season. {Ky. B. 40; 
Me. R. 1890, p. 124; Minn. B. 9; Nehr. B. 14; N. J. B. 1S89, p. 303; N. Y. State B. 
35; S. C. R. 1SS8, p. 29; Ft. R. 1889, p. 153.) 

Web-worm, garden {Eurycreon rantalis). — The larvse feed on almost any plant, 
over which they spin their web and then eat off the leaves. The moth is about 
three-fourths of an inch across the wings. The general color is orange or reddish- 
yellow, commonly shaded with gray, with varying wing markings. The larvie are 
variable in color, being either light or dark yellow or yellowish green, with rather 
distinct black spots The number of broods is not known, but four or five are 
thought to be produced each season. It has numerous enemies, which keep it in 
check to a limited degree. Spraying with Paris green, one pound to 100 gallons of 
water, will kill these insects. They are not yet known east of the Missouri River. 
{Colo. B.6; Nebr. B. 16.) 

"Weeds. — The description, frequency, troublesomeness, and eradication of weeds 
have been considered in about forty reports and bulletins issued from a score or 
more of the stations. Quite a number of lists of "worst weeds" have been prepared 
for various States and localities. Of our worst pests it is known that at least five- 
sixths are of European origin. These have either escaped from gardens or have 
been imi)orted in foreign seed or in packing and ballast. 

The importance of keeping down the weeds is too often unrecognized. The cost 
in additional labor to cultivate the crop, the robbing of the crops of those sub- 
stances which should go to their own growth and development, the depreciation of 
the market value of the crop itself, due either to the presence of weeds or weed 
seeds, has been estimated in one State to be at least $1 annually for every acre of 
cultivated land. 

In general the means recommended for combating the attack of weed pests are 
sowiu"- of absolutely clean seed, thorough and clean cultivation, the rotation of 
crops, and the destruction of weeds before they go to seed. 

This article contains descriptions of a number of the weeds which are most widely 
troublesome or which are likely to become so, together with a list of plants which 
are described in station publications as weeck in different localities. 

Blue thistle or bugloss (Echium vulgare). — A native of Europe and Asia, well 
established throughout the Middle Atlantic States, from which it is spreading with 
considerable rapidity. It is a biennial plant 2 to 3 feet high, rough, hairy, and 
rather leafy. The leaves are rather long and narrow, strap-like, the lower from 5 to 
8 inches long, the upper decreasing above, until they become shorter than the flower 
clusters. Like the stem, the leaves are covered with stiff", white hairs having a 
stinging property. The upper part of the stem bears numerous clusters of flowers 



WEEDS. 357 

for Lalf its leiiijtli or more. These clusters, or r.acemes, as tLey are called, are coiled 
dowu while in bud, but are straiglitened out in flower. The flowers are crowded, 
live parted, with a purplish color, fading to light blue, about an inch long. The 
nutlets are four to each flower, of peculiar shape, and are said to resemble in appear- 
ance a viper's head. Where the plants are few they should be pulled up before going 
to seed ; if more numerous, deep fallow jilowing, with subsequent careful cultiva- 
tion, will serve to destroy them. 

Broom kape (Orobanche ramosa). — A recent importation from Europe, which 
threatens serious injury to our tobacco and hemp fields. It was first reported in 
Kentucky five or six years ago aud since then has spread to some of the adjoining 
States. It seems to find more fixvorable conditi(ras for its growth here than in Eu- 
rope, as it is a much larger and more robust plant with us. It is an annual, 6 to 15 
inches high, with many slender branches of a brownish or straw color, more or less 
hairy, and is found parasitic on the roots of tobacco and hemp. Its leaves are repre- 
sented by small, colorless bracts. The flowers are scattered along the slender 
branches and have very short flower stalks. There are three small bracts to each 
flower, one, the largest, at the base of the flower stalk, the other two just under the 
flower. The calyx of the flower is four-toothed and split down the back ; the corolla, 
which is said to be light blue, is two-lipped, the upper lip notched and the lower 
three lobed. The seeds are minute aud very numerous. The habit of this plant is 
something like the clover dodder. It fastens itself to the roots of tobacco or hemp 
and sucks from them its nourishment and eventually kills the host it lives upon. 

Such i^lants as these are especially to be dreaded aud nothing should be left un- 
done to exterminate them. The use of clean seed is very important. 

Burdock {Arctium lappa). — A well-known weed, which grows extensively through- 
out the United States, and is dreaded more on account of its burs than because of its 
injury to crops. It is a tall, coarse biennial weed belonging to the family of plants 
known as Composite. The stem is from 2 to 5 or more feet high, considerably 
branched, and bearing at the top clusters of flowers. These are of a bluish color in 
the head, surrounded by an involucre, the scales of which are hooked. These form 
the bur, which fastens itsell into the wool or hair of animals, causing them great 
annoyance. The leaves are from a few inches to a foot or more long, heart-shaped at 
base, and often toothed along the margin. Tlie burdock prefers a rich soil and is not 
Aery hard to eradicate. Frequent cutting below the crown of the root will soon kill 
it out. Keeping it from seeding for two seasons will also destroy it. Mowing 
■while in flower is not a sure method of repression. 

Bur grass (Cenchrus trlbuloides). — A native annual grass, which is much too com- 
mon in the South and Southwest in warm sandy soil and is extending its way to the 
North. It is said to take possession of vast areas of the Great Plains after the 
period of cultivation is past. It has a stem, spreading and branching at the base 
from a few inches to 3 feet high. The leaves are three to ten on the stem, sometimes 
hairy, but usually smooth, with a blade about 6 inches long and a quarter of an 
inch wide. The flowers are borne in bur-like clusters in a ratlicr compact spike. 
Each bur incloses two or three flowers and the ripened seed. The burs are armed 
with stiff, sharp, barbed spines, which easily penetrate the flesh and are painfully 
irritating to man and stock. Thorough cultivation until too late in the season for 
it to mature seed or choking it out with some earlier or more rapid-growing grass 
will aid its destruction. 

Canada thistle {Cnicus arvensis). — A native of Europe, probably introduced into 
this country through Canada. It grows 2 or 3 feet high, the stems greatly branching 
and very leafy. The lea\es are from 3 to 6 inches long and au inch or more wide, 
somewhat lobed, and bear along their margins numerous sharp stilf prickles a quar- 
ter of an inch or more in length. The flowers are clustered more or less at the ends 
of the branches, and are rather less than an inch long. The flower is covered exter- 
nally with a close scaly involucre, the scales of which are not prickly-poiuted. The 



358 WEEDS. 

jilants are of two kinds, male and female, and to this fact is due the frequent failuro 
to seed, tlie whole patcli being of one sex. 

In addition to propagation by seed it increases largely by means of underground 
I'unners. These reach deep and far from the parent plant and are furnished with 
buds from which may spring new pLants. The Canada thistle seems to prefer rather 
dry land, but will grow equally well in low and damp places, especiallj' in heavy 
soil. Occasional plowing or hoeing will serve rather to increase than diminish this 
liest, as in that way the runners are detached and scattered, hastening its spread. 
Frequent plowing during the hot summer months and care to prevent seeding will 
usually serve to eradicate this weed. 

Cheat or Chess (Bromus seealinas). — A well-known weed in wheat fields, especial! j' 
in wet seasons. Some persons still believe that it is a degenerate form of wheat, 
but this theory has no foundation in fact. 

The plant is an annual or at most a biennial, but the seed can lie dormant in the 
ground for several seasons aAvaiting proper conditions for its growth. It will yield 
to high cultivation, liberal application of fertilizers, and the iise of cl'^^v seed If 
it has been permitted to seed in a field, wheat or small grain shoula not be sovt«(? in 
that field the following year, but rather a cultivated crop of some kind. 

CORX COCKLE or Cockle {Tyychnia githago). — A weed introduced into our grain 
fields in foreign wheat and rye, which in some localities has become a great nuisance. 
In some markets grain dealers are compelled to reduce the grade of wbeat having 
cockle in it, as it lowers the grade of dour. Cockle can hardly be screened out of 
wheat, hence the importance of keeping it from the fields. It is an annual plant, of 
the pink family, having large showy flowers of a reddish purple color. The plant is 

or 3 feet high, branched above. The leaves are narrow, opposite, and ta})ering to 
a point. Both leaves and stem are covered with soft white hairs. The calyx of the 
flower is ten ril)l)ed, and is divided into five nai'row lobes which are longer than the 
inch-and- a-half long purplish corolla. The fruit is a dry oblong pod filled with dark- 
colored seeds, which under a lens are seen to be strongly ribbed and roughened. 
About the only way to get rid of this harmful weed is to soav clean seed. 

CoCKLEBUK {Xanthinm canadense, X. strumariam). — There are three species of 
cocklebur in the United States, one native and two introduced. For our purpose 
we shall consider only the native species; the othei's resemble this very closely. 

The cocklebur is a coarse branching annual plant usually 1 to 3 feet high, with alter- 
nate rough, three-veined, somewhat lobed leaves, heart shaped at base on rather long 
leafstalks. The stem is often more or less brown or purplish spotted. The flowers 
are of two kinds, the male flowers in globular heads, the female flowers below at the 
base of the leafstalks either singly or in clusters. After shedding their pollen the 
male flowers dry up and disappear and the female heads enlarge, becoming oblong 
burs about an inch in length, beset with stiff hooked prickles. The burs are two- 
celled, each cell containing a single seed. Like burdock, this plant is more trouble- 
some to animals than to crops. Being an annual it can be exterminated by prevent- 
ing its seeding. The seeds have remarkable vitality and will grow after having 
been hidden in the ground for a long time. The waste places must be looked after 
if this weed is to be eradicated, for it will spread far and wide from these places. 

CuKLED or Yellow dock (Jiumex crispus). — This weed, of European origin, is 
now scattered entirelj' across our continent and in some places it is quite a pest. 
It is closely related to the horse sorrel. It is a smooth plant growing 3 or 4 feet 
high with lance-shaped leaves, having strongly curled or wavy margins. Some of 
the leaves, especially the lower ones, have heart-shaped bases. The flowers and 
fruit are borne above in whorls around the stem. When mature, the seed is inclosed 
in a valve or scale, which is rather prominently marked with veins, and has a heart- 
shaped base. The pedicels on which the fruit stand are rather slender and may be 
bent downward on the stem. The heart- sha])ed base of the fruiting valves and the 
curled margin of the leaves should distinguish this from any other of our common 



WEEDS. 



359 



(locks. Its roots are large and sink deep into the ground, making it very difficult 
to pull up. It seems to prefer meadows, gardens, and yar.ls, from which it may be 
removed by irequent grubbing out and ])reveuting the formation of seed. 

DoDDKK.— The clover dodder {Cuscida trifoln), a rather recent importation from 
Europe, is fast becoming one of the worst pests of our clover fields. It is a parasitic 
plant in its habits, without any leaves, or with mere useless scales in their place. 
It first sends up a yellowish wiry stem and twiuiug about the clover derives its 
nourishment by means of sucldng dislis, which it forces into the clover stem. The 
lower part of the dodder plant soon dies, but the upper part goes on growing and 
spreading its yellow threads in all directions. The clover, losing the sap intended 
for its own support, soon turns brown, dies, and rots. In this way large patches of 
clover may be wholly destroyed in a single season. The flowers of the dodder are 
borne in small clusters and are about the same color as the rest of the plant. It is 
easily recognized by its peculiar yellow threads twining everywhere. 

A similar species {Cuscuta ejAUnxm) is called the flax dodder from its attacking 
flax in the same manner as the other species does the clover. 

The remedy in both cases is to use only clean seed. The seed of dodder is smaller 
than clover seed and could bo screened out. Where it has gained a hold, it should 
be mowed and burned so as to prevent seeding. Under no circumstances should 
seed be used from a field known to be infested. 

Foxtail ghass {Setaria (jlaHea).—k well known grass infesting gardens, stubble 
fields, corn fields, and almost every cultivated place. It is in some repute as a forage 
grass' but is of rather doubtful usefulness, especially after the hends appearand the 
long awns are developed. It is an annual grass derived from Europe, growing a 
foot or two high. The leaves are rather abundant, long, and flat. The spike or 
"bead" is cylindrical, 2 to 4 inches long, compact, and tawny-yellow. The bristles 
are in clusters of from six to ten, barbed upwards, rigid and much longer than the 
spikes. It is perhaps due to these awns that cattle will not eat the grass, for they 
would penetrate their mouths and stomachs, causing great pain. When once estab- 
lished, thorough cultivation and the sowing of clover or some early-growing grass 
will usually choke it out. Its growth is rapid, hence its abundance in stubble fields 
and corn fields after cultivation has ceased. Another species (Seta, ia viridis) is sim- 
ilar in ai)peaiance and habits of growth. 

Gahlic or Wild o^ion {A Uium rhHi,le).—A\\le weed, especially troublesome in 
moist meadows and fields. It is especially abundant in the eastern portion of the 
country, but is making its way toward the South and West. Its sti ms are slender, 
from 1 to 3 feet high, with the sheathing bases of the leaves clothing it below the 
middle. The leaves are round, hollow, and somewhat grooved tow; r<l the top. At 
the end of the stem is borne a dense cluster of bulbs usually called "sets." When 
abindant in wheat fields these sets are said to get in with the grain and to spoil 
the flour. 

This weed when eaten by cows imparts a strong flavor to butter and milk. Noth- 
ing but a series of cultivated « rops seems to have any efl'ect upon the spreading of 
the weed wliere it has secured a start. 

HoHSK-NKTTLR or Sani) lUiiAK (>o/rt»t(m c(troU)ienite).—A thorny weed, native in 
the Southern and Southwestern States from which it is rapidly spreading. It seems 
to prefer a light sandy soil, but it will thrive in almost any soil when once estab- 
lished. It is a low perennial plant with deep running roots. The stems are a foot 
or more high, rather stragi^liug, branching, and somewhat shrubby at base. The 
stem and midvein of leaves beneath are beset with sh irp, stout yellow prickles, 
which make it very formid .ble. The stem and leaves are clothed with minute star- 
s'laped hairs having from four to eight or more points. The leaves are rather large 
for the plant, oblong, short stalked, and o ten more orb'ss lobed or exit. The flowers 
are usually borne above in < lusters of from three to ten, each or. a short stalk of its 
own. The flowers are blue or bluish-white, about an inch in diameter, and some- 



360 WEEDS. 

wbat star-shaped, with five lobes. Tliey are succeerled by greenish-yellow globular 
berries filled with niunerous seeds. The plant is closely related to the potato, hav- 
ing flowers and berries almost identical with those of that plant. 

This weed is so tenacious of life that it is exterminated with great difficulty. 
When it appears it should at once be destroyed, or in time it will grow in snch thick 
patches as to monopolize the soil. 

Indian mallow or Velvet leaf (Ahutilon avicenn(e).—k native of Asia, first 
introduced as an ornamental plant. It is a coarse annual plant attaining a lieight 
of 5 feet or more. The stem and leaves are covered with short soft hairs which 
give it the name of velvet leaf. The leaves are round, heart-shaped, 3 to 6 
or more inches long. The stalk of the leaf is shorter than the blade, in which there 
are about five prominent veins diverging from the base. In the angle between leaf- 
stalk and stem is produced the flower stalk which bears from one to five or more yellow- 
ish flowers about three-fourths of an inch in diameter. The calyx of the flower is 
five parted and green in color. The corolla is five parted, and orange yellow in color. 
In the center are numerous stamens surrounding the twelve or more styles. The 
fruit when mature is rather bell-shaped and about au inch in diameter. It is an 
aggregation of numerous pods each of which is surmounted by two divergent horns. 
In some places this plant is called stamp weed or butter print from the use of the 
fruits in stamping oruarnents on butter. Being an annual, care taken not to let it 
go to seed will result in its extermination. 

Jamestown weed, Jimson or Thorn apple (Datura stramonium),— k coarse weed 
which, with its allied species {Datura tatula), is of considerable importance on account 
of its poisonous properties when eaten. The plant is an annual and varies greatly 
in size. The stem is green, leaves large and angularly cut, the flowers about 3 
inches long, white, funnel shaped, with a tjorder of five lobes or teeth. The other 
species (D. tatula) has red stems and pale violet purple flowers. The seed pods are 
rather egg shaped and very thorny, hence the name thorn apple. The seeds are flat, 
black, and very poisonous. As it is an annual and grows only in rich soil its 
destruction may be secured by preventing its maturing seed, 

Lamb's-quartei:s or Pigweed {Chetiopodium alh urn). —This, with some of its allied 
species, is one of the vilest and most unsightly weeds, and is found almost every- 
where in the United States. The plant varies greatly in its growth, being some- 
times less than a foot high and at others 5 or 6 feet. The stem is rather stout, 
angled, and much branched. The leaves are very variable, some being long and 
narrow, others broad and more or less lobed or toothed. The Avhole plant is more or 
less covered with a white mealy powder. The flowers are insignificant and are 
clustered in small, round bunches along a long spike which terminates the branches. 
The mature seed is round in outline, flattened like a lens, smooth, shining, black 
and rather closely covered with a thin green scale-like coating. It infests neglected 
cultivated land, and should be kept from seeding. 

May weed or Dog fennel (Anthemis coiula). — A weed, known in different locali- 
ties under different names, well naturalized throughout a large portion of our 
country. It is closely related to the oxeye daisy, and, like all plants of that family, 
is plentifully provided with seed. It is au annual, growing a foot or more hitrh. 
Its leaves are rather numerous and are dissected into many very narrow divisions. 
Its flowers are somewhat like those of the daisy, but smaller, having a yellow 
center of numerous minute flowers and a border of white, flat, ray flowers which in 
age droop back toward the stem. The plant has a very strong and disagreeable odor, 
by which it may easily be recognized. It frequents roadsides, pastures, and olher 
rather dry situations, from which it can be exterminated by preventing its seeding. 
It will not grow where thick grass is found and it may be overcome by seeding to 
some kind of grass in fields Avhere it has become a nuisance, 

Oxeye daisy {Chrysanthemum leucauthemum).— Perhaps the worst weed of the 
eastern part of this country and making rapid progress towards the West and South. 



WEEDS. 361 

It is a foreiou plant wliicli is tboiiglit to have spread from Hower gardens. It is a 
perennial closely related to the mayweed or dog fennel, bnt very nincb more to be 
dreaded and barder to get rid of than its relative. It somewbat resembles the may- 
weed, bnt is a 1 rger and coarser plant. It grows a foot or two high with usnally 
few brancbes, but often several stems from one root. The leaves are not very 
abundant. They are coarsely toothed, rather long and narrow, the upper attached 
directly to the stem, the lower having a leaf stock of varying length. The base of 
the upper leaves clasps the stem with a fringed border. The main stem and a few 
branches are terminated by single heads of flowers, which, when expanded, often 
are an inch and a half in diameter. The center is made up of hundreds of small 
yellow flowers, which are surrounded by a circle of flat, white rays, as they are 
called. This weed is especially troublesome in meadows and pastures, some of 
which are completely covered with the white flowers of this pest. Like the Canada 
thistle, this weed propagates by seeds and underground runners, and it is only with 
the greatest care that it can be conquered Close pasturing by sheep is said to kill 
it, but clean cultivation for several years where it has secured a hold is the only 
certain means of its extermination. Even then great care must be taken not to let 
any go to seed, for the light seeds are scattered lar and wide by the wind. 

PuusLANE or PuRSLEY {Poi'tulaca oleracea). — A very troublesome weed in gardens 
and highly cultivated places. Its capacity for seeding is enormous, and as the seeds 
are matured in a few days after flowering constant watch must be kept over it. It 
has been estimated that an ordinary plant in the course of a season will produce two 
million seeds, each of which will grow if room enough can be found. It is an an- 
nual, with a thick, prostrate stem and fleshy, wedge-shaped leaves. The flowers 
are yellow and open mostly upon bright sunny mornings. The seed pod is one celled 
and filled with seeds, which escape from the top of the pod. It may be kept down 
in the garden by constant use of the hoe, but when it gets bad in fields it can only 
be subdued by sowing grass and letting it stand for several years. 

Rag werd (Ambrosia artemisiwfoVia) . — A native weed growing throughout the 
country Where it becomes established it is hard to eradicate, as it often seeds when 
but a few inches above the ground. It is an annual of the order of Compositw. It 
attains a height of 3 or more feet, is rather slender, and much branched. The leaves 
are from 1 to 4 inches long, mostly alternate and rather thin, cut into narrow lobes, 
which are often lobed or toothed again. The flowers are of two kinds, borne on a 
slender spike. The male flowers are at the end of the spike in little clusters of five 
to eight, inclosed in a green cnp-like involucre. Each cluster is borne on a short nod- 
ding stalk. The female flowers are clustered at the base of the spike and when ma- 
ture resemble small hard nutlets. Being an annual it must be kept from seeding to 
extcrmiuate it. Close cultivation will serve to keep this pest down, but the road- 
sides and places along the fences must be looked after. 

EiB GRASS, English or Black plantaix (Plantago lanceolata). — A weed probably 
imported in clover seed. It is a perennial, having a short thick root stock. The 
leaves are all from the base, long stalked, blade lance shaped, tapering to each end, 
three to seven rilibed, more or less toothed along the margin, and nsually rather hairy, 
although sometimes perfectly smooth. The leaves vary from 3 to 6 inches in length, 
sometimes becoming nearly 2 feet long, but seldom much exceeding an inch in width. 
Its flower stalk comes up from the roots and bears a compact spike of flowers at the 
summit, which varies from but a few of the small sessile flowers to a spike at least 
2 inches long. The seeds, which are two to every flower, may be recognized by their 
being hollowed out on one side, thus distinguishing them from clover or grass seeds. 
Its leaves, when not too crowded, lie rather flat, thus choking out any grass near it. 
Great care should be exercised in choosing grass or clover seed that it does not in- 
clude the seed of this plant. Where once established the meadow or pasture should 
be thoroughly cultivated for a year or two. In this way it, as well as the other 
plantains, may be eradicated. 



362 WEEDS. 

Shepherd's purse (Capsella bnrsa-pasioHs). — A very common weed, especially 
aniioyiiiji" in gardens. It begins flowering and frniting when bnt an inch or two 
high, and keeps this up niitil it attains a height of 18 inches or more. Most of the 
leaves are near the gronuil, where ihey are 5 or 6 inches long, cnt and tootlied very 
ninch like the dandelion leaf. The ujjper stem leaves decrease in size, are arrow 
shaped, I'.nd have no leafstalk. The flowers are very small and at first clnstered to- 
gether, bnt as the plant grows they stretch apart on quite along axis, to which each 
flower is attached by a slender stalk a half inch or so long. The pod is about a 
quarter of an inch long, flat, broad at the top, where it is notched, and tapering to- 
ward the base, somewhat resembling an old-fashioned purse. Although so common 
and abundant it will usually yield to careful cultivation. 

HoRSK SORREL or Red SORREL {Riimex aceiosella). — A native of Europe, found 
growing on worn or thin soil, where it spreads rapidly by means of underground 
runners. It frequently takes possession of riclier soils, crowding out better plants, 
especially during a long, dry season. The plant belongs to the family furnishing us 
buckwheat, the docks, and smart weeds, all of which may be recognized by their 
usually three-angled seeds. The stems are seldom much over a foot high, slender, 
and somewhat furrowed. The leaves are rather scattered on the stem. The lower 
ones have long leafstalks, which decrease in length until the upper ones are attached 
by the leaf blade to the stem. They are usually arrow shaped, having more or less 
prominent lobes at the base, which spread at right angles to the midrib. The flowers 
are of two kinds, male and female on difl"erent plants, scattered in bunches of three 
to six or more along the upper part of the stem. The female flowers are said to be 
a littlelarger than the male flowers, but both kinds are small and unattractive. 

This pest may usually be eradicated by enriching the soil and by clean cultivation 
for a season or two. 

Toad elax, Butter and eggs, or Ramsted (Livar-ia vulfiar'ts). — A weed which is 
rapidly s])rea(ling in this country and which should be rigidly dealt with, for having 
once secured a hold it is very tenacious of life. It is a perennial an<l sends out many 
underground runners, which aid in its rapid spread and at the same time make it 
more difficult to eradicate, for every piece seems able to repi'oduce a new plant 
when separated from the parent. It grows a foot or two high and has narrow light- 
green leaves. The whole plant is very smooth. The flowers are light yellow, of 
very irregular shape, like those of the snapdragon, about an inch long, and each 
with a downwardly projected spur of about the same length. They are in rather 
compact clusters, 2 to 8 inches in length at the end of branches and stems. In mass 
it is a rather pretty sight, and its habit of growing along roadsides in dry soil has 
often been the means of its spread to adjoining fields through neglect of the waste 
places. Only careful and nersistent cultivation will rid a field of this weed when 
once well estal lished. 

Wild carrot {Danciis caroia). — A native of Europe, bnt now thoroughly estab- 
lished in most parts of this country. In several lists of "worst weeds" this is given 
a prominent place in the first rank. The first year of its growth there is only a 
dense rosette of leaves near the ground, but the second year it sends up a stout 
stem, bears fruit, and dies. It spreads rapidly by means of its numerous seeds, one 
investigator having counted over fifty thousand on a plant of average size. The 
plant is rather bristly, 2 feet or more high, branched, and the branches terminated 
by a flat or cnp-sha])ed cluster of flowers, which in turn are replaced by the fruit. 
This is provided with' numerous bristly '<ooks, by which the seed may attach itself 
to any passing object and secui'e transportation and extension of range. The leaves 
are all finely cut into numerous divisions and the flowers are white. The life of this 
plant being confined to two years it may be exterminated by preventing its going 
to seed for that length of time, provided, of course, no new seed is introduced. 

Inf vm it on regnrding the we ds in the fidlow'u'j: li-it has ' ec». > g ven in the sta- 
tion publieations to which reference is m;idi' under e ch S]ie ies In a number of 
cases the same botanical species is deiiguatcd by several comuiou names. 



WEEDS. 363 

List of weeds in the United States, with references to station pnilicationa. 



Common u;uuo. 



Scientific name. 



Station publications. 



Alkali grass ... 
American jute. 



Distichlix maritima . 
Abutilon avicennce .. 



A ralia sphiosa 

Nicaiidra pliysaloides 

Manarda fistiilosa 

I'ankum crus-galU 

Calatiiintfia clinopodiuni . . . 

Lyclum vulgare 

Trichostemma dicfiotoinum. 

Sulamim rostratum 

Hete ropogon melanocarpiis . 

Pent 'teuton Icenigatus 

Cench rus tnbuloides 

Yucca filainentnsa 

Lactuca pulchella 



An;;elica tree 

Apple of Peru 

Balm 

JJarnyard grass 

Basil 

Bastard jasmine 

Bastard pennyroyal. . 
Beaked borsenettle . . 

Beard-grass 

Beard-tongue 

Bear-grass 

Bear-grass 

Beautiful wild lettuce 

Beaver poison ! Cicuta maculata . . 

Beggar's lice I Bldens connata . . 

Beggar's lice ' Bkhnsfi-ondosa. . 

Beggar's lice ' Lappula virginica 

Beggar-ticks 1 Bidensfrondosa 

Beggar-ticks ' BIdcu.i Icevis 

Bermuda grass C;/mdon dactylon 

Biennial wormwood Ai-temisia biennis 

Bigroot ' Megarrhiza species 

Bindweed Con vulvuhis arvensis 

Bindweed ! Ipomoea tamnifolia 

Bird's-nest thistle j Cnicus horriduhm 

Bitter dock Rumex ohtusifolius 

Bittersweet ] Solan jm dulcamara 

Bitterweed Avibroda artemisicefolia 



Black bindweed. 



Blackcap 

Blak coliosh 

Black locust 

lilack medick 

Black mustard 

Black -root 

Black snakeroot ... 

Bladder beau 

Bladder campion. . . 

Bladder ketmia 

Bladder leaf 

Blanket grass 

Blessed thistle 

Blueboneset 

Blue curls 

[Jlue curls 

Blue devil 

Blue lettuce 

Blue lobelia 

Blue thistle 

Bluets 



Pohigonum convolvulus 

llttbus oceidentalis 

Cimicifuga racemosa 

Robinia pseudacacia 

Medicago lupulina 

Brassica nigra 

Pterocaulon pyenostachyum. 

Glmidfuga racemosa 

Qlottidiwin, floridanum 

Silene inJJata 

Hibiscun triunum 

Utrlcularia subulata 

Panicmn serotinum 

Garduus benedictus 

Eupatorium eoelestiiium 

Brtinclla vulgaris 

T.ichosteina lanceolatum 

Aiter cordifjlius -■ 

Lai tuctt ceucojjhcea 

Lobflia syi^hilitica 

Ec'.iani vulgare 

Houstonia ccerulea 



Cal. R. 1890. 

FJa. B. 8; N..J. R. 1890; N.C. B.70; W.Va. B. 

22, B. 23. 
W. Va. B. 23. 
W. Va. B. 23. 
W.Va.B.23. 
Fla. B. 8 ; N. J. R. 18C0. 
W.Va.B.23. 
N. J. R. 1890. 
N. J. K. 1890. 
Iowa B. 13; N.J.R.1S90. 
Fla. B. 8. 

N. T. Cornell B. 37. 
Fla.B.8; N.J.R.18M. 
Fla. B.8. 
N.J. R. 1890. 
W. Va. B. 23. 

N. J. R. 1890 ; W. Va. B. 22. 
N. J. 1!. 1830 ; W. Va. B. 22, B. 23. 
W. Va. B. 23. 

N. J. R. 1890 ; W. Va. B. 22, B. 23. 
K J. R. 1890. 

Fla. B. 8 ; N. J. R. 1890 ; N. C. B. 70. 
N.J. R. 1890. 
Cal. R. 1890. 

Cal. R. 1890: N.J.R.1890; Wis. B. 20. 
Fla.B.8. 
Fla. B. 8. 

Cal. R. 1890 ; ISr. J. R. 1890 ; W. Va. B. 22, B. 23. 
N.J. R. 1890; W. Va.B.2:j. 
Fla. B. 8 ; N. J. Iv. 1890 ; N. C. B. 70 ; W. Va. B. 

22, B. 23. 
Fla.B.8; Me. R. 1889, pt. lU; N. J. R. 1890; 

Wis. B. 20. 
N. J. R. 1830. 
W. Va. B. 23. 
W. Va. B. 23. 
N. J. R. 1890. 

Cal. R. 1890; N.J.R.1800; W.Va.E.23. 
Fla. B. 8. 
W. Va. B. 23. 
Fla. B. 8. 
N. J. R. 1890. 

N.J.R. 1890; W.Va.B.23. 
Fla. B. 8. 
Fla. B. 8. 
Cal. R. 1890. 
W. Va. B. 23. 
N.J. 1890; W.Va.B.23. 
Cal. R. 18C0. 

N.J.R. 1890; W. Va. B. 22, B. 23. 
N.J. R. 1830. 
N. J. R. 1890. 

N. J. R. 1890 ; W. Va. B. 22, B. 23. 
W. Va. B. 23. 



364 WEEDS. 

List ofn-eeds in ilie Uniled States, uiih references to station publications— ContinneA. 



Commou name. 


Scientific name. 


Station publications. 




Verhcna hastata 

Yiola cucullata 


N.J.B. 1890; W.Va.B.23. 
N. J K 1890 


Blue violet 




Echiutn vulgare 


N. J. R. 1890 ; W. Va. B. 22, B. 23. 

Fla. B.8; Iowa B.13; N.J.R. 1890; W.Va.B. 

22, B. 23. 
N. J. R. 1890 ; W. Va. B. 23. 


Boar thistle 


I'.okhara clover 


Melilntus alba 



Boneset 

Bottle grass 

Bouncing bet 

Box thorn 

Brachen fern 

Bracted bindweed. 

Brake fern 

Bramble 

Branched pigweed. 

Briars 

Bristly galingale .. 
Broad-leaved dock. 



Broom brush . . 
Broom grass . . . 
Broom rape 



Broom sedge 

Brown-eyed Susan.. 
Buck-horn or Buck 
plantain. 



EupatorumperfoUa tti m . 

Setaria viridis 

Saponaiia officinalis. . . . 

Lycium vulgare 

rteris aquilina 

Convolvulux nepiurn 

rteris aquilina 

liubus strigosus 

Amarantus paniculatus. 

liubus species 

Gyperus strigosus 

Kumex obtusifoUus 



Hypericum proliferum 

Hcteropogon acuminafus 

Orobatiche ramosa (Phelipcea 
ramosa). 

Andropogon tcoparius 

liudbeckia species 

Plantago lanceolata 



Buckwheat Fagopyrum esculentur 

Buffalo clover j Trifolium reflexum 

Bulbous buttercup j liammculus bulbosus . 

Bull grass Elusine indiea 

Bull nettle I Solanum carolinense . . 



Bull's eye ; Chrysanthemum, leucanthe- 

I mum,. 
Bull's thistle j Cnicus lanceolatus 



Bulrush ! Scirpus stenophyllus . 

Bur clover i Meaicago denticulata. 

Burdock i Arctium lappa 

Bur grass I Oenchrus tribuloides. . 

Bur marigold j Bidens cernua 

Bur marig(jld I Bidens frondosa 

Bur marigold j Bidensltevis 

Bush clover ; Lespedeza frutescens . 

Butter-and-eggs Linaria vulgaris 



Butterfly weed \ Asclepias tuherosa . . 

Butterprint Abutilon avicennce.. 



Butter weed. 



Buttonweed . . , 
California lily . 



Erigeron canadensis . 



Diodia teres 

Calochortus invenustus . 



Jv". J. R. 1890. 

Fla. B.8; N.J.R, 1890; N. C. B. 70. 

N.J. R. 1890; W.Va.B.23. 

N.J. R. 1890. 

Cal. R. 1890 ; Fla. B. 8 ; N. J. R. 1890 ; W.Va. B. 23. 

N. J. R. 1890. 

Cal. R. 1890; FIa.B.8;N. J. R.1890; W.Va.B.23. 

N. J. R. 1890. 

N. J. R. 1890. 

Fla. B. 8; N. J. E. 1890; "W Va. B. 22, B. 2?,. 

Fla. B.8; N.J.R. 1890. 

Cal. R. 1890: N. J. R. 1890; W.Va. B. 22 

B. 23. 
W. Va. B. 23. 
Fla. B.8. 
Ky. B. 24. 

Fla. B. 8; N. C. B. 70; W. Va. B. 22, B. 23. 

N. J. R. 1890; W. Va. B. 22, B. 23. 

Cal. R. 1890; Iowa B. 13; Me. R. 1889, pt. Ill, 

R. 1890 ; Mich. B. 56, B. 72 ; N.J.R. 1890 ; N. 

C.B. 70; W. Va. B.22, B. 23. 
N.J.R. 1890. 
Fla. B. 8. 
N. J. R. 1890. 

Fla. B. 8; N. J. R. 1890; W. Va. B. 23. 
Fla. B. 8; Iowa B. 13; N. J. R. 1890; W. Va. 

B. 22, B. 23. 
Cal. R.1890; Iowa B.13; N.J.R. 1890; N. C.B. 

70; Wis. B. 20; W. Va. B. 22, B. 23. 
Fla. B.8; Iowa B. 13; N. J. R. 1890; W. Va. 

B. 22, B. 23. 
Fla. B. 8. 
Cal. R. 1890. 

N. J. R. 1890; W. Va. B. 22, B. 23; Wis. B. 20. 
Fla. B. 8; N.J. R. 1890. 
N. J. R. 1890. 

N. J. R. 1890; W. Va. B. 22, B. 23. 
N. J. R. 1890. 
N. J. R. 1890. 
Mich. B. 72; N. J. R. 1890; W. Va.B. 22; Wis. 

B. 20. 
N.J.R. 1890; W.Va.B.23. 
Fla. B.8; N.J. R. 1890; N. C. B. 70; W.Va.B. 

22, B. 23. 
Cal. R. 1890; Fla. B.8; N.J.R. 1890; W.Va.B. 

23. 
Cal. R. 1890; Fla. B.8; N.J.R. 1890. 
Cal. R. 1890. 



¥ 



WEEDfc 365 

List of weeds in ilie United States, tcith references to station pnblications — Continued. 



Common name. 



Scientific name. 



Station publicationa. 



California i)()i)py j Eschscholtzia calif arnica . 

Calilbniia tarwced j Hemizonia elegans 

California tarweed j Madia nativa 

Camphor weed Trichostema lanceolatum . 

Canada u;okUni-roil ] Solidago canadends 

Canada hawk weed Hieraciuni canddense 

Canada thistlo I Cnicus aivensig 



Canaigre Rumex hynienosepalus . 

Careless weed I A marantus splnosus . . . 

Carpet weed | Mollugo verticiilata 

Carrot j Daitcus carota 

Cat briar Smilax rotundifolia 

Catnip ; Kepcta cataria 

Celandine Chelidoniuin majus 

Celery I Apiuni graveolens 

Centaury i Sahhatia angularis 

Chai lock ; Brassica arvensis 

Cheat j Bromus species 



Cheeses Malva rotundifolia 

Chess Bromus species 



Chicken jjrass... 

Chickweed 

(;hicory 

Chinese sumacli 



Eragrostis ciliaris 

Stellaria media 

Cicfiorium intybv.s — 
Ailanthus glandulosa 



Ciuquefoil I Potentilla canadensis . . 

Clearweed | Pilea pwnila 

Climbing false buck- | Polygumtm dumetorum 

wheat. j 
Clover dodder ' Ouscuta trifolii 



Cocklebur j Xanttiium strumarium 



Cocksfoot grass | ranicumcrus-galli.. 

Cockspur Cenchrus echinatus . 

Coco grass i Cyperus rotundus 

Cofleeweed Cassia occidentalis . . . 

Colt's tail I Eiigeron canadensis 



Comfrey 

Common agrimony. 
Common Ueabane . . 

Common rush 

Common tare 

Common thistle 

Common vetch 

Compass weed 

Cone flower 

Corn chamomile . . . 

Corn cockle 

Corn poppy 

Corn speedwell 

Corn spurry 



Symphytum officinale . . . 
Agrimonia eupatoria ■ . . 
Eiigeron ■philadelpliicus. 

Juncus marginatus 

Yicia iativa 

Cnicus altissimus 

Vicia sativa 

Diodia teres 

Hudbeckia liirta 

Antfiemis arvennis 

I/ychnis githago 

Pajiaver duhiinn 

Veronica arvensis 

Spergula arvensis 



Cal.R.1890. 
Cal. R. 1800. 
Cal. R. 1890. 
Cal. R. 1890. 
N. J. R. 1890. 
N.,r. R. 1890. 
Cal. R. 1890 ; 111. B. 12 ; Iowa B. 13 ; N. J. R. 1890 ; 

W. Va. B. 22, B. 23; Wis. B. 20. 
Cal. R. 1890. 

Ma.B.8; N.J.R. 1830; \V. Va.B.22, B. 23. 
Cal. R. 1890; Fla.B.8. 

Cal. R. 1890 ; N. J. R. 1890 ; W. Va. B. 22, B. 23. 
N.J.R. 1800. 

N.J.R.1890; W.Va.B.23. 
N. J. R. 1890. 
Cal. R. 1890. 
W. Va. B. 23. 

XJ. R. 1890; W.Va. B. 23. 
Cal. R. 1890; N.J. R.1890; N. C.B.70; W.Va. 

B. 22, B. 23. 
X.J. R.1890; W.Va.B.23. 
Cal. R. 1890; N. J. R. 1890; N. C. B. 70; W. Va. 

B.22,B.23. 
Fla. B. 8. 

Cal. R. 1890 ; N. .J. R. 1890 ; W. Va. B. 23. 
Cal. R.1890; N.J.R.1890; W.Va.B.23. 
W. Va. B. 23. 

N. J. R. 1890 ; W. Va. B. 22, B. 23. 
W. Va. B. 23. 
Colo. R.1890; N.J.R.1890; W.Va.B.23. 

Cal.R. 1890; Iowa B. 13; Nov. B. 15: N. C. B. 

70; W.Va.B.23. 
Cal.R.1890;Fla. B. 8; N.J.R.1890; N. C.B.70; 

W. Va. B. 22, B. 23 ; Wis. B. 20. 
Fla.B.8; N.J.R.1890. 
Fla. B. 8. 

Fla.B.8; N.J.R.1890; N. C. B. 70. 
Fla. B. 8. 
Cal. R. 1890; Fla. B. 8; N. J. R. 1890; W. Va. 

B. 23. 
N. J. R. 1890. 

N. J. R. 1890 ; W. Va. B. 23. 
N. J. R. 1890. 
N. J. R. 1890. 
N. J. 1890. 
N. J. R. 1890. 
N.J.R.1890. 

Cal R.1890; Fla.B.8; N.J. K. 1800. 
N. J. R. 1890 ; W. Va. B. 22. 
N. J . R. 1890 ; N. T. Cornell B. 37. 
N. J. R. 1890 ; N. C. B. 70 ; W. Va. B. 22, B. 23 
W. Va. B. 23. 
N.J.R.1890. 
Cal. R.1890; N.J.R.1890. 



366 WEEDS. 

' List of weeds in the United States, with references to station publications — Continued, 



Common name. 



Scientific name. 



Cotton head . 
Cotton weed. 



Couch graf^^s . 

Cow herb 

Cow parsnip . 
Crabgra8.s-.. 
Crab grass... 



Crab grass ,. 

Crane's-bill 

-Creeping buttercup. . . 
Creeping buttercup. . . 
Creeping gceeuhead. - . 

Crowd weed 

Crowfoot gras.s 

Cudweed 

Cudweed 

Curledduck 



FraelicMa fio rida n a 
Abutilon avicennce . . 



Agropyrum repens. . . 
iSaponaria vaccaria . . 
Beradeum lanatum.. 

Eluaine indica 

Fanicum sangidnale. 



Cut-leaved eoneflower 

C.vpres.s 8)iurge 

Cypress vine 



Daisy tieabane. 
Dame rocket... 

Dandelion 

Darnel 

Darnel 

Date plum 

Day lily 

Dead nettle 

Deergrass 

Devil's gut 



Pa-ipalum, digitaria 

Qeraniuni caroliidamim 

Kanunculiis repens 

Ranunculus sepUntrlonalis .. 

Oldenlandla glomerata 

Lepidwrn campestre 

Eluaine ceiyptiacum 

Gnaphalium obtusifoUum . . . . 

Gnaphalium purpureum 

liuniex crispus 



Station publicastions. 



Devil's iron weed. 
Devil's plague . . . 

Dewberry 

Dodder 

Dogbur 

Dog fennel 



Rudbeckin laciniata 

Euphorbia lyi ari^sias 

Tpomoea quamocht {Qiuoito- 
clit vulgaris). 

Erigeron annuus 

HesiJeris tnatronalis 

Taraxacum officinale 

Lolium perenne 

Lolium temulentum 

Diospyros virginiana 

Hemerocallin fulva 

Lamium amplexicaule 

Rhexia virginica 

Cuscuta tiifolii 



Lactuca canadensis . . . 

Daucus carota 

Rubus trivialis 

Cuscuta gronovii 

Cynogloksum officinale 
Anthemis cotula 



Dog's-tail grass 

Dogweed 

Door weed 



Downy vetch 

Dropseed gras.s 

Dwarf dandelion 

Dwarf sumach 

Dwarf wild rose 

Eagle fern 

Early meadow rue 

Eglantine 

Elder 



Elusine indica 

Yerhesina encelioides. 
Polygonum aviculare 



Vicia cracca 

Sporobolus indicus 

Kriijia amplexicatilis . . 

Rhus copallina 

Rofa humilis 

Pteris aqniUna 

T.ialictnim dioicinn . . . 

Rosa nibiginosa 

Sainbucus canadensis . 



Ela. B. 8. 

Fla. B.8; N.J. K. 1890; N. C. B.70; W.Va.B. 

22, B. 23. 
Kjr. R. 1890; Wis. B. 20. 
Cal. E. 1890; N.J. R. 1890. 
Cal. E. 1890 ; N. J. R. 1890 ; ^V. Va. B. 23. 
Fla. B. 8 ; N. J. R. 1890 ; W. Va. B. 23. 
ria. B.8; N. J. R. 1890; N. C,B.70; W.Va.B. 

22, B. 23. 
Fla. B. 8. 

Cal. R. 1890; N.J.R.1890; W.Va.B. 23. 
N. J. R. 1890. 
W.Va.B.23. 
Fla. B. 8. 

N. J. R. 1890 ; W. Va. B. 22, B. 23. 
Fla. B. 8. 

N.J.R.1890; W.Va.B. 23. 
Fla. B. 8. 
Cal. R. 1890; Fla. B. 8; Mich. B. 72; N. J.R. 

1890 ; Wis. B. 20, B. 2J. 
N. J. R. 1890. 
N. J. R. 1890. 
Fla. B. 8. 

N.J. E., 1890; W. Va. B. 22,B.23. 

N. J. R. 1890. 

Fla. B. 8 ; N. J. R. 1890 ; W. Va. B. 23. 

Cal. R. 1890 ; W. Va. B. 23. 

Cal. R. 1890. 

W. Va. B. 23. 

W. Va. B. 23. 

Fla. B.8; N.J.R.1890; W.Va.B. 23. 

W.Va.B. 23. 

Cal. R. 1890; Iowa B. 13; Nev. B. 15; N. C. B. 

70; W.Va.B. 23. 
Fla. B. 8 ; N. J. R. 1890 ; W. Va. B. 22, B 23. 
Cal. R. 1890 ; N. J. R. 1890 ; W. Va. B. 22, B. 23. 
Fla. B.8. 

N.J.R.1890; W.Va.B. 23. 
N. J. R. 1890 ; W. Va. B 23. 
Fla. B.8; N.J.R.1890; N.C.B.70; W. Va. B. 

22. B. 23. 
Fla. B.8; N.J.R.1890; W.Va.B. 23. 
Fla. B. 8. 
Cal. R. 1890; Colo. R. 1890; Fla. B.8; N.C.B.70i 

N. J. E. 1890. 
Me. R. 1889, pt. III. 
Fla. B.8. 

N. J. R. 1890 ; W. Va. B. 23. 
W. Va. B. 23. 
N.J. E. 1890. 

Cal. R. 1890; Fla. B.8; N.J.R.1890; W.Va.B 23 
N.J.R.1890. 
W. Va. B. 23. 
W. Va. B. 22, B. 23. 



WEEDS. 367 

List ofrveecli in the Unifed States, with references to station inMicaiions — Continued. 



Comnioi) uaiiie. 


Scientific name. 


Station publicationa. 


Elccanipniio 


Inula liel nium 


N. J. R. 1 890 ; W. Va. B. 22, B. 23, 


English blucjirass 


Loliitm i)erennc 


Cal. R. 1890; W. Va. B.23. 


English ix'iiinTgrass... 


Lepidium campestre 


N.J. R. 1890; W. Va. B. 22, B. 23. 


Eu"lish plautam 


I'lantago lanceolata 


Cal. R. 1890; Iowa B. 13; Me. R. 1889, pt. Ill, R. 
1890; Mich. B. .56, IJ. 72; N.J. R. 1890; N. C. B. 










70; W. Va. B. 22, B. 23. 


English thistle 


Dipsacua sylregtris 


Cal. R. 1890; N. J. R. 1890; ^V. Va. B. 22, B. 23. 






N.J. R. 1800. 


Evening cockle 


Lychnis vespeitina 


N.J.R.1890. 






Fla. B.8; N.J.R.1890. 


Everlasting,,.., 


Gnaphalium obtusifclkim 


N, J. R. 1890 ; W. Va. B. 23. 






W. Va. B. 23. 






Me. R 1890. 






Me. R. 1889, pt. HI; N.J. R. 1800. 
Fla. B.8. 


False heliotrope 


Heliophytum indicum 


Feather grass 


Holciis lanatw 

Helenium tenuiful'mm ... 

Clirysanthemum pa rthenium . 
Anthemis arvensis 


VT. Va. B. 23. 




Fla. B. 8. 




N. J. R. 1890. 


Field chanioniile 


N. J. R. 1890 ; N. T. Cornell B. 37. 






N. J. R. 1890 ; W. Va. B. 22, B. 23. 


Field groniwell 


Lithospermum arvense 


Mich. B. 72; N.J.R.1890; W.Va.B.23. 


Field peppiTgrass 


Lepidium campestre 


N. J. R. 1890 ; W. Va. B. 22, B. 23. 






W.Va.B.23. 


Field sorrel 


liumex acetoaella 


Cal. I{. 1890 ; Fla. B.8; N. J. R. 1890 ; N. C. B. 70 ; 
W.Va.B.22,B.23. 


Field sow thistle 


Sonchus arvenrin 


N.J.R.1890; Wis. B. 20. 


Field violet 




W. Va. B. 23. 


Finwort 




N. J. R. 1890. 






Fla. B.8; N.J. R. 1890; N. C. B. 70; W.Va. B'. 






22, B.23. 


Fireweed 


Epihhmm spicatinn 


N.J.R.1890; W.Va.E.23. 


Fire weed 


Erechthiteis hiiracifoUa 


Fla. B.8; N.J.R.1890; W.Va.B.23. 




Putentilla norver;ica 

Linutn usitatissim um 


N. J. R. 1«90. 


Flax 


N.J.R.1800. 






N.J.R.1890; N. C. B.70. 


Fleabaue 


Erigero7i canadensis 


Cal. R. 1890; Fla. B. 8; N. J. R. 1800; W. Va. 
B.23. 


Florida clover 


Desmodium m ollc 


Fla. B. 8. 




Pyrrho2}ap2)Us caroHnianus.. 


Fla. B. 8. 


Florida foxtail 


Alopecurvs geniexdatus 


Fla. B.8. 


Flower-of-an-hour 


Hiliiscus trionum 


N.J.R.1890; W.Va.B.23. 


Fog fruit 




Fla. B. 8. 


Forked sunflower 


Helianthus diraricati(S 


N.J.R.1890. 




Setaria glauca 


Cal. R. 1890 ; Fla. B. 8 ; Iowa B. 13 : N. J. R. 1890 • 




N. C. B. 70 ; W. Va. B. 22, B. 23. 


French mulberry 


Callicarpa americana 


Fla. B. 8. 


Fuller's card 


Dipsacus sylvc'tiis 


Cal.R.18''0; N.J.R.1890; W. Va. B. 22, B. 23. 


Galingale 


Cyperus esculent us 


N.J.R.18G0. 


Garget 


Phytolacca decandra 


Fla. B. 8 ; N. J. R. 1890 ; W. Va. B. 22, B. 23. 






N. J. R. 1890 ; W. Va. B. 22, B. 23. 
N. J. R. 1890. 




Tencmim canadense 

Nepcta hederacea ( Xepela 


Gill-overthc-ground . . . 


N.J.R.1890; AV.Va.B.23. 




glechoma). 




Glade lilv 


Liliuin philadelphii vm 


W. Va. B. 23. 


Golden hawkweed 


Mieracium aiirantiacum 


Iowa B. 13 J N. Y. CorneU B. 37. 



368 WEEDS. 

List of weeds in the United States, with references to station pHMicationH — Continued. 



Comiuon name. 


Scientific name. 


Station publications. 


Golden ragweed 


Seneeio aureus 

SoUdago juncea, etc 


N. J. R. 1890. 

N.J.R.1890; W.Va.B.23. 

Me. R. 1889, pt. Ill; N.J. R. 1890. 

Cal. R. 1890; Colo. R. 1890; Fla. 1 

R.1890; W.Va.B.23; Wis. B. 20. 
N. J. R. 1890. 
N. J. R. 1890. 

Fla.B.8; N.J.R.1890; N. C.B.70. 
Cal. R. 1890; Colo.R. 1890; Fla.B.8 

1890 ; N. C. B. 70. 
Fla. B. 8 ; N. J. R. 1890 ; W Va. B. 22, 
N.J.R.1890; W.Va.B.23. 
N.J.R.1890. 

Fla. B. 8 ; N. J. R. 1890 ; N. C. B. 70. 
Mich. B. 72; N.J.R.1800; W.Va.B. 
N. J. R. 1890. 

N.J.R.1890; W.Va.B.23. 
N.J.R.1890. 

Cal. R.1890; N.J.R.1890. 
Fla.B.8; N.J.R.1890. 
W. Va. B. 23. 
Fla.B.8. 
W. Va. B. 23. 

Iowa B. 13 ; N. T. Cornell B. 37. 
N.J.R.1890; W.Va.B.23. 
N.J.R.1890; W.Va.B. 22, B.23. 
N.J.R.1890. 
Fla.B.8; N.J.R.1890. 
Cal. R. 1890. 
N. J. R. 1890. 
N. J. R. 1890. 
Fla. B. 8. 
N.J.R.1890. 

Fla.B.8; N.J.R.1890; W.Va.B, 23. 
W.Va.B.23. 
N. J. R. 1890. 
Fla.B.8; N. C.B.70; N.J.R.1890; 

22, B.23. 
W.Va.B.23. 

N.J.R.1890; W.Va.B.23. 
W. Va. B. 23. 
Fla. B. 8. 

N.J.R.1890; W.Va.B.23. 
Fla. B. 8 ; Cal. R. 1890 ; N. J. R.1890 ; J 

W. Va. B. 22, B. 23. 
N.J.R.1890; W.Va.B.23. 
Fla B.8; N.J.R.1890; W.Va.B. 22, 
Fill. B. 8, N.J.R.1890; W.Va.B. 22, 
Fla.B.8; Cal. R.1890; N.J.R.1890; 

23. 
N.J.R.1890; W.Va.B.23. 
Fla.B.8; N.J. R. 1890. 
Fla. B. 8. 

Fla. B.8; N.J.R.1890. 
Fla.B.8. 




Gold-of-pleasnre 






. 8- N. J. 




Chenopodvim hi/bridum 

Chenvpodium urhicum 














Polygonum aviculare 


• N.J. R. 




B 23 


Great willow-herb 


Epilobium spicatum 




Green foxtail 






Lithospermum officinale 


23. 
























Hairy ground cherry . . 
















Harhinger-ol'-spring - . - 






Hieracium auraiitiacum 




Heil-all 




Heart-leaved aster 

Heath-like aster 

Hedgehog grass 

Hedge mustard 

Hedge mustard 


Aster cordif alius 












Sisymbrium officinale 
















Henbit 


Lamium amplexicaule 




High blackberry 


Eubus itrigosus 

Ambrosia artemisicefolia 

Oleditschia triacanthos 


W. Va. B. 
























Nasturtium armoracia 






<r. C.B.70; 












B.23. 


Horseweed 

Horseweed 

Hounds-tongue 

Hypericum sjjurge ... 

Indian cure-all 

Indian fig 

Indian Hax 


Laettica canadensis 

El igeron canadentis 

Cynoglossinn officinale 

Euphorbia liyperidfiilia 

Croton argyrantlwmuvi 

Opuntia vulgaris 

Crotonopsis linearis 


B.23. 
W.Va.B. 



wi;p:ds. oGO 

f.ist of icevdn in the lliiiled States, willi rcferciin:i la xlnllon i>iihIii-alioti>< — C'oiitiiiiu.-il. 



Coniinon name. 



Scieiitiiii: 



Station publications. 



]iidiau liemp 

Indian mallow 



Indian jdiintain 

Indian shot 

Indian tLiJitle 

Indian tobacco 

Indigo 

Innocence 

Ipecac weed 

Ironweed 

Jamestown weed, or 
Jiiuson. 

Jame.stowu w"id 

Janiestowu weed 



Apocymnn a n tlroi win ifolhi in . 
A hulilon avicennce 



Cacalia species 

Caima flaccida 

I-Hpnacus sylueHrit 

Lobelia Injlata 

Iiidif/ofera- tinctoria 

Hoi'Ktunia ccerulea 

JUchardsonia scabni 

Vernunia novahoracen is. . . 
Datura meteloidev 



Datuiu itiatnuttiuin . 
Datura tatitla , 



-V. .r. It. 1890 ; \Y. Va. B. 22, 1! 
Fla. H.8; X.J.U.1890; X. C. 

22, B. 2:!. 
\V. V'a. B. 2H. 
Fla. B. 8. 
Cal. K.189U; 
N.J.R.1820 
Fla. I',. 8. 
W. Va. B. 2-J. 
Fla. B. 8. 
N. J. R. IS'JO 
Cal. R. 1890; 



li. 70; W. \ :i, v.. 



S.J. H. I.SOO; VV. Va. i:, 
W. \'a. B. 2:!. 



\y. V'a. B. 22. 
X..r. R. 1890. 



Japanese clover Lespedeza striata 

.lersey tea \ Ceanothn.i hii-rophyllus 

Jerusalem articludie . . . , Helianthvt tuheroBus 

.lernsalem oak Chenopodmm botrys 

Joe-Pye weed ' Eiipatnrium puipxireuin .... 

Johnson grass \ Paspalum halepense , 

Jointed charlock Raphanut raphanintriim 

Julip mint Mentha viridis 

Kneegrass I Panicit'm proli/erum 

Knotgra.s3 1 Folyyoninn aviculare 



Lady'sthiimb ! Polygonum persicaria. 

Lamb's-quarters Chenopodiinn album . . - 



Late golden-rod 

Leafcup 

Lesser willow herb. 

Life everlasting 

Live-forever 

Louisiana grass 

Lousewort 

Low cudweed 

Low hop-clover 

Low vervain 

Maiden cane 

Mallard 

Mandrake 

Man-of-the-earth 

Marigold 

Marsh cress 

Masterwort 

Matrimony vine 

May apple 

Maypop 

Mayweed 



Solid ago serotina 

Pohjriinia species 

Epilnbium coloratum 

(Inuplialium ijolycephuliini . 

Seduni tele.phium 

I'aypaluin platycauU 

Pedieularia eanadenfis 

Onaplialiii'in uliginosinn. . . 

Trifuliton procnmbens 

Verbfna angustifolia 

Pairicuta curtisii 

Malva rotundi/oUa 

Podophyllum peltaturn 

Ipomma pandurata 

Bidens connata 

Nasturtium palustre 

Heraeleum lanatam 

Lycium vulgare 

Podophyllum peltatum 

Paaijlura incarnata 

Antheinis cotula 



Meadow beauty ■ Rhexia virginica 

Meadow parsnip ; Tkaspiumaureum. .. 

Melilot ' Melilotus officinalis . . 

2094— Xo. 15 24 



Fla. B. 8 ; N. C. B. 70 ; W. \'a. B. 22, B. 2.'!. 
Fla.B.8; X.J.I!. 1890; N'.(,'.B.70; W. Va. B. 

22, B. 23. 
Fla. B.8: W. \ a.B. 23 
Fla. B. 8. 
N.J. R. 1890. 
N.J.R. 1890. 
N. J. R. 1890. 
Cal. R. 1890. 

N. J. R. 1890 ; W. Va. B. 23. 
N.J. R. 1890; \V. Va. B. 23. 
X. C. I!. 70. 
CaL R. 1890; Colo. R. 189:); Fla. D. 8; X, J. K. 

1890; N. C. B.70. 
Fla. B.8; N.J. R. 1890. 
Cal. R. 1890: Colo. R. 1890; Fla. B.8; N. J. R. 

1S;.0; W. Va. B. 22, B. 23; Wi.s. R. 20. 
N.J. R. 1800. 
W. Va. B. 23. 
N. J. R. 1890. 
Fla. B. 8. 
N. J. E. 1890. 
Fla. B. 8. 
N. J. R. 1890. 
W. Va. B. 23. 
N. J. R. 1890. 
W. Va. B. 23. 
Fla. B. 8. 

N. J. R. 1800; \V. Va. B. 2^. 
N. J. R. 1890; W. Va. B. •_ :. 
N. J. R. 1890; AV. Va B. 22. I!.2'J. 
N.J. R. 1890; W. Va. B. 22. 
N. J. R. 1890. 

Cal. R. 1890; N. J. R. 189(1; W. Va. B. 23. 
N. J. R. 1890. 

N.J. R. 1890; \V. Va. B. 23. 
Fla. B. 8. 
Fla. B. 8; N. J. K., IS'JJ; N. C. B. 70; \V. V;i 

22. B.23. 
\V. Va. B. 23. 
K.J.R. 1890. 
N.J.R. 1890. 



oli) WEEDS. 

Jjist of weeds in the United States, rrith references to station puhlieations — Coutiniied, 



Common name. 



Meiican tea . . 

Milfoil 

Milk purslane 
Milk thistle... 



Milkweed 

Mistflower 

Moonflower 

Moon wort 

Morning-glory 

Morning-glory 

Motherwort 

Moth mullein 

Mountain mint 

Mou.se-ear uhickweed . 
Mouse-ear chick weed. 

Mouse-ear cress 

Mug wort 

Mullein 

Musky allilerilla 

Narrow -leaved stick- 
seed. 

Native plantain 

Ncckweed 

Neftle-leaved ve;\;iiii. 
New E7iglaud aster . . . 

Nigger head 

Nightshade 

Nonesucli 

Norway cin(iiiefoil . . . 

Nutgras.s 

Nut sedge 

Old whitetop 

Old witch grass 

Oxeye daisy 



Scientific name; 



Chenopodium ambrosioides - 

Achillea millefolium 

JEiijjIiorbia maeulata 

Soiichrm oleraceus 



Station publications. 



Asclepias syriaca 

Eupatorium cceleBtininn . . . 

Ipomoea bona-nox 

liotrychiuiu ternatum 

Ipomoea nil 

Ipomoea purpurea 

Leonurvs cardiaca 

Verbuscum blattaria 

rycHanthemuviflexuosum 

Cerastium viscosum 

Cerastiinn vuljatutii 

Sinymbrium tlialiana 

Artemisia vidyaris 

Terbascxim thapsus 

El-odium motchatum 

Eehinospermum lappuhi . 



Plantayo rugdUi 

Veronica peregrina 
Verbena urticfe/olia . 
Anter novce anylite . . 

liudbeckia hirta 

Sotanum nigruin 



( )yster plant 

Pale lanib's-quarters 
Pale tonch-me-not . . . 

Panic grass 

Papaw 

Paraguay bur 

Partridge pea , . . 

Passion flower . . , 

Pasture thistle 



Medicayn InpiiUna 

I'otentdla norvegica 

Cyperus rotundas 

Scleria laxa 

Holcus Ian at us 

Panicwn capillan' 

Chryxanthemam lencantlie- 
mum. 

Tragopogon j)orrij'oliHs 

Chenopodium urbicum 

Impatienx aurea {I. pallida). 

Panicwm dichotomum 

Asimina species 

Acanthospermumxanthinides 

Casna vhamcechrista 

Vassijlora incarnata 

('nicnx lanceolatus 



Cniens odorutus 

Polygonum pennnylraninnn . 



Pasture thistle 

Pennsylvania .smart- 
weed. 

Pennyroyal Hedeoina pulegioides. . 

Pennywort ; Hydrocotyle umbelluta 

I'eppergi ass Lepidinni virginicuin . 

Pep))ergrass j Sikynibriuni canescenx. 

Peppermint ,..»•' Mentha fipeiita, . . 



Cal. K. 1890 ; N. J. R. 1890. 

N. J. R. 1890 ; AV. Va. B. 22, B. 23. 

Colo. R. 1890 ; Fla. B. 8 ; N. J. R. 1890. 

Cal. R. 1890: Fla. 15. 8; N. J. R. 1891); W.Ta. 

B.23. 
N. J. R. 1890 ; W. Va. B. 22, B. 23. 
"W.Va.B.23. 
Fla. B. 8. 
W. Va. B. 23. 
N. J. R. 1890. 

N. J . R. 1890 ; W. Va. B. 22, B. 23. 
N.J.R.1890. 
Mich. B. 72: N.J.R.1890. 
\V. Va. B. 23. 
N. J. R. 1890. 
W. Va. B. 23. 
N.J.R.1890. 
N. J. R. ISOU. 

N.J.R.1890; W.Va.B.22. 
Cal. R. 1890. 
N.J.R.1890. 

N.J.R.1890: W. Va. B.23. 

Cal. R. 1890 ; N. J. R. 1890. 

N. J. R. 1890 : W. Va. B. 23. 

N. J. R. 1890. 

N.J.R.1890: AV. Va. r..22. 

Cal. R. 1890: Fla. P.. S; X. J. R. 1890; W. Va. 

B. 23. 
N. J. R. 1890. 
N. J. R. 1890. 

Fla. B. 8 ; N. J. K. 1890 : N. 0. B. 70. 
Fla. B. 8. 
W. Va. B. 23. 

Fla. B. 8 ; N. J. R. 1890 ; W. Va. B. 23. 
Cal.R.1890: Iowa B.13; N. J. R. 1890;N. C. B. 

70 : AV. Va. B. 22, B. 23 ; Wis. B. 20. 
N. J. R. 1890. 
N.J.R.1890. 
N. J. R. 1890. 
ria.B.8: N.J. It. 1890. 
Fla. B. 8 ; \V. \&. B. 23. 
Fla. B. 8. 
Fla. B. 8. 
Fla. B. S. 
Fla. B. 8: Iowa B. i:!; N.J. K. 1890; \V. Va. B. 

22, B. 23. 
N. J.R.1S90; W. Va.B.23. 
Cal. 1MK9II: N .1. IMSilO. 

N.J. K. ISiKi. 

Fla. 11. K. 

Fla. B.8; N. J. R. 1X90: \V. Va. B. 23, 

Fla. B. 8. 

N.J. 1^.1890; W,Vi\,JJ.83. 



WKKDR. 371 

List of weeds in the United States, with refereuces to station publications — Continued. 



Common name. 


Scientific name. 


Station publications. 


Persimmon 


DioKpyros virginiana 


W. Va. B. 23. 






Fla. B 8 • N J R 1890 • W Va B 22 B 23 






Cal. R. 1890 ■ Fla. B 8 • Iowa B 13 • N J R 1890 • 






N. C. B. 70 ; W. Va. B. 22, B. 23. 




Lithospermum arvense 


Mich. B. 72; N. J. R 1890- W. Va B. 23 




Cal. R. 1890- Colo R 1890- Fla B 8- N J R 






1890. 




Ohenopodium albwrn 


Cal. R. 1890 • Colo. B. 1890 ■ Fla B 8 ■ N. J R 




1890; W.Va.B.23; Wis. B. 20. 




Ghenopodium hybridiim 

Amarantus chlorostachys 


N. J. R. 1890. 


Pigweed amaranth 


Fla.B.8; N.J. R. 1890. 






Cal. R. 1890 • N J R 1890 






W. Va. B. 23. 


Pitchfork 




N. J. R. 1890 • VV Va B 22 B 23 






Cal. R. 1890; Iowa B. 13; Me. R. 1889, pt. Ill, 
R. 1890; Mich. B. .50, B. 72 ; N. J. R. 1890 ; N. 










C.B.70; W. Va.B.22, B. 23. 


Plantain-leaved ever- 


Antennaria plantagiui/olia . . 


N.J. R. 1890. 


lasting 










N. J. R. 1890 ; W. Va. B. 23 






Cal. R. 1890 ; K J. R. 1890. 


Poison hemlock 




N. J. R. 1890. 




Rhus radicans (R. toxicoden- 
dron). 


Fla. B. 8 - N. J. R 1890 • W Va B 23 










Fla. B. 8 ; N. J. K. 1890 ■ W Va B ''2 B 23 


Poor man's weather- 


Anagallis arventis 


Cal. E. 1890 ; N. J. R. 1890. 


glass. 








AT^itida purpuraicens 


Fla.B 8 




"W. Va. B. 23. 






N. J. R. 1890 ; W. Va. B. 23. 




Paspalum eiliatifoliiim 


Fla B 8 




Fla.B 8. 






Fla. B. 8; N.J. R. 1890. 


Prickly tarweed 


Centaurea species 


Cal. R. 1890. 


Lithospermum officinale 

Thalictrum purpuraseens 


N. J. E. 1890 


Purple meadow rue 


N. J. R. 1890. 


Purple thorn apple 




Fla. B. 8 ; N. J.R. 1890 ; N.C- B. 70 ; W. Va. B. 22. 
Fla. B. 8 ; N. J.R. 1890 ; N.C. B. 70 ; W.Va. B. 23. 
Cal. R. 1890 • N. J. R 1890 




Pusley or Pursley 




Portulaca oleracea 


Fla.B.8- N. J. R 1890- N C B 70- W Va B 23 


Setana glauca 


Cal. R. 1890; Fla. B. 8; Iowa B. 13; N. J. R. 
1890 ; N. C. B. 70 ; W. Va. B. 22, B. 23. 






Agropyrum repens 


N .T R 1890- Wis B 20 


Queen's delight 


Fla.B 8. 




N. J. R. 1890 ; W. Va. B. 22, B. 23. 
N J R 1890- Wis B 20 




Agropyrum. repens 

Trifolium arvense 


Rabbit- foot clover 


N. J.R. 1890; W.Va.B.23. 




Ambrosia artemisicefolia 


Fla.B.8; N. J.R. 1890; N.C. B. 70; W.Va. B. 
22, B. 23. 








Mich. B. 72; N.J. R. 1890; W.Va. B. 22; Wia. 
B.20. 








Raphanus raphanietrum 


N. J.R, 1890; W.Va.B.23. 
N J R 1890 




Kattleroot ,. 


Vimi>^i/"(ja rucenoi,a 


W.Va.B.aS. 



372 WEEDS. 

List of weeds in the United States, with references to station putlicalions — Continued. 



Connnon name. 


Scientific name. 


Station publications. 






Cal. R. 1890; Fla.B.8; N. J. R. 1890; N. C. B. 






70; W. Va. B. 22, B. 23. 




Rumex acetosella ; 

i 


Cal. R. 1890 ; Fla. B. 8 ; N. J. R. 1890 ; N. C. B. 




70; W. Va. B. 22, B. 23. 


Redweed 


Rumex enyelmanni • 


Fla. B. 8. 


Rheuraatism weed 


Apoeytmm androscemifoKum \ 


N. J. R. 1890 ; W. Va. B. 22, B. 23. 




Plantago lanceolata i 

i 


Cal. R. 1890; Iowa B. 13; Me. R. 1889, pt. Ill, 




R. 1890 ; Mich. B. 56, B. 72 ; N. J. R. 1890 ; W. 




! 


Va. B. 22, B. 23. 


Ricliweed 


Ambros-ia artemisicefolia ! 


Fla. B. 8 ; K. J. R. 1890 ; N. C. B. 70 ; "W". Va. B. 




Plantago lanceolata ! 


22, B. 23. 
Cal. K.1890; Iowa B. 13; Me. R. 1889, pt. Ill, 




R. 1890; Mich. B. 56, B. 72; K J. R. 1890; "W. 






Va. B. 22, B. 23. 


Robin's plantain 


Etigernn helUdifolius 


N. J. R. 1890. 


Roman wormwood 


Ainhiosia artemisicefoUa ' 


Fla. B. 8; N. J. R. 1890; N. C. B. 70; W. Va. B. 
22, B. 23. 


Rough hawk weed 


Hieraeiutn scabrum 


N. J. R. 1890. 


Rough-stemmed flea- 


Erigeron ramosus 


N. J. R. 1890. 


bane. 


1 


4 


Round-leaved mallow . . 


Malva rotundi/olia 


N.J.R.1890; ■W.Va.B.23, 


Rutland beauty 


Convolvulus sepiuni 


N. J.R.I 890. 


Salsify 


Tragopogori porrifolius 


2T.J.R.1890. 




Fla. B. 8 ; Iowa B. 13 ; K J. R. 1890 ; "W. Va. B. 






22, B. 23. 






Cal. R. 1890. 


Sand purslane 


Sesuviuni pentandnim 


Fla. B. 8. 


Sand spur 

Scoke 

Scouring rush 

Scutch grass 

Sedge 

Sedge 

Self-heal 




Fla.B.8; N.J.R.1890. 




Fla.B.8- N.J.R.1890; W. Va. B.23. 




N.J.R.1890; "W.Va.B.23. 




Fla. B. 8 ■ N. J. R. 1890 ; N. C. B. 70. 




Fla. B. 8. 




N.J.R.1890. 




N. J. R. 1890 ; W. Va. B. 23. 


Sensitive brier 




Fla. B. 8. 




N. J. R. 1890. 






Fla. B. 8. 


Sheep sorrel 


Rumex acetosella 


Cal. R. 1890; Fla.B.8; N.J.R.1890; N. C. B. 
70; W. Va. 22, B. 23. 


Shepherd's purse 


Capsella bursapastoris 


Cal. R. 1890 ; Fla. B. 8 ; N. J. R. 1890 ; W. Va. B. 
22 ; Wis. B. 20. 


Showy spurge 




N. J. R. 1890. 




N.J.R.1890; W. Va.B.22, B.23. 


Skullcap 

Skunk cabbage 




W. Va. B. 23. 


Symplocarpusfoetidus 


N. J. R. 1890 ; "W. Va. B. 23. 






N.J.R.1890. 


Slender flvefinger 


Potentilla canadensis 


N. J. R. 1890 ; W. Va. B. 22, B. 23. 




TIrtica gracilis 


N. J. R. 1890 ; W. Va. B. 23. 




N. J. R. 1890 ; W. Va. B. 23. 


Small beggar's ticks. . . 
Small flowered butter- 




N. J. R. 1890. 


Ranunculus abortivus 


W. Va. B. 23. 


cup. 








Polygonum species 


Cal. R. 1890; Colo. R. 1890; Fla. B. 8; Me. R. 




1S9U. pt. Ill; N. J. R. 1890; N. C. B. 70; W 






Va. B. 22, B. 23 ; Wis. B. 20. 



WEKDS. 373 

List of weeds in the United iStulcs, iciih references to station puhlications — Continued. 



Common name. 



Scientific name. 



Station publications. 



Smootli sumach . . 

Sneezeweed 

Sol't brume grass 
Sorrel 



Sow thistle 



Spanish bur 

Spanish needles . 

Spearmint 

Speedwell 

Spiderwort 

Spiderwort 

Spiny amaranth . 
Spiny cocklebur . 



Spiny-leaved sow this- 
tle. 
Spiny nightshade . . . . 

Spotted cow-bane 

Spotted crane's bill. . . 

Spotted knotweed 

Spotted spurge 

Spotted touch-me-not. 

Spreading aster 

Spreading dogbane . . . 
Spurge 



Spurge nettle. 



Spurry 

Squawroot 

Squawweed 

Squirrel-tail grass . 

Star cucumber 

Star grass 

Starved aster 

Stemless primrose . 

Stick-seed 

Stick-seed 

Stick-tights 

Stinking grass 

St. Johnswort 

Stoneseed , 

Stoneweed 

Storksbill 

Stramonium 



lihus glabra 

Helenium avtumnale 

Jiromtti mollis 

Bumex acetosella 



Sonchus oleraceus.. 



Vrena lobata 

Bidens bipinnata 

Mentha viridis 

Yeronica serpyllifolia. . 
Com nielina communis . 
Tradescantia virginica 
Amaranthui spinosug . 
Xanthium spinosum . . . 



Sonchus asper 



Solanum rostratum. 

Cicuta maculata 

Geranium maculatum 

Polygonum, persicaria 

Exqjhorbia maculata 

Impatiens bifiora (I. fidva) . . 

Aster patens 

Apocynum androscemifolium 
Euphorbia species 



Summer foxtail . 



Sundrops 

Sunflower 

Swamp beggar-ticks . . 

Swamp rose 

Sweetbrier 



Jatropha urens, var. stimn- 
losa. 

Spergtda arvensis 

Cimicif-uga racemosa 

Senecio aureus 

Hordeum jubatum 

Iiicyos angulatus 

tiisy rinchiuni bellum 

Aster laterifiorus 

QSnothera ovata 

Bidens frondosa 

Echinospermuni species 

Desmodium species 

Eragrostis major 

Hypericum perforatuin 

Lithospermum arvense 

lAthospermum arvense 

Erodium cictitarivm 

Datura stramonium 

Setaria glauca , 

(Enotherafruticosa 

Helianthus animus 

Bide7is connata , 

Rosa Carolina 

Rosa rubiginusa 



N. J. R. 1890 ; "W. Va. B. 23. 

S. (J. K. 1889. 

Cal. R. 1890. 

Cal. R. 1890; Fla. B. 8; N". J. R. 1890; N. C. 

B. 70; W. Va. B. 22, B. 23. 
Cal. R. 1890; Fla. B. 8; N. J. R. 1890; W. Va. 

B. 23. 
Fla. B. 8. 

Fla. B. .9; N. J. R. 1890; W. Va. B. 22, B. 23. 
N. J. R. 1890; W. Va. B. 23. 
N. J. R. 1890; W. Va. 15. 23. 
Fla. B. 8. 
N. J. R. 1890. 

Fla. B. 8; N. J. R. 1890; W. Va. B. 22, B. 23. 
Cal. R. 1890; N. J. R. 1890; N. C. B. 70; W. 

Va. B. 23. 
Fla. B. 8; N.J. R. 1890. 

lowaB. 13; N.J. R. 1897 

W. Va. B. 23. 

N. J. R. 1890. 

Fla. B. 8; N.J. R. 1890. 

Col. R. 1890; Fla. B. 8; N. J. R. 1890. 

N. J. R. 1800. 

N. J. R. 1890. 

N. J. R. 1890 ; W. Va. B. 22, B. 23. 

Cal. R. 1890; Colo. R. 1890; Fla. B.8; N.J. R. 

1890; W. Va. B. 22, B. 23. 
Fla. B. 8. 

Cal. R. 1890 ; N. J. R. 1890. 

\V. Va. B. 23. 

N.J.R.1890. 

N. J. R. 1890. 

N. J. R. 1890. 

Cal. R. 1890. 

N. J. R. 1890 ; W. Va. B. 22, B. 23. 

Cal. R. 1890. * 

N. J. R. 1890 ; W. Va. B. 22, B. 23. 

Colo. R. 1890 ; N. J. R. 1890. 

Fla. B.8; W.Va.B.22. 

N. J. R. 1890. 

N. J. R. 1890 ; ^\. Va. B. 23. 

ilich.B.72; N.J.R.1890; W.Va.B.23. 

Mich. B. 72; N.J.R.1890; W.Va.B.23. 

Cal. R. 1890; N.J.R.1890. 

Cal. R. 1890: Fla. B. 8; N. J. R. 1890; N. C. B. 70; 

W. Va. B. 22. 
Cal. B. 1890 ; Fla. B.8; Iowa B. 13 : N. J. R. 1890 ; 

N. C. B. 70 ; W. Va. B. 22, B. 23. 
W. Va. B. 23. 

Cal. R. 1890; Colo. R. 1890; N..J. R. 1890. 
N. J. R. 1890 ; W, Va. B. 22. 
W. Va. B. 23. 
W. Va. B. 23. 



o74 WEEDS. 

List of weeds in the United States, nith refereiice>i to station puhlicatiinis — Continued. 1 



Common uame. 



Scientific name. 



Station publicationa. 



Sweet clover 

Sweet scabious 

Sweet sedge 

Sweet William 

Tall crowfoot 

Tall meadow rue 

Tall ragweed 

Tall thistle 

Tansy 

Tar weed 

Tasselvine 

Teasle 

Teaweed 

Thimbleberry 

Thorn apple 

Thorny amaranth 

Thorough wort 

Three-seeded mercury . 
Three-thomed acacia .. 
Thyme-leaved sandwort 

Tickle grass 

Tickseed 

Toadflax 

Toadflax 

Trailing tarweed . . . 

Tree of heaven 

Trumpet creeper 

Trumpet milkweed . 

Trumpetweed 

Tumbleweed 

Turnip 

Velvet grass 

Velvetleaf 

Yiol et clover 

Viper's bugloss 

Virginia creeper 

Virginia thistle 

Water hemlock 

Water hemp 

Water horehound . . . 

Water pepper 

Water smartweed . . . 

Water thistle 

Wet Bermuda grass 

"Wheat thief 

White clover 

White devil 

White man's foot. . . 

White melilot 

White mullein 



Melilotus indica 

Erigeron a7inuus 

Kyllingia sesquiflora 

Silene armeria 

Ranuneulus acris 

Thalictruni polygamum 

Ambroiia trifida 

Dipsacus iijlvestiis 

Tanacetum vulgare 

Cuplioea peliolata 

Mimoia strigillosa 

Dipsacus sylvestris 

Sida stipulacea 

Rubus occidentalis 

Datura stramonium' 

Am,arantus spinosug. 

Eupatorium perfoliatum 

Acalypha virginica 

Gleditschia triacantfion 

Arenaria serpyllifolia 

Panicum capillare 

Deirnodimn species 

Linaria canadensis 

Lin aria vulgaris 

Chamcehatia foliolosa 

Allan thus glandulosa 

Tecoma radicans 

Lactuca integrifolia 

Eupatorium purpureum 

Amarantus albus 

Brassica campettris 

Holeus lanatus 

Abutilon avicennoe 

Legpedeza violacea 

Eehium vulgare 

Titis quinquefolia (Ampelnp 
sis quinquefolia). 

Gnicus virginianus 

Cieuta maculata 

Acnida auttralis 

LycojMs sinuatus 

Polygonum hydropiper 

Polygonum emersum 

Dipsacus sylvestris 

Paspalum distichum' 

Litliospermtim arvense 

Trifolium repens 

Aster lateriflorus 

Plantago major 

Melilotiis alba 

Verbascum lychnitis 



Cal. E. 1890. 

N. J. R. 1890 ; W. Va. B. 22, B. ^3. 

Fla. B. 8. 

N. .T. R. 1890. 

N.J.R. 1890; W.Va.B.23. 

N. .J. R. 1890 ; W. Va. B. 23. 

Fla. B. 8 ; N. J. R. 1890 ; W. Va. B. 22, B. 23. 

Cal. R. 1800; N.J. E.1890J W. Va. B. 22, B. 23. 

N.J.R. 1890. 

W. Va. B. 22, B. 23. 

Fla. B. 8. 

Cal. R. 1890 ; N. J. R. 1890 ; W. Va. B. 22, B. 23. 

FJa. B. 8. 

N. J. E. 1890. 

Cal. R. 1890; Fla. B. 8; N. J. E. 1890; K C. B. 

70; W. Va. B.22. 
Fla. B. 8 ; N. J. E. 1890 ; W. Va. B. 22, B. 23. 
N. J. R. 1890. 

Fla. B. 8 ; N. J. E. 1890 ; W. Va. B. 23. 
W. Va. B. 23. 
N. J. E. 1890. 

Fla. B. 8 ; N. J. E. 1 890 ; W. Va. B. 23. 
Fla.B.8; W. Va.B.22. 
Fla. B. 8 ; N. J. E. 1890. 
Mich. B. 72; N.J. R. 1890; W. Va. B. 22, B. 23 ; 

Wis. B. 20. 
Cal. R. 1890. 
W. Va. B. 23. 
W. Va. B. 23. 
Fla. B. 8. 
N. J. R. 1890. 
Cal. R. 1890; Colo. R. 1890; Fla. B. 8; N. J. R. 

1890. 
N. J. E. 1890. 
W. Va. B. 23. 
Fla. B. 8;N. J. E.1890:N. C. B. 70; W.Va.B. 

22, B. 23. 
W. Va. B. 23. 

N. J. E. 1890; W. Va. B. 22, B. 23. 
W. Va. B. 23; Fla. B. 8. 

W. Va. B. 23. 

W. Va. B. 23. 

Fla. B. 8. 

N.J.R. 1890. 

N. J. E. 1890. 

N. J. E. 1890. 

Cal. E. 1890; N. J. E. 1890; W. Va. B. 22, B. 23, 

Fla. B. 8. 

Mich. B. 72; N. J. E. 1890; W. Va. B. 23. 

N. J. E. 1890. 

N. J. R. 1890; W. Va. B. 22, B. 23, 

Cal. E. 1890; N. J. R. 1890. 

N.J.R. 1890; W.Va.B. 23. 

N. J. E. 1890. 



List of weeds in the I'liilnl Slatesj witli rcfcrciicrx to ftlalion puhlications — C'outitiued. 



Common name. 



White ninsfanl. 
White plaiitain . 
"White poplar... 

Whitetop 

White vervain.. 
Whiteweed 



Whorled foxtail . . 
Wild balsam apph' 

Wild bean 

AVildbcet 

Wild berganiont.. 
Wild buckwheat . 



SciiMitilic name. 



Station publications. 



Braseica alha 

Plantago virpinica 

. I ropulua alba 

Eri(jeron avininx 

Verbena urtief/oHa 

Chrysanthem um h'lhdittlic- 
mum. 

Setaria vertiviUata 

Micrampetes ech'niata (Kcfii- 

vocystii lohata). 
Phaicolus peiennin ... ^ .... i . 

CEnotltera fniticosn 

MonaidajiDtvloDa 

I'oljigonvm convolviib's 



I X- 



Wild carrot 

Wild cotton 

Wild garlic 

Wild gourd 

W ild hydrangea 

Wild leek 

Wild lettuce 

Wild licorice 

Wild lily 

Wild mint 

Wild mustard. 

AVild-oat grass 

Wild oats 

Wild onion 

AVild parsnip 

Wild pink 

Wild radish 

Wild red raspberry. . 

Wild rose 

Wild senna 

Wild sunflower 

Wild sweet potato . . . 
Wild sweet William . 

Wild timothy 

Wild tobacco 

Wingstem 

Wire grass 

Wire grass 

Wire grass 

AVitch grass 

Woodrush , 

AVood sago 

Wool mat 

WormseeS 



Yard grass . . . 

Yarrow 

Yellow daisy 
Yellow dock . 



Daiicu.i rarota 

Asclejnas syriaca 

AUiiim canndense 

Cucurbitafatida 

Hydrangea arboreicens 

Allltim tricoccum 

LactAica canadensis 

Glycyrrhiza Icpidnta 

LilliDii philndelphinnn 

ileiitlta canadensis 

Bras^ira sinapisfnim 

Arrlienatlienim elatins 

Avena/alva 

A UiHin rineale 

Vaxtinara sativa 

S'lene pennsylvaniefi 

Raphanus raphanist inu 

Uubns strignsiis 

Risa ca rnlina, 

Cassia marilandica 

Helianfhvg stnimoi<iis 

Ipomcea pandurata 

I'hlox maciilata 

Setaria viridis 

Nicofiana attennata , 

Actinonieris alteriii/nlin 

A ristida species 

Elusine indica 

Sporobol'is species 

Eragrostis capiUa ris 

Luzida eampestris 

Teiicrium canadense 

Cynoglossum officinale 

Clienopodium ambrosioide 
' var. anthelminticum . 

Elvsi ne indica 

Achillea milUfolium 

Riidbeclcia hirta 

Rumex crispus 



K. J. R. 18!M). 

W. Va. v.. Z\. 

W. Va. T5. 23. 

N.J. K. 1800 : \V. Va. I!. 22. B. 23; 

X.T. R. 1890; W.Va.I!.2:t. 

CiU. R. 1890: Iowa H. i:!; X. .1. R. 1800; ^T. C. 

B. 70 : W. Va. V.. 22, H. 2;i ; Wi.s. B. 20. 
XwT.R. 1890. 
W. Va. H. 23. 

Fla. B. 8. 

^x. Va. B. •>■^. 

W. Va. B. 23. 

Fla. B. 8: Me. R. 1889, pt. til; ?f. ,T. R.1800; 

Wis. B. 20. 
Cal. R. 1890 ; N. .T. IX. 1890 ; W. Va. B. 22, B. 23. 
N. J. R. 1890 ; W. Va. B. 22, B. 23. 
X. .T. R. 1890. 
Cal. R. 18C0. 
W. Va. B. 23. 
X.J. R. 1890. 

Fla. B. 8 ; N. J. R. 1890 ; W. Va. B. 22, B. 23. 
Cal. R. 1890. 
W. Va.B.23. 
N'.J. R.1890. 
Wis. B. 20. 
W. Va. B. 23. 
Cal. R. 1890. 

X. J. R. 1890 ; W. Va. B. 22, B. 23. 
X. J. R. 18:!0 ; AV. Xn. B. 22, B. 23, 
Me, R, 1889.pt. III. 
X.J.R. 1890; AV. Va.B.23. 
X.J. R. 1890, 
AV. A'a. B. 23. 
Fla. B.8: W. V;i. 1!. 23. 
Fla. B, 8, 

X. J. R. 189;i ; AV. A'a, B. 22, B. 23. 
W. Va. B. 23. 

Fla, B. 8 ; X. J. R. 1890 : X, C. B, 70, 
Cal. R. 1890. 
\y. A'a, B. 22. B, 23, 
Fla. B.8. 

Fla. B. 8 : N. J, H. 18110 ; AV. Va. B. 23. 
Fla. B. 8. 
Fla. 15.8. 
AV. A'a. 15.23, 
X.J.R. 1890. 

X.J.R. 1890; W. Va.B.23. 
Fla. B.8; X.J. R. 1890; W. Va.B.23. 

Fla. B. 8 : X. J. R. 1890 ; W. A'a. B. 23. 
X. J. R. 1890: AV. Va. B. 22, B. 23. 
X. J. R. 1890; W. Va. B. 22, B. 23, 
Cal. R. 1890; Fla. B. 8; Mich. B. 72; X. J. R. 
1890 ; W. Va. B. 23 ; Wis. B. 20. 



\ 

376 WEST VIRGINIA STATION. 

List of weeds in the United States, with references to station puiUcations — Continued. 



Common name. 


Seicutilic name. 


Station publicationa. 


Yellow hop clover 


Trifolium ajrarium 


N. J. R. 1890 ; W. Va. B. 23. 




Yellow locust 


Robinia pgeudacacia 


AV. Va. B. 23. 




Yellow mustard 


Brasiiea arvensis 


K.J. K. 1890; W.Va.B.23. 




Yellow rocket 


Barbarea vidr/aris 


N.J.R. 1890. 




Yellow sweet clover... 


Mcliiotui officinalis 


N. J. R. 1890. 




Yellow wood sorrel 


Oxalis condmlata var. stiit ta 


Cal. R. 1890; Fla. B. 8; N. J. R. 1890; 
B. 23. 


W. Va. 


Yerba mnnsa 


Anemopsi:i californiea 


Cal. R. 1890. 





West Virginia Station, Morgantown. — Orgauizeil under act of Congress in 1888 
as a department of tlie West Virginia University. The stalf consists of tbe presi- 
dent of tbe university, director, botanist, entomologist, agriculturist, chemist, ste- 
nographer and bool;keei)er, and treasurer. The principal lines of work are analysis 
and control of fertilizers; chemistry; botany; field experiments with field crops, 
vegetables, and fruits ; and entomology. Up to January 1, 1893, the station had pub- 
lished 3 annual reports and 29 bulletins. Revenue in 1892, $19,904. 

Wliale-oil soap. — See Insecticides. 

"Wheat {Tritirnm rnlgare). — Vaiueties. — A number of tbe stations have made tests 
of varieties, some of them extending over a series of years. In general the results have 
indicated thatthe selection of varieties depends onlocal conditions of soil and climate. 
At the Ohio Station, where tests have been made for ten years, the following varieties 
are esjiecially couunended : Valley, Nigger, Penquite Velvet Chaff, and Diehl Mediter- 
ranean among the red-bearded varieties; of the smooth red varieties, the Red Fultz, 
Poole, and Finley; of white varieties, Silver Chalf (smooth), Master's Amber, and 
Democrat. At Indiana Station Velvet Chalf has averaged about 32 bushels per acre 
during seven years. In Pennsylvania, Dietz Longberry Red, Fulcaster, and Fultz 
have been among the best varieties. In Kansas se / eral years' experience indicate that 
"fine early-ripening red sorts," like Early May and Zimmerman, are the best for 
that region. 

The average of many varieties of wheat for ten years gives the following yields 
per acre of the different classes at the Ohio Station: White wheat, 30.8 bushels per 
acre; red wheat, 31.5 bushels; bearded wheat, 31.7 bushels; smooth wheat, 31.1 
bushels. The difference is so slight as to suggest that one kind is about as reliable 
as another. {Ohio B., vol. Ill, 6.) 

{Ala. Canebrake B. 5; Ala. College B. 32, «. ser., B. 89, n. ser.; Ark. B. 6, B. 11, R. 
1S88, p. 35; Colo. B. 1888, p. 43, R. 1890, p. 19, R. 1891, p. 114; III. B. 17; Ind. B. 4, B. 8, 
B. 10, B. 3.^, R. 1880, p. 31, It. 1881, p. 80, R. 1882, p. 61, R, 1883, p. 67, R. 1888, p. 19; 
Iowa B. 15; Kans. B. 7, B. 11, B. 33, R. 1888, p. 54; Ky. B. 8,' B. SO, B. 35, R. 1888, 
pp. 89, 115; La. B. S6; Md. B. 10, B. 14; Mich. B. 18, B. 38, R. 1888, p. 83; Minn. B. 1, 
B. 15; Miss. R. 1891, p. 24; Mo. VoUege B. 3, B. 15; Nehr. B. 12, B. 15, B. 19; Xev.R. 
1891, p. 20; N. Mex. B. 6; JS!. Y. State R. 1887, p. 58, R. 1890, p. 369, B. 4, B. 45; N. C. 
B. 71; Ohio B. 1, B. 5, B. 16, vol. Ill, 6, R. 1883, p. 10, R. 1888, p. 2~S, R. 1889, p. 115; 
Ore. B. 4, B. 16; Pa. B. 6, R. 1SS8, pp. 35, 120, R. 1889, pp. 18, 150, R. 1890, p. 144; S. 
a. B. 5, B. 4, n. ser., B. 7, n. ser., R. 1889, p. 206; S. Dak. B. 11, B. 21, R. 1888, p. S7; 
Tenn. R. 1882. p. 5, R. 1885-86, p. 13; Va. B. 19; Wis. B. 11, B. 13.) 

Composition. — ^ae. Appendix, Tables land II. 

At the Connecticut Storrs Station {R. 1888. p. 38) it was found that roots of wheat 
leave in the soil per acre water-free substance 6.58, nitrogen 6.4, phosphoric acid 
1.5, find potash 2.6 pounds. 

Cur.TUiiK. — In Ohio dnrins seven seasons with one excepti<in the highest yields 
were obtained by S('e;lin;i the last week in September or the first in October {Ohio B, 



WHEAT. O ( i 

rol. Ill, 6). Seeding in OcUjbcr is nut .siiic in lUinois <,JII. /!. II). In lnili;nia .seed- 
ing at diflfereut. dates gave conllietiug results {Ind. B. 32). 

At several stations sowing from 5 to 8 pecks per acre lias given the best yields 
during a series of years {III. B. 11; hid. B. 32; Kans. B. 20; Kij. B. 21; Minn. B. 15; 
Ohio B. vol. II, 5, B. vol. Ill, 6, B. 42; S. Dale. B. 11). 

At Indiana Station large seed gave better results than small seed. At tbe Kansas 
Station, mature seed wheat proved sn])erior to immature (/Tahs. B. 33). Analyses 
and field experiments at Minnesota Station with regard to the use of rusted, frosted, 
and frozen grain for seed indicated that, (1) different kinds of i)Oor wheat differ 
widely in value for seed, (2) rusted and blistered wheat if well cleaned can be safely 
used for seed, while frozen wheat is worthless both for seed and nulling, (3) wheat 
for seed sliould be thoroughly cleaned and tested as regards gluten and germinating 
power {Minn. B. 11). At the South Carolina Station {B. 5), Southern seed proved 
superior to the Northern. At the Kansas Station {B. 20) a mixture of several 
varieties of wheat sown together gave a heavier yield than single varieties. Seed- 
ing at a depth not exceeding two inches has generally given better results than 
deeper seeding {Ala. Canebrake B. 5; III. B. 17; Ky. B. 21; Ohio B. vol. Ill, 6). 

The tests of drilling vs. broadcasting have given conllicting results, most fre- 
quently in favor of drilling. At the Kentucky Station, when the amount of seed 
used was from 0.5 to 1.25 bushels, drilling w^as best. When 1.25 to 2 bushels of seed 
■were used, broadcasting gave the largest yield. {Eans. B. 20, B. S3; Ky. B. 35; Ohio 
B. 42; S. Dak. B. 21.) 

Listing has been found in Kansas to materially increase the yield as compared with 
drilling in a dry year {Kans. B. 11), and to decrease the yield in a wet year {B. 20). 
At the Ohio Station five years' experience with a roller or wheel following in track 
of drill has been generally favorable to the practice. 

Lois Weedon culture and mulching were failures at this station {Ohio B. vol. Ill, 
(J). Spring harrowing reduced the yield at the Kansas Station {B. 20), and at 
the South Carolina Station {B. 7, n. ser.). At the Kansas Station wheat has been 
grown continuously on the same land for ten years without decrease in yield {Kans. 
B. 11). At the Indiana Station (Z>. 41) the average gain for six years due to rota- 
tion was 6.1 bushels per acre. Pasturing young wheat reduced the yield {Kans. B. 
33), as did mowing when the plants were about 6 inches high {Ind. B. 41). 

Reports on other experiments in wheat culture may be found in the following 
publications: Ark. B. 11, B. 1SS9, p. 19; Colo. II. 1890, p. 17; Kans. B. 7, li. 18SS, p. 
60; Ky. B. 11, B. 21, B. 30; Minn. It. ISSS, p. SO; Ohio B. 1, li. 1882, p. 109, B. 1888, 
p. 50; S. Dak. B. 11. 

Manuuing. — At the Penns^^lvania and New Jersey Stations, little difference in 
yield resulted from the use of different forms of phosphoric acid {N. J. B. 1890, j). 
147; Fa. II. 1888, p. 124). In South Carolina nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash 
combined gave the largest increase of yield on poor sandy land (^S^. C. B. 1888, p. 
156). At the Maryland Station {B. 14) nitrogen gave the best results. At Kansas 
Station it was found that while the use of a moderate quantity of salt (300 pounds 
per acre) gave the straw a bright color the benetit from the use of this fertilizer was 
not very great, and that its use in large quantities might prove injurious. Salt has 
no effect in keeping off chinch bugs. In Kansas fertilizers in general do not mate- 
rially increase the yield {Kans. B. 1888, p. 71). In Illinois {B. 17) and in Kentucky 
{B. 35) commercial fertilizers have given poor results on wheat. 

At the Ohio Station commercial fertilizers have been unprofitable on wheat; but 

the yield on a plat which had grown Melilotus alba for three years was 26.9 bushels 

per acre against 18.6 bushels on an adjoining pl.at {Ohio B. 42). Similarly the 

stubble pea vines largely increased the yield of wheat at the North Carolina Station 

'{B. 77). 

{Ark. B. 1888, p. 37; Conn. Starrs B. 1890, p. 37; Ky. B. 8, B. 11; Minn. B. 5, B. 23; 
N. J. B. 31, B. 1888, p. 101, B. 1899, p. 142; S. C. B. 4, n. ser., B. 7, B. 1889, p. 206, n. ser.). 



37S WHEAT BRAN. 

Wheat bran. — For composition, see Appendix, I'ahJen I mid It. For valiio as .'i 
feeding stnif, see accounts of experiments nuder (ilateii meal; Cottonseed; Cotton- 
seed meal; Milk, effect of food upon; Cattle, feeding for hecfandfor f/rowth, and Pigs. 

Wheat fly {Osoinis variahilis?). — A very small fly, somewhat resembling a small 
housefly. It is shining black with reddish brown eyes. The wings are slightly smoky 
with brown veins. The under side of the abdomon is pale green, the legs black and 
yellow. The female lays her eggs mostly iu volunteer wheat, and late-sowu wheat is 
not 80 liable to her attack. Tlie worm is about one-eightli of an inch long, white 
with yellowish tinge. The body is made of thirteen segments. 

Late sowing and destroying all volunteer growth will destroy many of the larva-. 
Fertilizers should be ailded to the soil to stimulate a more vigorous growth of wheat 
capable of withstanding the attacks of this insect, {Ky. B. 30; Ohio B. vol. V, 4.) 

Wheat, loose smut ( ITstilayo tritici). — A fungous disease very muchresemblingthe 
smut of oats ( Ustilago arcnm). The whole head is transformed into a black powdery 
mass of spores. Most authorities advise the same treatment of the seed before plant- 
ing as for smut of oats and stinking smut of wheat, but some claim no advantage 
follows such treatment for tliis disease. (Ind. B. ,1?: Knns.B. 22; Ey. B. 8; Nehr. 
B. 11: N. Dak. B. 1; Ohio B. vol. I If, 6, B. vol. IV, 4;' S. Dak. B. 17.) 

Wheat, rust (Fnccinin graminis). — A well-known fungous disease, the attacks of 
which are usually worse during wet and hot seasons. When the conditions arc 
favorable this fungus regularly passes through three phases in its life cj'^cle. The 
first is upon the barberry leaves. Here in the spring it causes the cluster cups or 
barberry rust. The spores from this spread to the wheat fields, where they quickly 
develop and enter the tissues of the leaves. Its growth is kept up with the wheat, 
and about harvest time the second crop of spores is produced. These are the red- 
colored spores, wliich give it tiie name of red rust. Later there appear upon the 
"stubble." and sometimes upon the leaves, long black nnvs of spores. These are the 
spores of the third stage, and form the w inter or resting stage of the fungus. Wherever 
there are no barberry bushes the first phase must be passed upon some other plant, 
or else the second phase is develo))ed directly from the winter spores. Upon this 
point there is much yet to learn. Another species, Puccinia rnhigo-vera, is thought 
to attack the young plant early in the fall from the old stubble and to sjiend the 
winter in the tissues of the host plant. This may be true also of the former species. 

But little is yet known as to means of repression. Fungidides, where tried in aii 
experimental way, have not given very satisfactory results. As one j)hase, the black- 
rust, is confined almost entirely to the stubble, the burning of this after harvest 
would probably materially reduce the amount of fungus. Well-drained land is not 
as liable to severe loss from rust as tliat which is not drained. Some varieties of 
wheat are more susceptible to attacks than others, though none can be said to be 
rust-proof. As a rule, hard red wheats, especi.-illy those ripening earlj', have been 
found most resistant to the attacks of rust. {Lad. H. 26; Iowa B. 10, B. 16; Ean>i. 
B. 21, B. 2.'; Mich. B. S3; Minn. B. 6, B. 11; N. C. B. 63.) 

Wheat sa-wfly (Cephas jnjg mam a). — The adult insect is one-third of an- inch long 
of a shining black color, banded and spotted with yellow. The female is a little 
larger than the male. She deposits her eggs during the spring, usually about May, 
in the hollow part of the stem. The larvie are from one-fifth to one-half inch long 
when nuxture, and of a j'ellowish white color. They usually tunnel through all the 
joints of the wheat stalks except the one next the ground. As the grain ripens the 
larvte work toward the ground, and at harvest time most of them have penetrateil 
nearly to the root. Here they make a cavity by cutting the straw" nearly in two 
from within. They spend the winter iu the stalk. When the grain is cut, the 
worms are left undisturbed in the stubble. In the spi'lng they appear as adult flies. 
If abundant their cutting the stalks will cause the grain to fall and lodge. Burning 
the stubble and rotation of crops ar(> recommended as remedies against this pest. 
{N. Y. Cornell B. 11, B. 1S8S, p. 20; Ohio B. vol. V, 4.) 



WILLOW TREES. 379 

Wheat scab {Fn sari am [Fnsisjxirium^ <-aliiiiiriiin). — A rmigouw disease Avliicli 
often affects the. chaff and seed of wheat. Its presence is lirst indicated l)y tlio 
whitening of the nppor part of the chaft", the lower remaining green. After a time 
the white pai"t nsually becomes pinkish and tiie chaff is stnck together as tliongh 
glued. If the seed be examined it will b(5 found shriveled and shrnnken to al)out 
one-third its normal size and also of a pink color. The disease causes the heads to 
appear ripe before those not attacked. It seems to be worse upon late sown wheat 
and that which has not a very healthy growth. 

Early sowing and the planting of early varieties are recommended as preventive 
measures. {Del. B. 1890, p. S9; Ind. B. 36.) 

Wheat, stinking smut {TUletia feet ens)' [also called Bunt]. — A fungous disease 
differing from loose smut in that only the individual grains are attacked and the 
whole head does not become a powdery mass. 

Before the grain ripens the affected heads have a dark bluish green color. Dur- 
ing the ripening of the grain these plants have a paler appearance than the healthy 
ones, and they never assume the yellowish color of ripened grain. If closely exam- 
ined, the grains of wheat may be seen to be considerably swollen. If one of the 
swollen, smutted, grains is crushed, it will be found to be tilled with a dark powder, 
which has a very disagreeable and penetrating odor. Often the disciase is not recog- 
nized until the grain is threshed. Flour from diseased wheat is apt to be discolored 
and. bad-smelling. 

This disease can be prevented by soaking the seed in a solution of blue vitriol or 
by the Jensen hot-water method, as recommended for smut of oats (see Oats, smut). 
(Ind. B.S3; Eaiis. B. 12, B. 21; Nebr. B. 11; N. Dale. B. 1; S. Dak. B. 17.) 

Whey. — It has been recently suggested to use whey in the preparation of a feed- 
ing cake for animals by mixing it with wheat bran, and also to use it for making 
vinegar and an alcoholic beverage. Milk sugar is commercially prepared, from 
whey. For the value of whey for feeding pigs, see, Pigs. For composition, see 
Dairif products. 

Whitloof. — See Chicory. 

White Malabar nightshade. — See Basella. 

Willow trees {Salix spp.). — The willows, as rapid-growing and often hardy trees, 
enter frequently into the forestry studies of the Northern praivie stations, and have 
elsewhere been planted with a view to furnishing osiers. The white willow {S. 
alba), as noted in .S'. Dak. B. 23, "has been largely iilanted as a wind-break, for 
which purpose it is peculiarly titted by reason of the great number of branches which 
extend from the ground along the entire stem. It is of rapid growth, especially in 
moist situations, and of easy culture. The timber is regarded as of rather more 
value than Cottonwood. It does best in moist soils, but is successfully grown on 
uplands." It is not so well adapted for mixed planting as other species. In Minn. 
B. 34 it is mentioned also as a well-known and most valuable tree, used for shelter 
belts and street planting, suitable for ornamental planting, lining water courses, 
and forming screens for more tender trees. It is subject to injury from the larva of 
the elm sawtlj-, a difficulty to be overcome by arsenical spraying. 

Attention is called in an Iowa bulletin, 188.5. to the importance of the red willow 
{S.fragilis) as the source of tauning material for the Russian upper leather, and as 
furnishing a lumlier suitable for tinishing, flooring, boat-building, etc. The same 
species was tested at the South Dakota Station as a nurse tree, for which it proved 
to be unfit, not growing in tree form. It would make an excellent wind-break or 
screen, but is infested with the Cottonwood leaf beetle. 

Russian willows are treated as a separate group. Of these, S. acutifoUa is noted 
{lou-a B. 18S5) as of greater timber value than the common w^illows, and capable of 
making a large free on a dry soil and in a dry climate. It is described {Minn. B. 24) 
as "quite distinct in foliage and habit from other willows; very pretty and grace- 



380 WILLOW SAWFLY. 

fuL Its leaves ar(i gloss\', branches sleuder, ami covered with a blue bloom when 
more than one year old." The foliage is stated to resist the sawfly larva better than 
that of other*willows. The laurel-leafed willow {S. laurifolia) is recommended for 
its beauty. "One of the finest and most satisfactory medium-sized trees we have, 
with large dark green leaves that shine as if varnished. Of close, pretty habit, it 
scarce resembles any of the common willows in appearance." 

A Russian variety of the golden willow {S. albawnr. vitellina, S. viteH'ma var.) is 
praised by both stations as specially fine. "Perfectly hardy and a very rapid grower, 
making a large tree. At all times a good tree, but especially handsome and con- 
spicuous in the latter part of winter and toward spring, when the bark turns a 
bright golden yellow." Napoleon's willow (S. napoleonis), approved by both 
stations, is characterized la Minn. B. 24 as "a pretty little spreading dwarf willow 
from Russia, with fine twigs and narrow bluish leaves; desirable for covering 
unsightly banks and for edging water courses." The royal willow {S. regalis) is 
another Russian species represented favorably for ornamental planting in Minn. B. 
24. Forms of tlie weeping willow, Russian, or others, are mentioned in both places, 
one of which is the Wisconsin weeping willow. The rosemary willow {S. rosmarini- 
folia), a Russian shrub, is approved for planting on home grounds (Iowa B. 16). If 
top-worked on white or golden willow, " it forms a small tree with spreading top 
and pendulous iiabit that is very pleasing and peculiar." The Kilmarnock willow is 
found too tender for Minnesota {B. 24). Lists of osier willows from Austria received 
for trial from the U. S. Department of Agriculture occur in NeJ)r. B. 19; N. C. B. 
72; U. I. B. 1890, p. 162. 

Willow sawfly {Vimhex americana). — An insect which attacks willow, elm, and 
other trees, often defoliating them. It is the largest of our sawflies, the adult when 
flying resembling a bumblebee. The adults girdle the twigs with their powerful 
jaws to suck the sap. The eggs are laid in the leaves, the female making a depos- 
itory for them near the edge of the leaf. When hatched the larvre feed upon the 
leaves, until the supply is exhausted or the worm full grown. The full-grown worm 
is about 2 inches long, of a yellowish white color with a dark stripe along the back, 
usually more or less coiled, even when crawling from place to place. It spends the 
winter in the ground and emerges in the spring a full-fledged insect. 

Handpicking, spraying with arsenites, and natural enemies are the means for pre- 
venting the rapid spread of the worms. (Nehr. B. 5, B. 14: S. Dak. B. 22.) 

Wind-breaks. — One of the leading ends which the station work in forestry has 
sought to advance has been protection by timber growtli from the eff"ects of winds, 
a want particularly felt in the prairie States, but also where forests have been 
removed. This phase of forestry is particularly noted in S. Dak. B. 18S8, p. 27. For a 
good wind-break it is advised to lay out a plat 48 rods long and 13 wide on the north 
side of the farmyards and sufficientlj' removed to permit the formation of snowdrifts 
between the trees and the buildings; adjoining this on the west end another plat 24 
rods by 13 extending to the south. Directions are given for the culture of the trees, 
whether transi)lanted or seedlings. Evergreens in general, and above all the Scotch, 
pine, are recommended for this purpose. Mixed planting is advised in S. Dak. B. 23. 
Some observed effects of trees in retaining snow are noted; directions are given for 
grove pl.anting, close planting being advocated as against wide, and mixed planting 
as against the use of a single variety, Tex. B. 8 contains collected data of trees 
preferred for wind-breaks in that State. The red cedar and varieties of arbor-vitas 
were the favorites, though several others, as cottonwood, live oak, Calforuia privet, 
etc, had their advocates. See also Mich. B. 4'>. The use of wind-breaks for the 
])rotection of fruit trees has also been investigated by the stations. An article upon 
"Orchard Protection'' occurs in Minn. R. 1887-88, p. 406, in which the need of shelter 
from the summer sun as well as from the wind is considered, ihe case of a pro- 
tected orchard is described, in which partial shade appeared to have been very bene- 
ficial, yet the beueiit did not extend much further north than twice the height of the 



wiRi: WORMS. 381 

w!ud-break; it soonied to be a mistake to set isolated evergreens in the midst of the 
orchard, a whole row being re(iuired for advantage. It is suggested that sun scald 
is due not only to the heat of the sun, but also to the low vitality of the tree. In 
Mich. B. 32 is a brief discussion by Professor Bailey on the usefulness of wind-breaks 
for the fruit-grower, and in X. Y. Cornell li. 9 the results of a thorough invcKtigatiou 
of this subject by the same author, reviewing the leturns from a circular Inquiry to 
fruit-growers. The following conclusions are drawn : The benefits derived from wind- 
breaks include: Protection from cold; lessening of evaporation from soil and plants; 
lessening of liability to mechanical injury of trees; retention of snow and fallen 
leaves; facilitating of labor; protection of blossoms from severe winds; enabling 
trees to grow more erect, etc. Injuries sustained from wind-breaks are: Preventing 
the free circulation of warm winds and couseiiueut exposure to cold; injuries from 
insects and fungous diseases; injuries from the encroachment of the wind-break 
itself; increased liability to late spring frosts in rare cases. Methods of avoiding 
the dangers are named, and it is concluded that ''wind-breaks are advantageous 
wherever fruit plantations are exposed to strong winds." In interior place* dense 
or broad belts, of two or more rows of trees, are desirable, while within the influ- 
ence of large bodies of water, thin or narrow belts, comprising l)ut a row or two, are 
preferable. 

The best trees for wind-breaks in the Northeastern States are Norway spruce and 
Austrian and Scotcli pines, among the evergreens. Among deciduous trees, most of 
the rapidly growing nativ^e species are useful. A mixed plantation, with the hardi- 
est and most vigorous deciduous trees on the windward, is probably the ideal arti- 
ficial shelter belt. (See also Wash. B. 3.) 

Wine. — Investigntionson the fermentation, composition, and preservation of wine 
have been made by the California Station. As this work is very largely of a tech- 
nical character, only a few of the more practical results will be mentioned here. 
The use of antiseptics in the conservation of wine is condemned. The keeping- 
qualities of wines hive been much improved by heating to 150° F. This treatment 
was generally successful for wine diseases, but in a few cases of tartaric and lactic 
fermentation it had no etfect. Heating injured the flavor of the best class of wine. 

Fermentation of wine in the absence of air re3ulte<l in a less complete extraction 
of the color and tannin of the grape than when air was admitted. 

{Cal. Bills. G, 9, 12,-iS,21, 23,35,37, 38,40, 42, 43, 57. GO, €3, 65, GG, 67, 68,69,74, 77, 
89, 91; R. 1888, p. 1, B. 1889, p. 44; Reports of VitknUural Work, 1881-'82, 1883-^84, 
1885-'86, 1887-'S9.) 

Wireworms. — The larvte of several species of click or snajiping bugs. The 
adult insects are beetles, which make a clicking noise, and if placed upon their backs, 
leap into the air, falling upon their feet. The wtunis are hard, slender, six-legged, 
yellowish or brown larvae of varying length, according to their age and species. 

They are not to be confounded with other cylindrical worms having many legs. 
The wireworms have six jointed legs near the head and no more. They spend two or 
three years in the larval state in rlie ground and eat seeds or young roots of the 
jilauted crop. They seem to be worse in certain soils, especially peaty ones, and in 
recent sod ground. The subject of destroying wireworms by poison, starving, fer- 
tilizers, etc., has been thoroughly tested by Prof. J. H. Comstock (N. Y. Cornell B. 
33), and he concludes that no direct treatment will aftect the worms without destroy- 
ing the crop in the ground. However, during the period of transition from larva 
to beetle, fall plowing, with thorough pulverizing, will destroy them. The adult 
beetles may be trapped and poisoned easily. Scatter about infested ground bunches 
of clover, which have been soaked in sweetened water to which Paris green has 
been added. Small balls of dough treated in the same way will do nearly as well. 
Rotation of crops will be found advantageous, as they are worse on some crops than 
on others. {Iowa B. 5, B. 15; Kij. B. 40; X. J. B. 75; N. Y, Cornell B. 33, B. 1890, p. 
39; Ore. B. IS; W. Va. R. 1890, p. 156.) 



382 WISCONSIN STATION. 

Wisconsin Station, Madison.— Organized under State authority October 1, 1883, 
and reorganized under act of Congress in 1888 as a department of the University of 
Wisconsin. The staff consists of the president of the university, director, chemist, 
physicist, horticulturist, expert in animal husbandry, assistant chemist, dairyman, 
farm superintendent, and clerk and stenographer. The principal lines of work are 
chemistry; soils; field experiments with fertilizers, field crops, vegetables, and 
fruits; feeding experiments; and dairying. Up to January 1, 1893, the station had 
published 8 annual reports and 33 bulletins. Revenue in 1892, $15,000. 

Wood ashes. — See Ashes. 

Wool.— At the Wisconsin Station (R. 1S91, p. 23) three wethers were shorn Decem- 
ber 12, and a similar lot left unshorn till April 20, when both lots were shorn. 
The twice-shorn lot yielded a total of 28.5 pounds of unwashed wool, while the 
single shearing of the other lot aftbrded fleeces weighing 32.7 pounds. The wool of 
the first lot was shorter, aud in washing lost 36 per cent of its weight; the wool of 
longer growth lost 44 per cent of its weight. See also Sheep, shearing ivethers in win ter 
before fatlening them. 

At the same station ( Wis. B. 1891, p. 14) the wool produced by feeding a nitrog- 
enous ration lost, in washing, 34 per cent of its weight, against a loss of only 29 per 
cent for the lot fed on a carbonaceous diet. See also Sheep, feeding carbonaceous vs. 
nitrogenous rations. 

In one of the New York Cornell Station experiments a nitrogenous ration gave in 
one experiment (N. Y. Cornell B. 8) 72 per cent more wool and in another experiment 
(N. T. Cornell B. 2) 55 per cent more than did a carbonaceous ration. 

Wyoming Station, Laramie.— Organized under act of Congress .January 10, 1891 
as a department of the University of Wyoming. The staff consists of the president 
of the university and director, horticulturist, geologist and chemist, botanist, 
entomologist, assistant chemist, secretary, and superintendents of substations at 
Lander, Saratoga, Sheridan, Sundance, and Wheatland. The principal lines of work 
are botany ; soils ; field experiments with field crops, vegetables, and fruits ; feeding 
experiments; entomology; and irrigation. Up to January 1, 1893, the station had 
published 1 annual report and 10 bulletins. Revenue in 1892, $15,156. 



APPENDIX. 



Table I gives the average composition of American feeding stnfts as compiled 
I.y Messrs. Jenkins and Wiuton. and published in Bulletin No. 11 of the Office of 
Experiment Stations. Tables II-V were comiiiledby Mr. W. H. Beal, of the Office of 
Experiment Stations, and present averages of American analyses, except where 



)therwi8e stated. 



383 



TA^BLE I. 



AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF AMERICAN FEEDING STUFFS. 



385 
20')i— ^o. 15 25 • 



386 



AMERICAN FEEDING STUFFS. 



AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF AMERICAN 
Compiled and calculated by IC. II. 



GREEN FODDER. 

CbBEAL grasses : 

Corn (maize) tVxkler a — 

Eljut variet ic8 

Flint varieties, cut alter 

kernels bad glazed 

Dent varieties 

Dent varieties, cut after 

kernels had glazed 

Sweet varieties 

All varieties 

Leaves and husks, cut 

green 

Stripped stalks, cut greeu . 

Sorghum, whole plant 

Rye fodder 

Oat fodder 

Other grasses: 

Redtop d (Agrostisvulgaris) in 

bloom 

Tall oat grass e (Arrhenathe- 

rum avenaceum) in bloom . . 

Orchard grass ( Dactylisglome- 

rata) in bloom 

Meadow fescue (festuca pra- 

temii:) in bloom , 

Timothy f{Phlfump7-atense)— 

All analyses 

Before bloom, headed 

In full bloom 

Just after bloom 

In seed, nearly ripe 

Kentucky blue grass g {Foa 
pratensis)^ 

A 11 analyses 

Before bloom, headed 

In bloom 

Past bloom and in seed . . . 
Lboumes : 

Red clover {Tri/oUum pra- 
tense) — 

All analyses 

Before bloom 

In bloom 

After bloom and in seed . . 
Alsike clover /i (Trifulium 

hybridum) in bloom 

Alfalfa i {MedUago saliva) — 

All analyses 

Cowpea (Doliclios) 

Soja bean (Soja hispida) 



1U& 
c:j 

7 
21 
]2:i( 

4 
4 
11 

7 



In fresh or air-dry material. 



Water. 



SILAGE. 



G9. 7 
59.5 

59.5 
69.3 
51.5 

57.9 
74.5 
63.9 
74.7 
31.3 



57.3 

62.3 

66.9 

67.6 

47.0 
61.7 
57.3 
56.3 
53.0 



51.7 
50.9 
62.9 
51.7 



47.1 
61.2 
47.1 
61.1 

72.3 

49.3 
72.8 
69.4 



83.7 
93.6 

80.7 
92. 9 
93.6 

71.3 

77.4 
86.4 
84.3 
78.6 



76.2 



Com (maize) silage i 99 62.4 

Com (maize) kernels, ensiled I 9 21.1 

Sorghum silage 6 71.9 

Brewers' grain silage 3 66.8 

Red clover silage I 5 61.4 

a Com fodder is the entire plant, usually a 
thickly planted crop. Corn stover is what is 
left after the ears are harvested. 

b Included in the analyses immediately pre- 
ceding. 

« Including two unclassified variotioa. 



79.8 

77.1 
79.0 

73.4 
79.1 
79.3 

66.2 
76.1 
79.4 
76.6 
62.2 



64.8 



Ash. 



73.5 


69.5 


77.3 


73.0 


73.2 


69.9 


78.7 
78.6 
71.9 
65.2 

77.8 


61.6 
69.3 
65.1 
59.4 
62.3 


82.5 
70.8 
75. 7 
55.9 


65.1 
64.7 
69.1 
o4.4 


91.8 

82.7 
91.8 

7i.2 


70.8 
72.0 
72.7 
68.2 


77.3 


74.8 


82.0 
93.1 
81.2 


71.8 

83.6 

74.8 


87.7 
54.4 
78.0 
73.9 
78.6 


79.1 
41.3 
76.1 
69.8 
72.0 



1 

'S 

'9[ 


3 

a 

3 


0.7 


% 
1.8 


0.9 


1.7 


0.6 


2.5 


1.0 


2.2 


0.8 


2.6 


0.6 


2.6 


2.1 


4.4 


0.6 


0.8 


0.7 


2.3 


1.3 


2.4 


1.5 


4.2 


1.7 


2.8 


1.6 


3.0 


1.6 


2.9 


1.6 


2.0 


1.4 


3.2 


1.8 


1.8 


1.4 


2.5 


1.7 


2.9 


L6 


2.8 


1.6 


4.8 


1.6 


3.7 


1.6 


3.1 


2.8 


4.8 


0.9 


4.0 


1.5 


3.2 


0.9 


4.0 


1.9 


2.5 


1.9 


2.1 


1.8 


5.1 


1.2 


2.7 


2.2 


2.6 


0.3 


3.3 


O.G 


1.7 


0.8 


1.2 


1.0 


1.4 


1.9 


3.0 



1.1 
1.1 

1.2 

1.5 
1.3 
1.2 

2.9 
0.7 
1.1 
1.8 
2.5 



2.3 

2.0 

2.0 

1.8 

2.1 
2.3 
2.0 
2.3 
■> '1 



2.8 
2.4 
3.4 



2.1 
2.4 
2.2 
2)2 

2.0 

2.7 
1.7 
2.4 



1.4 
1.0 
1.1 
1.2 
2.6 

d Herd's grass of Pennsylvania. 

e II endow oat grass. 

/ Heid's grass of New England and Now York. 

a Juno grass. 

ft Swedish clover. 

t Luc em. 



Protein 

(NX6.25). 



a 


a 
a 


% 
0.6 


4.0 


1.5 


2. 7 


0.5 


3.8 


1.0 


3.3 


0.9 


2.7 


0.5 


4.0 


1.8 


2.4 


0.4 


0.6 


0.9 


2.6 


2.3 


3.0 


1.5 


6.1 


2.0 


4.3 


L7 


3.3 


1.9 


4.1 


1.8 


2.7 


1.3 


3.8 


3.0 


3.6 


1.3 


3.7 


2.0 


3.8 


2.0 


3.0 


2.4 


7.2 


4.1 


7.2 


2.4 


3.6 


3.3 


5.5 


1.7 


7.1 


4.4 


5.5 


1.7 


7.1 


4.0 


5.5 


3.6 


4.2 


3.5 


7.7 


1.5 


3.5 


2.2 


3.9 


0.7 


3.6 


4.6 


10.1 


0.6 


0.9 


.5.9 


7.1 


3.0 


5.9 



AMERICAN FEEDING STUFFS. 



387 



FEEDING STUFFS, WITH MAXIMA AND MINIMA. 
Jenkins and A. L. Winton. 



In freah or airdry material. 


Calculated to water-free sub- 
stauco. 


Fiber. 


Kitrogen-froe 
extract. 


Tat, 


Ash. 


Pro- 
tein. 


Fiber. 


Nitro- 
gen- 
free ex- 
tract. 


Fat. 


a 

s 

a 
■3 


a 
a 




be 

2 
« 

•5 


a 

a 

'3 
3 


a 
a 


6 

Ml 

> 


a 

3 

a 


a 

3 
a 




ca 
•< 


s 

'r- 
< 


bo 

2 

< 


8. 

2 



be 

> 
•< 


<D 

2 


% 
2.1 


% 

11.4 


"0 

4,3 


96 
4.3 


% 

36.3 


% 

12.1 


% 
0.3 


% 
1.3 


% 
0.7 


% 

5.2 


% 
9.7 


% 
21.3 


% 
60.6 


% 
3.2 


3.0 
2.0 


6.1 
11.0 


4.3 
6.6 


10.0 
3.0 


19.7 
27.0 


14.6 
12.0 


0.6 
0.1 


1.3 
1.6 


0.8 
0.5 


5.0 

5.7 


9.2 
8.3 


18.9 
26.3 


63.2 
57.1 


3.7 
2.6 


5.4 
1.9 
1.9 


8.5 

8.5 
11.4 


6.7 
4.4 
6.0 


11.6 
3.2 
3.0 


27.0 
19.4 
36.3 


15.5 
12.8 
12.3 


0.4 

0.1 
0.1 


1.6 

1.0 
1.6 


0.9 
0,5 
0.5 


5.4 
6.0 
5.6 


7.5 
8.9 
8.8 


25.2 
21.2 
24.1 


58.7 
61.7 
58.9 


3.2 
2.2 
2.6 


6.6 

6.7 
4.7 
4.7 
7.1 


12.5 
8.8 
9.1 
14.9 
16.8 


8.7 

7.3 

6.1 

11.6 

11.2 


16.7 
14.2 
5.3 
4.9 
10.8 


22.2 
16. 
21.5 
12.4 
39.8 


19.0 
14.9 
11.0 
6.8 
19.3 


1.0 
0.4 
0.2 
0.2 
0.4 


1.3 
0.0 
1.1 
0.7 
3.0 


1.1 
0.5 
0,5 
0.0 
1.4 


8.5 
2.9 

5.3 
7.7 
6.6 


6.2 
2.3 
6.5 

11.1 
9.1 


25.7 

30.7 
29.7 
49.5 
29.5 


56.4 
62.0 
56.2 
29.2 
51.1 


3.2 
2.1 
2.3 
2.5 
3.7 


6.5 


15.7 


9.4 


11.7 


24.1 


19.1 


0.6 


2. 2 


1.2 


6.6 


9.4 


26.8 


53.9 


3.3 


9.2 


9.7 


9.4 


13.0 


20.7 


15.8 


0.6 


1.5 


0.9 


6.7 


7.8 


30.7 


51.8 


3.0 


5.8 


11.1 


8.2 


9.9 


16.6 


13.3 


0.7 


1,3 


0.9 


7.4 


9.6 


30.4 


49.3 


3.3 


10.2 


11.3 


10.8 


12.5 


15.7 


14.3 


0.7 


1.1 


0.8 


6.0 


8.0 


35.7 


47.5 


2.8 


5.1 
5.1 
6.4 
11. 1 
5.1 


19.4 
12.7 
13.9 

i:i.7 
15.8 


11. S 
8.3 
10.4 
12.6 
11.5 


10.1 
10.1 
13.9 
18.0 
11.3 


28.6 
19.4 

22. 4 

23. 6 
28.6 


20.2 
16.7 

18.7 
21.6 
20.4 


0.0 
0.8 
. 0.7 
0.9 
0.8 


2.0 
1.3 
1.5 
2.0 
1.8 


1.2 
1.1 
1.0 
1.3 
1.1 


5.4 

7.7 
5.7 
5.7 
5.7 


8.0 
11.3 
7.9 
7.1 
6.6 


30.7 
26.3 
29.9 
30.9 
30.7 


52.8 
50.9 
53.6 
53.2 
54.2 


3.1 
3.8 
2.9 
3.1 
2.8 


3.8 
6.7 
6.7 
10.6 


14.8 
12.8 
10.8 
14.8 


9.1 

9.6 

8.3 

11.8 


6.5 
14.9 

11.2 
23.2 


26.6 
19.0 
18.7 
26.6 


17.6 
16.3 
16.1 
24.6 


0.8 
1.2 
0.8 
1.5 


1.9 
1.0 
1.2 
1.9 


1,3 
1,4 
0.9 
1.7 


8.0 
8.0 
7.7 
7.5 


11.8 
15.1 
10.3 
9.1 


26.2 
26.8 
20.7 
25.8 


50.3 
46.1 
52.3 
53.9 


3.7 
4.0 
3.0 
3.7 


1.8 
2.3 
1.8 
5.0 


14.7 
10.8 
14.7 
12.4 


8.1 
6.5 
6.5 
7.2 


3.5 
8.1 
3.5 
12.9 


25.8 
18.6 
25.8 
20.2 


13.6 
13,3 
13.4 
16.7 


0.3 
0.7 
0.3 
0.9 


1.8 
1.0 
1.3 
1.7 


1.1 

0.8 
0.9 
1.2 


7.2 
8.6 
8.1 
6.9 


15.3 

17.8 
15.7 
14.2 


27.8 
23.2 
23.8 
22.6 


45.8 
47. 5 
49.2 
52.5 


3.9 
2.9 
3 2 

sis 


5.3 


9.4 


7.4 


10.8 


11.5 


11.0 


0.6 


1.2 


0.9 


7.8 


15.3 


29.2 


44.0 


3.7 


2.5 
1.7 
5.& 


14.8 
15.3 
8.9 


7.4 

4.8 
7.3 


7.9 
1.8 
5.8 


26.2 
12.9 
16.0 


12.3 

7.1 

11.5 


0.5 

0.2 
0.7 


2.2 
0.6 
1.5 


1.0 
0.4 
1.0 


9.4 
10.5 
9.5 


17.1 
U.3 
12.0 


26.2 
29.0 
29.0 


43.9 
43.6 
45.7 


3.4 
2.6 
3.8 


3.0 
0.8 
5.9 
3.9 
5.1 


10.5 
3.7 
6.8 
5.4 

13. » 


6.0 
1.5 
6.4 
4.7 
8.4 


5.1 
35.7 
1.3.8 
13.7 

&1 


24.2 
59.1 
19.0 
10.9 
14.3 


11.1 

46.6 
15.3 
l.-).6 
11.6 


0.2 
2.8 
0.1 
1.8 
0,9 


2.0 
4.4 
0.5 
2.0 
1.6 


0.8 
3.6 
0.3 
2.1 
1.2 


6.6 
1.7 

4.4 
4.0 
9.3 


8.0 
10.2 

3.3 
22.0 
14.9 


28.7 
2.6 

26.8 
15.4 
29.9 


53.0 

79.4 
64.2 
51.7 
41.7 


3.8* 

6.1 

1.3 

7.0 

4.1 



388 



AiMEKICAN FEEDING STUFFS. 

AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF AMERICAN FEF.DING 



HAT AND DRY COARSE 
rODDER. 

Corn (maize) fodder, fleld-cured . . 
Corn (maize) leaves, field-cured .. 
Com (maize) hnsks, lii'lil-cuicd. .. 
Corn (maize) stallis, tkldiiind- .. 
Corn (maize) stover, lield-cured .. 
Hay from grasses named : 

Couch grass a (Agropyrum 

tepens) 

Redtop {Agrostis vulgaris) — 

All analyses 

Cut in bloom 

Orchard grass ( Dactylis glome- 

rata) 

Timothy (Phleum pratense) — 

All analyses 

Cut in full bloom 

Cut soon after blooiu 

Cut when nearly rii)o 

Hungarian grass (Setaria ital- 

ica) 

Creek sedge (Spartina ftricta, 

var. glabra) 

Hay Irom legumes named : 

Red clover (Trifolium pra- 
tense) — 

All analyses 

In bloom 

Red clover (Tnfolhtm me- 
dium) — 

All analyses 

In bloom 

Alsike clover {Trifolium hy- 

bridum ) 

White clover {Trifoliuon re- 
pens) 

Alfalfa {Medicago sativa) 

Covrpca (DoHchoa) 

Black grass {Juncun gerardi) 

Wheat straw 

Rye straw 

Oat straw 

Buckwheat straw 



ROOTS. BULBS, TUBERS, AND 
OTHER VEGETABLES. | 

Potatoes I 12 

Sweet potatoes , 6 

Red beets 9 

Sugar beets I 19 

Mangel- wurzels I 9 

Turn i ps 3 

Rutabagas 4 

Carrots I 8 

Onions | fi 

Cucumbers i 2 

Cabbage 

A sparagus 

Strawberries 

T,cmons 



In fresh or air-dry material. 



Water. 



% 
22.9 
14.8 
26.7 
51.3 
15.4 



6.3 



6.8 
6.8 



10 C. 



6.1 

7.0 
7.8 
7.0 



6.0 
6.0 



7.3 
9.4 



6.1. 
4.0 
7.6 
6.7 
6.5 
6.3 
0.5 
9.0 



7.5.4 

66.0 

i 85.5 

! 80.5 

! 86.9 

87.2 

i 87.1 

I 86.5 

! 81.5 

i 9,5.7 

i 87.5 

I 93.6 

87.7 

88.4 



70 

60.2 
44.0 
76.6 

78.5 
57.4 



11.6 
11.6 



28.9 
28.9 
21.6 



31.3 
31.3 



29.4 
26.7 

13.9 

13.5 
16.0 
14.0 
13.2 
17.9 
9.7 
18.3 
10.4 



82.2 
74.4 
02.2 
90.8 
94.4 
92.4 
91. S 
91.1 
93. 5 
96.3 
93.6 
9>. 3 
94.0 
90.2 



9.6 
11.4 



15.2 
12.3 



% 

42.2 

30.0 

50.9 

6S.4 

40.1 



14.3 

8.9 

8.7 

9.9 

13.2 
15.0 
14.2 
14.1 

7.7 

8.3 



15.3 

20.8 



21.2 
20.9 

9.7 

9.7 
8.4 
10.7 
9.5 
9.6 
7.1 
9.2 
9.9 



78.9 
71.1 

88.5 
S(>.5 
90.9 
90.5 
8S.fi 
88.fi 
87.fi 
96.0 
90.5 
94.0 
90.S 
89.3 



Ash. 



% 

L5 

4.3 

0.6 

0.6 

L7 



4.8 

3.8 

4.8 

5.0 

2.5 

2.5 
3.5 



% 

5.5 

7.4 

2.3 

2.0 

7.0 



7.0 
6.5 



6.3 

6.0 
5.4 



2.7 I 5.1 



5.0 

8.3 



3.9 
5.0 



4.5 
4.5 

6.1 

4.5 
3.1 
3.2 
4.9 
3.0 
2.8 
3.7 
4.9 



0.8 
0.7 
0.7 
0.4 
0.8 
0.7 
1.0 
6 
0.4 
0.5 
0.7 
0.5 
0.4 
0.5 



GRAINS AND OTHER SEEDS. 

Corn (maize) kernel — I 

Dent, raised In Connecticut .. 9 
Dent, raised in Kansas I 6 

aCoru foibhn- i;< the entire plant, usually a thickly planted crop; corn stover is what is left aiter 
the ears are harvested. 



10.8 
11.9 



1.2 
1.3 



7.5 
15.3 



8.3 
8.3 



9.5 
9.5 

12.2 

13.8 
10.4 
10.2 
9.2 
7.0 
3.4 
6.7 
6.5 



1.2 
1.3 
1.4 
1.4 
1.4 
1.0 
1.4 
1.3 
0.7 
0.5 
2.1 
1.0 
0.8 
0.5 



1.8 
1.7 



% 
2.7 
5.5 
1.8 
1.2 
3.4 



Protein 
(NX6.25). 



2.7 
4.5 
1.3 
1.2 
LB 



6.0 I 8.5 



% 

6.8 

8.3 

3.2 

3.0 

8.3 



5.2 ! 5.9 I 10. 4 
10.4 



4.9 

6.0 

4.4 
4.5 
4.4 
3.9 

CO 

10.7 



6.2 
tt.6 



6.1 
6.6 



8.3 



7.8 

6.6 

3.8 
5.0 
4. G 
4.3 

4.7 

4.0 



10.0 
10,8 



9.0 
9.0 



8.3 I 13.9 

7.4 1 10.2 

7.5 ! 13.0 



7.0 
4.2 
3.2 
5.1 



1.0 
1.0 
1.0 
0.9 
1.1 
0.8 
1.2 
1.0 
O.fi 
0.5 
1.4 
0.7 
O.fi 
0.5 



5.3 
2.9 
2.2 

2.7 
3.3 



1.1 

0.5 

1.1 

1.1 

1.0 

0.8 

1.0 I 

0.8 

0.8 I 

0.8 

2.1 

1.6 

0.6 

0.8 



1.5 
1.5 



8.3 
9.1 



9.7 

7.5 
8.1 
6.0 

12.3 

8.4 



20.8 
1.5.4 



16.8 
16.8 

16.1 

20.0 
20.3 
20.3 
11.6 
5.0 
3.6 
6.9 
7.8 



3.0 
3.6 
1.8 
3.2 
1.9 
1.4 
1.3 
2.0 
2.3 
0.8 

•I 1 
1.2 
1.1 



11.6 

10.7 



AMERICAN FEEDING STUFFS. 



o«y 



STUFFS, WITH MAXIMA AND MINIMA— Continued. 



In fresh or air-dry material. 


Calculated to water-free sub- 
stance. 


























Nitro- 




C 


rude fiber. 


Nitrogen- 
extract 


free 




Fat. 




Ash. 


Pro- 
tein. 


Fiber. 


gen- 
free ex- 


Fat. 


























tract. 




S 


a 

r3 


o 


i 




6 


a 


a 


© 


6 


<c 


6 


o 


« 




a 


fc€ 


P 


S 


to 


p 




bJD 


fcB 


be 


to 


to 


bJO 


c 




g 


a 


a 


a 


cz 


a 


a 




es 








C 






u 




u 


f-i 


i-i 




u 




*n 


« 


<c 


'3 


*< 


Z 





M 


CD 


<u 


<u 


o 


o 


a; 




a - 


> 




c4 


> 


ts 




> 


> 


V 


t» 


(- 


Ji 


1^ 


•< 


§ 


^ 


■< 


^ 


^ 


■5 


< 


< 


< 


< 


< 


% 


% 


% 


% 


% 


% 


% 


% 


% 


% 


% 


% 


% 


% 


7.5 


24.7 


14.3 


20.6 


47.8 


34.7 


0.6 


2.5 


1.6 


4.7 


1.9. 


24.7 


60.1 


2.8 


17.4 


27.4 


21.4 


27.3 


44.1 


35.7 


0.8 


2.2 


1.4 


7.9 


8.6 


30.6 


51.0 


1.9 


6.8 


23.6 


15,8 


14.3 


43.6 


28.S 


0.5 


1.0 


0.7 


3.5 


5.0 


32.2 


57.9 


1.4 


6.9 


16.8 


11.0 


11.2 


26.0 


17.0 


0.3 


1.0 


0.5 


3.6 


5.9 


34.8 


54.1 


1.6 


14.1 


32.2 


19.7 


23.3 


53.3 


31.9 


0.7 


2.2 


1,1 


5.7 


6.4 


33.0 


53.2 


1.7 


16.6 


34.5 


24.8 


38.5 


49.5 


43.1 


2.9 


3.4 


3.0 


7.0 


10.3 


29.1 


50.2 


3.5 


24.0 


31.8 


28.0 


44.8 


50.4 


47.4 


1.4 


3.2 


1.9 


5.7 


8.7 


31.4 


52.1 


2.1 


24.0 


31.8 


29.9 


46.8 


47.8 


46.4 


1.5 


2.3 


2.1 


5.4 


8.7 


32.8 


50.8 


2.3 


28.9 


38.3 


32.4 


32.9 


48.6 


41.0 


1.7 


3.3 


2.6 


6.7 


9.0 


36.0 


45.4 


2.9 


22.2 


38.5 


29.0 


34.3 


58.5 


45.0 


1.0 


4.0 


2.5 


5.1 


6.8 


33.5 


51.7 


2.9 


22.2 


37.1 


29.6 


34.3 


48.5 


41.9 


2.0 


4.0 


3.0 


5.3 


7.1 


34.7 


49.4 


3.5 


25.7 


33.4 


28.1 


37.0 


51.0 


44.6 


1.9 


3.6 


.3.0 


5.1 


6.6 


:i'i 7 


52.1 


3.5 


24.8 


38.5 


31.1 


38.0 


49.1 


43.7 


1.0 


2.8 


2.2 


4.5 


5.8 


30.2 


50.9 


2.6 


23.6 


31.3 


27.7 


44.4 


53.0 


49,0 


1.5 


3.5 


2.1 


6.5 


8.1 


30.0 


53.1 


2.3 


25.5 


27.7 


26.9 


39.0 


51.3 


45,4 


1.8 


2.2 


2.1 


11.6 


7.1 


29.3 


49.7 


2.3 


15.6 


35.7 


24.8 


27.3 


52.2 


38,1 


1.5 


5.9 


3.3 


7.3 


14.5 


20.1 


45.2 


3.9 


17.9 


28.1 


21.9 


27.3 


43.3 


33.8 


2.5 


5.9 


4.5 


8.3 


15.6 


27.5 


43.0 


5.6 


18.3 


29.4 


24.5 


28.6 


44.4 


33.6 


1.6 


5.3 


3.9 


7.3 


13.5 


31.3 


43.0 


4.9 


18.3 


27.8 


24.7 


28.6 


44.4 


33,0 


1.6 


.5.1 


3.3 


8.2 


14.6 


31.1 


41.9 


4.2 


19.7 


29.5 


25.6 


35.6 


45.9 


40,7 


1.6 


4.2 


2.9 


9.3 


14.2 


28.4 


44.9 


3.2 


20.3 


30.3 


24,1 


33.4 


47.3 


39.3 


1.7 


5.8 


2.9 


9.2 


17.4 


26.7 


43.5 


3.2 


14.0 


33.0 


25.0 


35.1 


53.6 


42.7 


1.1 


3.8 


2.2 


8.1 


15.6 


27.3 


46.6 


2.4 


16.4 


26.0 


20.1 


39.4 


49.5 


42.2 


1.1 


3.7 


2!9 


8.5 


18.6 


22. 5 


47.2 


3.2 


20.4 


35. 9 


25.9 


42.6 


ry.i. 4 


47.7 


1.1 


3.2 


2.4 


7.6 


8.2 


2.S. 5 


53.0 


2.7 


34.3 


42.7 


88.1 


31.0 


50.6 


43.4 


0.8 


1.8 


1.3 


4.6 


3.8 


42. 1 


• 48.1 


1.4 


32. 7 


43.3 


38.9 


41.0 


52. 9 


46.6 


1.0 


1.6 


1.2 


3.4 


3.2 


41.9 


50.2 


1.3 


3L8 


45.1 


87.0 


33.5 


51.4 


42.4 


1.7 


3.2 


2.3 


5.6 


4.4 


40.7 


46.8 


2.5 


37.2 


46.8 


43.0 


32.1 


38.9 


35.1 


0.7 


1.7 


1.3 


6.1 


5.8 


47.7 


39.0 


1.4 


0.3 


0. i) 


O.G 


]4.1 


20. 4 


17.3 


0.0 


0.1 


0.1 


4.5 


10.1 


2.7 


82.2 


0.5 


0.6 


2. 5 


1.3 


18.0 


29.7 


24.7 


0.3 


0.6 


0.4 


3.5 


5.2 


3.6 


86.3 


1.4 


0.0 


\.l 


0.9 


3.8 


11.3 


8.0 


0.1 


0.2 


0.1 


9.1 


13.4 


7.8 


08.4 


1.3 


0.6 


1.3 


0.9 


5.7 


13.6 


9.8 


0.1 


0.2 


0.1 


6.5 


13.0 


6.5 


73.3 


0.7 


0.6 


1.3 


0.9 


2.4 


8.7 


5.5 


0.1 


0.5 


0.2 


11.5 


15.2 


9.5 


62.0 


1.8 


0.8 


1.4 


1.2 


4.2 


8.8 


6.2 


0.1 


0.2 


0.2 


8.4 


12.4 


12.2 


64.9 


2.1 


1.1 


1.4 


1.3 


5.1 


9.1 


7.5 


0.1 


0.3 


0.2 


10.1 


10.4 


11.0 


66.8 


1.3 


0.9 


2.3 


1.3 


5.1 


10.4 


7.6 


0.2 


0.7 


0.4 


8.8 


10.0 


11.2 


66.3 


3.7 


0.6 


0.8 


0.7 


3.8 


14.7 


9.4 


0.2 


0.4 


0.3 


4.5 


11.3 


5.5 


76.5 


2.2 


0.5 


0.9 


0.7 


1.7 


2.0 


1.8 


0.2 


0.2 


0.2 


11.5 


20.3 


17.3 


45.4 


5.5 


1.4 


1.5 


1.5 


2.0 


5. 7 


3.9 


0.2 


0.5 


0.4 


14.8 


25. 1 


1.5.5 


40. 7 


3.9 


0.7 


0.8 


0,7 


2.3 


2.9 


2.5 


0.2 


0.3 


0.3 


11.1 


30. 2 


12.2 


42.3 


4.2 


0.7 


2.3 


1.4 


3.7 


6.4 


5.5 


0.4 


1.1 


0.7 


6.5 


10.4 


15.6 


60.1 


7.4 


0.9 


1.3 


1.1 


6.9 


7.6 


7.2 


0.2 


l.G 


0.9 


4.7 


8.8 


10.1 


67.9 


8.5 


1.3 


2.2 


1.7 


09.8 


73.4 


71.3 


3.8 


5.2 


4.4 


1.7 


11.3 


1.8 


80.1 


6.0 


1.7 


2.7 


2.2 


68.4 


71.7 


G9.3 


4.5 


5.7 


4.9 


1.7 


U.6 


2.5 


78.6 


5.6 



390 



AMERICAN FEEDING STUFFS. 

AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF AMERICAN FEEDING 



In fresh or air-dry material. 



"Water. 



R 


a 


p 




a 

'3 


s 

03 


iS 


^ 


% 


% 


11.7 


14.1 


7.4 


9.1 


9.3 


12.1 


13.7 


19.4 


6.2 


19.4 


8.7 


18.2 


8.9 


14.4 


12.9 


13.5 


8.3 


11.5 


4.5 


19.6 


6.3 


10.9 


7.0 


9.5 


6.0 


10.9 


8.6 


12.6 


6.1 


14.1 


4.5 


20.7 


28.8 


39.3 


31.2 


57.5 


22.0 


32.1 


24.0 


74.8 


9.3 


16.8 


7.2 


12.6 


8.9 


13.5 


8.7 


13.2 


8.1 


13.4 


9.4 


12.4 


10.7 


11.2 


7.9 


10.6 


8.0 


12.2 


9.9 


12.4 


8.4 


11.9 


9.1 


13.8 


7.7 


13.5 


13. 3 


14.0 


8.2 


11.7 


9.0 


13.0 


7.6 


13.3 


7.1 


11.9 


8.8 


12.3 


7.1 


14.0 


7.1 


14.0 


11.4 


14.0 


10.9 


14.8 


5.9 


19.3 


10.0 


20.9 


8.0 


27.4 


9.5 


26.3 


6.2 


8.8 


9.9 


13.6 


12.4 


13.0 


8.2 


13.6 


12.1 


13.7 


12.8 


17.6 



Ash. 



Protein 
(KX6.25). 



a 

3 

a 

'3 


a 

1 


% 

9.9 


% 

11.8 


8.2 


12.8 


9.8 


11.0 


8.7 


10.3 


7.5 


12.8 


8.9 


11.6 


7.9 


12.9 


10.7 


12.0 


10.5 


13.7 


7.0 


13.7 


11.6 


14.4 


9.5 


11.7 


9.5 


15.3 


9.7 


13.1 


8.8 


14.6 


7.0 


15.3 


4.4 


8.3 


5.4 


8.6 


5.6 


10.6 


3.3 


10.3 


7.7 


11.3 


8.6 


15.7 


8.0 


14.4 


9.5 


12.1 


8.1 


15.4 


9.8 


13.7 


8.3 


13.8 


11.2 


15.9 


9.5 


14.0 


11.9 


14.5 


9.8 


14.5 


9.1 


15.2 


10.5 


14.0 


9.2 


12.5 


8.9 


12.4 


8.1 


10.6 


9.5 


15.6 


10.0 


16.6 


10.2 


14.0 


8.1 


16.6 


8.1 


17.2 


5.9 


8.6 


8.6 


>11.0 


26.3 


40.2 


19.3 


23.0 


7.1 


13.9 


5.H 


12.2 


12.9 


16.3 


9.8 


12.7 


6.0 


6.9 


8.6 


13.6 


11.2 


12.4 


4.2 


8.1 



GRAINS AND OTHER SEEDS- 
Continued. 

Corn (maize) kernel— continued. 

Dent, raised in Michigan 

Dent, raised in Missouri 

Dent, raised in Texas 

Dent, raised in Wisconsin... 

Dent, all analyses 

Flint, raised in Connecticut . 

Flint, raised in Massachusetts 

Flint, raised in Michiran 

Flint, raised in New Hamp- 
shire 

Flint, all analyses 

Sweet, raised' in Massachu- 
setts 

Sweet, raised in Pennsylvania. 

Sweet, all analyses 

Pop varieties 

Soft varieties 

All varieties and analyses 

Field-cured, dent varieties ... 

Small and from immature 

ears 

Field-cured, flint varieties 

Small and from immature 

ears 

Sorghum seed 

Barley 

Oats 

Rye 

Wlieat, spring varieties 

Wheat, winter varieties, raised in — 

Alabama 

California 

Colorado 

Georgia 

Indiana .«. 

Maryland 

Michigan- 

Missouri 

New Jersey 

North Carolina 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania 

Tennessee 

Virginia 

Wheat, winter varieties, all 

analyses 

Wheat, all complete analyses of 

all varieties 

Rice 

Buckwheat 

Soj» bean 

Cowpea 

MILL PRODUCTS. 

Com (maizel meal 

Corn-and-cob meal 

Oatmeal 

Barley meal 

Rye flour 

Wheat flour, all analyses 

Graham flour 

Buckwheat flour. 



% 
13.1 

8, a 

10.6 
17.0 
10.6 
14.2 
11.1 
13.2 

10.1 
11.3 

8.7 

S.O 

8.8 

10.7 

9.3 

10.9 

84.2 

38.9 
27.1 

34.6 
12.8 
10.9 
11.0 
11.6 
10.4 

10.9 
11.0 

9.6 

9.9 
10.8 
10.6 
10.8 

9.8 
13.7 
10.0 

9.9 
10.7 
10.2 
10.3 

10.6 

10.5 
12.4 
12.6 
10.8 
14.^ 



15.0 
15.1 
7.9 
11.9 
13.1 
12.4 
13.1 
14.6 



% 

1.3 

1.3 

1.0 

1.3 

1.0 

1.0 

1.1 

1.4 

1.3 
1.0 

1.6 
1.7 
1.4 
1.2 
1.4 
1.0 
0.7 

0.7 
0.6 

0.4 

1.4 
1.8 
2.0 
1.8 
1.5 

l.S 
1.5 
1.8 
1.6 
1.4 
1.4 
1.0 
1.6 
1.8 
1.2 
1.5 
0.8 
1.6 
1.1 

0.8 

0.8 
0.3 
1.6 
3.1 
2.9 



0.9 

1.2 
1.8 
1.6 
0.6 
0.3 
1.7 
0.7 



% 

1.6 

2.1 

1.7 

2.6 

2.6 

1.6 

1.6 

1.5 

1.8 
1.9 

1.9 

2.4 
2.4 
1.7 
1.9 
2.6 
1.3 

1.2 
1.6 

1.0 
4.3 
3.2 
3.6 
1.9 
2.6 

2.4 
2.0 
3.6 
2.3 
2.1 
2.2 
2.1 
2.2 
2.2 
1.9 
2.0 
3.0 
2.4 
2.5 

3.6 

3.6 
0.5 
2.3 
5.4 
3.4 



4.1 

1.9 

2.2 
3.8 
0.8 
0.7 
2.0 
1.3 



% 
1.4 
1.7 
1.4 
1.7 
1.5 
1.3 
1.4 
1.6 

1.6 
1.4 

1.8 
2.0 
1.9 
1.5 
1.6 
1.5 
0.9 

0.9 
1.8 

0.8 
2.1 
2.4 
3.0 
1.9 
1.9 

2.0 
1.8 
2 2 
l!9 
1.8 
1.8 
1.7 
1.9 
2.0 
1.6 
1.7 
1.6 
1.9 
1.7 

1.8 

1.8 
0.4 
2.0 
4.7 
3.2 



1.4 
1.5 

2,0 
2.6 
0.7 
0.6 
1.8 
1.0 



AMI-: HI (JAN FEKDIXG STUFFS. 
STUFFS, WITH MAXIMA AND MINIMA -Continued. 



391 



In fresh or air-dry material. 


Calculated to water-free aub- 
stance. 


























Nitro- 




f 


rude fil)er. 


Kitrogen-free 
extract. 




Fat. 




Ash. 


Pro- 
ttiin . 


Fiber. 


gen- 
free ex- 


Fat. 


























tract. 




g 


a 


€> 


a 


a 


o 


a 


a 
p 


£> 








<s 





• 


p 


S) 


3 


■; 


til 


^ 


b« 


be 


to 


bO 


bC 


bS 


a 


s 


a 


.9 


2 


a 


s 




« 




In 


2 


1 


Q 


'm 


S 


g 


ki 


a; 


P5 


"y. 










0) 


v 







cd 


k 




« 


k 




C3 


\, 


k 


k 


f 


t" 


>■ 


ii 


^ 


■< 


a 


Pi 


< 


a 


a 


< 


■< 


«l 


<1 


•< 


< 


% 


% 


% 


% 


% 


% 


% 


% 


% 


% 


% 


% 


% 


% 


2.0 


2.5 


2.8 


66.3 


69.1 


07.4 


4.6 


5.0 


4.8 


1.6 


12.6 


2.6 


77.7 


5.5 


1.4 


3.1 


2.4 


69.8 


74.8 


71.8 


4.3 


7.5 


5.4 


1.9 


11.4 


2.6 


78.2 


6.9 


1.8 


4.8 


2.8 


66.7 


71.4 


09.3 


5.0 


6.6 


5.5 


1.6 


ll.C 


3.1 


77.6 


6.1 


1.3 


2.9 


1.8 


65. 4 


68.1 


66.3 


3.1 


4.3 


.3.8 


2.9 


11.3 


2.1 


79.1 


4.6 


0.9 


4.8 


2.2 


65. 4 


75.7 


70.4 


3.1 


7.5 


5.0 


1.7 


11.5 


2.6 


78.6 


5.6 


0.8 


1.5 


1.2 


65.0 


72. 3 


68.6 


3.9 


5 7 


4.6 


1.5 


11.8 


1.3 


80.0 


5.4 


1.1 


2.5 


1.9 


66.5 


74.2 


69.8 


3.4 


s!9 


4.7 


1.6 


12.4 


2.1 


78.6 


5.3 


3.0 


2.5 


2.2 


66.0 


67.4 


66.6 


4.8 


3.1 


5.0 


1.7 


13.2 


2.5 


76.8 


5.8 


0.8 


1.3 


1.1 


67.6 


73.3 


70.2 


4.7 


7.1 


5.5 


1.7 


12.8 


1.2 


78.2 


6.1 


0.7 


2.9 


1.7 


65.0 


76.7 


70.1 


3.4 


7.1 


5.0 


1.7 


11.8 


1.9 


79.0 


5.6 


1.6 


2.6 


2.1 


65.5 


68.9 


67.0 


3.8 


9.2 


7.6 


2.0 


14.0 


2.3 


73.4 


8.3 


3.0 


5.2 


3.7 


02. 5 


69.1 


66.6 


7.8 


11.9 


9.0 


2.2 


11.6 


4.0 


72.4 


9.8 


1.5 


5.2 


2.8 


61.8 


72.4 


66.8 


3.8 


11.9 


8.1 


2.1 


12.8 


3.1 


73.2 


8.8 


1.2 


2.3 


1.8 


68.4 


71.1 


69.6 


4.2 


6.0 


5.2 


1.7 


12.5 


2.0 


78.0 


5.8 


1.3 


3.3 


2.0 


66.0 


75.5 


70.2 


5.0 


5.7 


5.5 


1.8 


12.5 


2.2 


77.4 


6.1 


0.7 


5.2 


2.1 


61.8 


76.7 


69.6 


3.1 


11.9 


.5.4 


1.7 


11.7 


2.4 


78.1 


6.1 


0.9 


1.8 


1.2 


50.3 


.59.4 


53.0 


2.9 


4.0 


3.5 


1.3 


9.6 


1.8 


81.9 


5.4 


0.9 


1.1 


1.1 


33. 5 


54.1 


49.0 


1.8 


4.3 


3.4 


1.5 


11.1 


2.0 


80.0 


5.4 


0.7 


1.6 


1.8 


53.9 


64.4 


58.1 


3.4 


5.3 


4.2 


1.7 


1U.9 


1.8 


79.8 


5.8 


0.3 


l.O 


0.8 


19.9 


62.5 


52.4 


1.4 


3.0 


3.6 


1.3 


11.9 


1.2 


80.6 


5.0 


1.5 


8.7 


2.0 


.59.0 


73.6 


70.0 


2.1 


4.6 


3.6 


2.4 


10.4 


3.0 


80.1 


4.1 


1.3 


4.2 


3.7 


66.7 


7.3.9 


69.8 


1.5 


3.2 


l.S 


2.7 


13.9 


3.0 


78.4 


2.0 


1..5 


12.0 


9.5 


53.5 


66.9 


59.7 


3.4 


5.8 


5.0 


3.4 


13.2 


10.8 


67.0 


5.6 


1.4 


2.1 


1.7 


71.2 


7.3.9 


72.5 


1.4 


2.1 


1.7 


2.1 


12.0 


1.0 


82.2 


1.9 


1.3 


2.3 


1.8 


66.1 


78.7 


71.2 


1.8 


2.6 


2.2 


2.1 


13.9 


2.0 


79.5 


2.5 


1.3 


1.9 


1.6 


68.5 


74.4 


71.8 


1.6 


2.7 


2.2 


2.2 


12.8 


1.8 


80.7 


2.5 


1.8 


2.2 


2.0 


70.2 


74.8 


72.5 


1.5 


1.8 


1.6 


2.0 


12.5 


2.2 


81.5 


1.8 


1.1 


2. 2 


1.6 


62.9 


74.3 


70.9 


1.6 


3.9 


2.4 


2.4 


14.7 


1.9 


78.3 


2.7 


1.4 


2^0 


1.7 


69.6 


73.8 


72,6 


2.1 


2.7 


2.3 


2.1 


12.8 


1.9 


80.7 


2.* 


1.6 


2.4 


2.0 


69.3 


71.9 


70.3 


1.6 


2.3 


1.9 


1.9 


14.6 


2.2 


79.2 


2.1 


1.6 


2.3 


1.7 


70.3 


74.8 


72 2 


1.6 


■_'. 7 


2.1 


2.0 


13.0 


1.9 


80.8 


2.3 


1.1 


2.4 


l.S 


70.6 


75. 9 


72!l 


1.3 


2! 5 


2.0 


1.9 


13.0 


2.0 


80.9 


2.2 


1.5 


2.7 


2.2 


70.0 


75.2 


72.3 


1.5 


2.4 


2.2 


2.1 


12.8 


2.3 


80.4 


2.4 


1.6 


2.0 


1.8 


68.3 


72.2 


70.6 


1.4 


1.7 


1.6 


2.3 


11.8 


2.1 


82.1 


1.7 


0.4 


2.9 


1.8 


70.9 


76.6 


73.9 


2.0 


2.5 


2.3 


1.8 


11.5 


2.0 


82.1 


2.6 


1.2 


1.9 


1.5 


74.5 


77.5 


76.3 


1.7 


2.3 


2.0 


1.9 


9.5 


1.7 


84.7 


2.2 


0.9 


2.8 


1.7 


67.9 


76.1 


72.2 


1.4 


2.6 


2.0 


1.8 


13.2 


1.9 


80.9 


2.2 


1.5 


2.9 


2.0 


66.7 


74.4 


71.3 


1.7 


2.3 


2.1 


2.1 


13.9 


2.2 


79.5 


2.3 


1.2 


2.0 


1.7 


69.6 


73.7 


71.9 


1.8 


2.6 


2.2 


1.9 


13.6 


l.C 


80.1 


2. 5 


0.4 


2.9 


1.8 


66.7 


77.7 


72.0 


1.3 


3.9 


2.1 


2.0 


13.1 


2.0 


80.6 


2.3 


0.4 


3.1 


1.8 


64.8 


78.6 


71.9 


1.3 


3.9 


2.1 


2.0 


13.3 


2.0 


80.4 


2.3 


0.1 


0.4 


0.2 


77.5 


80.6 


79.2 


0.3 


0.6 


0.4 


0.4 


8.5 


0.2 


90.5 


0.4 


7.8 


9.4 


8.7 


- 62.6 


65. 4 


64.5 


2. 2 


2.4 


2.2 


2.3 


11.5 


9.9 


73.7 


2.6 


2.5 


6.1 


4.8 


26.2 


32.8 


2S.8 


12! .3 


19.0 


lelo 


5.3 


38.1 


5.4 


32.2 


18.9 


3.4 


5.0 


4,1 


50.5 


62.0 


55.7 


1.3 


1.6 


1.4 


3.8 


24.4 


4.8 


65.5 


1.7 


0.5 


3.1 


1.9 


60.4 


74.0 


6S.7 


2.0 


,5.1 


3.8 


1.6 


10.8 


2.2 


81.0 


4.4 


4.7 


9.4 


G.6 


,56.8 


69.7 


64.8 


2. 5 


4.7 


3.5 


1.7 


10.0 


7.8 


76.4 


4.1 


0.6 


1.2 


0.9 


66.6 


»)9. 


67.4 


e'.i 


8.8 


7.1 


2.2 


1.5.9 


1.0 


73.2 


7.7 


5.0 


7.0 


6.5 


63. 5 


68. 


66.3 


1.5 


3.2 


2.2 


3.0 


11.9 


7.3 


75.3 


2.5 


0.4 


0.5 


0.4 


77.6 


79.1 


78.3 


0.8 


0.9 


0.8 


0.8 


7.7 


0.5 


90.1 


1.0 


0.1 


1.0 


0.2 


71.5 


7fL 5 


75.0 


0.6 


1.8 


1.1 


0.5 


12.3 


0.2 


85.8 


1.2 


1.8 


2.0 


1.9 


69.8 


70.0 


69.8 


1.7 


1.9 


1.7 


2.0 


13.4 


2.2 


80.4 


2.0 


0.2 


0.5 


0.3 


71.1 


79.4. 


75.8 


0.7 


1.8 


1.4 


1.2 


8.0 


0.4 


88.8 


i,a 



31)-2 



AMERICAN FEEDING STUFFS. 



AVERAGE GOMPOSITION OF AMERICAN FEEDING 



In Crosli or airilry material. 



MILL PRODUCTS— Coiiliimea. 



Ground linseed 

Pea meal 

Ground corn and oats, equal parts 

BY-PRODUCTS AKD WASTE 
MATERIALS. 



Corn (maize) cob 

Hominy chops 

Corn (liiaize) germ 

Gluten meal 

Starch feed, wet - - 

Oat feed - - 

Barley screenings 

Malt sprouts 

Brewers' grains, wet 

Brewers' grains, dried 

Rye bian 

Wheat bran, from spring wheat. 
Wheat bran, from winter wheat. 

Wheat bi-aii, all analyses 

Wheat 111 i(l(l lings 

Wheat sliorts 

Wheat screenings 

Wheat screenings meal 

Wheat flour of screenings 

Cockle bran '. 

Rice bran 

Rice hulls 

Rice polish 

Buckwheat luidilliiigs 

Cotton-.seed uical 

Cotton-seed hulls 

Liuscod meal, old-process 

Linseed meal, new-iiroccss 

Palm-nut meal 

Apple pomace 



Water. 



3 


3 


% 

7.9 


8.3 


8.9 


12.1 


10.7 


18.1 


7.2 


24.8 


8.1 


13.5 


9.4 


13.0 


0.4 


12.3 


62.3 


72.2 


6.4 


9; 2 


12.0 


12.4 


7.3 


12.0 


68. 6 


79.4 


6.2 


11.9 


8.2 


13.7 


7.4 


13.6 


10. C 


13.6 


7.4 


15.8 


9.2 


10.0 


4.1 


15.5 


7.8 


13.6 


7.3 


12.6 


12.1 


13.3 


10.2 


11.8 


8.8 


10.7 


7.7 


8.5 


9.0 


11.2 


9.5 


10.3 


5.8 


18.5 


10.0 


11.5 


5.6 


12.4 


6.0 


13.4 


6.1 


10.8 


69.9 


82.5 



8.1 
10.5 
ll.i) 



10.7 
11.1 
10.7 

0.6 
65.4 

7.7 
12.3 
10.2 
75.7 

,s.2 
11.6 
11.5 

12. a 

11.9 
12.1 
11.8 
11.6 
10.0 
12.9 
11.1 

9.7 

8.2 
10.0 
13.2 

8.2 
10.4 

9.2 
10.1 

8.8 
76.7 



Ash. 



3.4 
2.6 
1.9 



0.7 
1.9 
1.9 
0.1 
0.1 
3.2 
3.5 
3.8 
0.3 
3.3 
2.9 
4.0 
5.0 
2.5 
L4 
2.0 
1.9 
2.9 
2.9 
3.0 
8.4 
10.5 
2.8 
4.4 
5.7 
2.3 
4.6 
5.0 
3.5 
0.2 



6.1 
2.7 
2.7 



1.7 
0.6 
4.2 
3.0 
6.7 
1.5 
3.8 
4.5 
6.0 
6.4 
7.8 
6.3 
6.2 
3.8 
3.2 
3.2 
3.6 
13.4 
15.1 
11.3 
5.5 
8.8 
3.0 
8.2 
6.9 
4.0 
0.8 



4.7 
2.6 



1.4 

2.5 
4.0 
0.7 
0.3 
3.7 
3.6 
5.7 
1.0 
3.6 
3.6 
5.4 
5.9 
5.8 
3.3 
4.6 
2.9 
3.1 
3.0 
8.2 
10.0 
13.2 
6.7 
4.8 
7.2 
2.6 
5.7 
5.8 
3.7 
0.5 



Protein 
(NX 6. 25). 



a 
1 


1 


ID 
SB 


% 

20.3 


% 
23.0 


% 
21.6 


19.1 


21.4 


20.2 


8.4 


10.4 


9.6 


1.2 


3.7 


2.4 


7.9 


11.2 


9.8 


9.7 


9.9 


9.8 


21.3 


35.5 


29.4 


3.6 


9.6 


6.1 


12. G 


20.0 


16.0 


12.1 


12.5 


12.3 


21.0 


25.9 


23.2 


4.3 


6.9 


5.4 


19.3 


20.3 


19.9 


11.5 


16.8 


14.7 


14.3 


18.1 


16.1 


13.9 


17.8 


16.0 


12.1 


18.9 


15.4 


10.1 


20.0 


15.6 


11.1 


19.4 


14.9 


8.3 


16.9 


12.5 


6.6 


9.0 


7.8 


7.3 


10.2 


8.9 


9.4 


11.9 


10.6 


10.9 


13.6 


12.1 


2.9 


4.7 


3.6 


10.9 


12.9 


11.7 


25. 1 


31.3 


28.9 


23.3 


50.8 


42.3 


3.5 


4.8 


4.0 


27.7 


38.2 


32.9 


27.1 


38.4 


33.2 


13.5 


10. 


14.4 


1.0 


1.7 


1.4 



AMERICAN FEEDING ISTUFES. 
STUFFS, Wini MAXIMA AND MINIMA— Coutiiiucd. 



3!ia 







In fresh or air-drj 


material. 






Calculated to wa 
stance. 


er-free aub- 


























Nitro- 




Crude fiber. 


Nitrogen-free 
extract. 




Fat. 




Ash. 


Pro- 
tein. 


Fiber. 


sen- 
free ex- 


Fat. 


























tract. 




i 
1 

'3 


e 
a 

a 


6 

to 

£ 


1 


E 


a 

> 


S 

S 


S 
a 


o 


< 


tti 

a 

u 

> 


6 
to 

C! 

0) 

> 

<1 


So 

£ 
> 


i 
> 
< 


5.0 


% 
9.6 


% 
7.3 


% 
25.5 


% 
30.2 


% 
27.9 


% 

30.3 


% 
30.5 


% 
30.4 


% 
5.1 


% 
23.4 


% 

8.1 


% 
30.4 


% 

33.0 


11.1 


17.7 


14.4 


50.2 


52.0 


51.1 


0.9 


1.5 


1.2 


2.9 


22.5 


16.0 


57.2 


1.4 








70.4a 


73.7a 


71.9a 


4.0 


5.0 


4.4 


2.4 


10. y 




81. 7*^ 


5.0 


18.2 


38.3 


30.1 


43.8 


66.7 


54.9 


0.1 


0.9 


0.5 


1.6 


2.7 


33.7 


61.4 


0.6 


2.5 


6.7 


3.8 


61.0 


71.1 


C4.5 


4.5 


11.2 


8.3 


2.8 


11.0 


4.3 


72.6 


9.3 


1.9 


5.8 


4.1 


■ 61.9 


67.4 


64.0 


5.2 


11.2 


7.4 


4.5 


11.0 


4.6 


71.7 


8.3 


0.3 


5.0 


l.G 


47.7 


58.5 


52.4 


3.4 


9.6 


6.3 


0.8 


32.5 


1.8 


57.9 


7.0 


1. U 


4.4 


3.1 


18.7 


28.9 


22.0 


1.3 


4.4 


3.1 


0.8 


17.7 


9.0 


63.6 


9.1 


3.7 


12.5 


G.l 


56.2 


03.7 


59.4 


6.1 


7.8 


7.1 


4.0 


17.3 


6.6 


64.4 


7.7 


7.0 


7.6 


7.3 


61. 6 


62.0 


61.8 


2.6 


2.9 


2.8 


4.0 


14.0 


8.3 


70.4 


3.3 


9.3 


12.0 


10.7 


45.5 


50. 3 


4S.5 


1.1 


3.0 


1.7 


6.3 


25. 8 


11.8 


54.2 


1.9 


3.1 


5.6 


3.8 


9.6 


15.9 


12.5 


0.8 


2.9 


1.6 


3.9 


22.4 


15.7 


51.5 


6.5 


10.2 


•11.6 


11.0 


46.1 


50.8 


51.7 


4.2 


6.5 


5.6 


3.9 


21.7 


12.0 


56.3 


6.1 


2.5 


4.1 


3.5 


53.8 


67.6 


63.8 


1.8 


4.9 


2.8 


4.1 


16.6 


4.0 


72.1 


3.2 


5.4 


10.1 


8.0 


51.7 


58.1 


54.5 


3.0 


5.0 


4.5 


6.1 


18.2 


9.0 


61.6 


5.1 


7.2 


8.9 


8.1 


5 J. 5 


56.2 


53.7 


3.5 


4.5 


4.0 


6.7 


18.2 


9.2 


61.3 


4.6 


2.4 


15.5 


9.0 


45.5 


63.2 


53.9 


1.5 


7.0 


4.0 


6.6 


17.4 


10.2 


61.3 


4.5 


1.3 


12.7 


46 


53.0 


70.9 


60. 4 


2.1 


5.9 


4.0 


3.8 


17.8 


5.2 


68.7 


4.5 


CO 


10.5 


7.4 


50.0 


02.3- 


56.8 


2.5 


6.1 


4.5 


5.2 


16.8 


8.4 


64.5 


5.1 


1.7 


7. 5 


4.9 


6].0 


70.4 


65.1 


2.7 


3.3 


3.0 


3.3 


14.1 


5.5 


73.7 


3.4 


5.7 


6.6 


6.2 


68.2 


71.4 


69.8 


2.8 


3.8 


3.3 


3.4 


8.7 


6.9 


77.3 


3.7 


3.8 


9.0 


5.5 


62.3 


69.9 


C6.1 


3.1 


4.0 


3.6 


3.4 


10.2 


6.3 


76.0 


4.1 


7.6 


11.0 


9.2 


62.4 


64.4 


63.5 


2.1 


2.8 


2.5 


3.6 


11.9 


10.3 


71.4 


2.8 


2.0 


17.8 


9.5 


41.9 


62 3 


49.9 


5.2 


10.9 


8.8 


11.0 


13.4 


10.4 


.55.5 


9.7 


30.3 


38.6 


35.7 


36.0 


41.6 


38,6 


0.6 


0.9 


0.7 


14.4 


3.9 


38.8 


42.2 


0.7 


2.4 


14.5 


0.3 


45.5 


63.3 


58.0 


6.5 


8.0 


7.3 


7.4 


12.9 


7.0 


64.6 


8.1 


2.4 


5.7 


4.1 


36.3 


52.7 


41.9 


5.7 


8.1 


7.1 


5.5 


33.3" 


4.6 


48.5 


8.1 


1.3 


10.1 


6.6 


15.7 


3S.7 


23.6 


8.8 


18.0 


13.1 


7.8 


46.1 


6.1 


25.8 


14.2 


35.8 


51.4 


44.4 


32. 


41.2 


36.6 


0.8 


3.8 


2.0 


2.9 


4.5 


49.5 


40.9 


2.2 


4.7 


13.3 


8.9 


2S. 4 


41.9 


35.4 


5.2 


11.6 


7.9 


6.3 


36.2 


9.7 


39.2 


8.6 


7.6 


14.0 


9.5 


35.2 


48.0 


38.4 


1.3 


4.4 


8.0 


6.5 


.36.9 


10.5 


42.8 


3.3 


18.8 


24.0 


21.4 


33.8 


41.7 


38.9 


6.4 


18.7 


15.3 


4.1 


15.7 


23.4 


43.4 


14.5 


2.0 


5.9 


3.9 


12.6 


21.2 


16.2 


0.6 


2.0 


1.3 


2.2 


5.9 


16.6 


69.6 


5.7 



a iuoludiug fiber. 



t^bt^it; II. 



AVERAGE FERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS OF AMERICAN 
FEEDING STUFFS. 



395 



AMERICAN FEEDING STUFFS. 



397 



FERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS OF AMERICAN FEEDING STUFFS. 



GEEEN F()I)T)Ei;S. 



Corn fodder 

Sorghum fodder 

Rye fodder 

Oat fodder 

Common millet 

Japanese millet 

Hungarian grass (Geniuiii millet) 

Orchard grass ( Dacti/lis ijltiinerata) * 

Timothy grass (I'hleum juatense) '■' 

Perennial rye grass (LoUudi pen'tine) * 

Italian rye grass (Lolium italiciiiii) 

Mixed pasture grasses 

Ked clover {TrifoUum pratense) 

"W hite clover (Trifolium repens) 

Alsike clover (Tri/oUiim hyhridum) 

Scarlet clover {Trifolium incarh(ittnii) 

Alfalfa (Medicago satioa) 

Cowpea 

Serradilla (Oinithopii^ sativus) 

Soja bean ( Glitcine soja) 

Horse bean ( Viria faha) 

White lupini/ (Lnpinvs alhiis) 

Yellow lupine (Li(jii)ui.\ luli-us)* 

Flat pea (Lathyiuis si/lvcstris}* 

Common vetch ( Vicia satira)* 

Prickly comfrey (Hymphytum aspen imui.i) 

Corn silage 

Corn and soja bean silage 

Apple pomace silage'' 



Moisture. 



HAT AND DRY COARSE FODDEUS. 



Corn fodder (-with ears) 

Corn stover (without e:irs) 

Teosiute (Euchlatna iuxurians) 

Common millet 

Japanese millet 

Hungarian grass 

Hay of mixed grasses 

Rowen of mixed grasses 

Redtop (Agroitis vulgaris) 

Timothy 

Orchard grass 

Kentucky blue-grass {Foa pratensis) 

Meadow fescue ( Festuea pratensii) 

Tall meadow oat grass (A/r/i?Ha/ .entm aveiiaceinii) 

Meadow foxtail (Alopecinus piatennis} 

Perennial rye grass 

Italian rye grass ' 

Salt marsh hay 

Japanese buckwheat 

Red clover 

Mammoth red clover (Tn/oJu(?/( inedlidu) 

White clover 

Scarlet clover* 

Alsike clover 

Alfalfa 

Blue melilot {Melilotris cfp ulftis) 

Bokhara clover (ilflilntm alba) 

Sainfoin {Onnbrycliis sutic t) 

Sulla {Hedysaruin corona, lain) 

Lotus villonus 

So.ja bean (whole plant) 

Soja beau (straw) 

CQwpea (whole plant) 

Serradella 

Scotch tares 

Oxeye daisy {Chrysantheminn leucaiitheinum) 

Dry carrot tops 



'ret'/tt. 
78.61 

82. 1!) 
62.11 

83. :i6 
62.58 
71.05 

74. ;a 

7X14 
66.90 

75. 20 
74.85 
e'i. 1-J 
80.00 
81.00 
81.80 
82. 5U 
75. bO 
78.81 
82. 59 
7-.!. 2i 
74.71 
85. :!5 
Si. 15 
71.60 
84.50 

84. :i6 
77.95 
71.03 
75.00 



7.85 

9.12 

6.06 

9.75 

10.45 

7.09 

11. !19 

18.52 

7.71 

7.52 

8.84 

10. 35 

8 89 

15.35 

15.35 

9.13 

8.71 

5.36 

5.72 

11.33 

11.41 



Ash. 



cent. 
4.84 



Phos- 
Nitrogen. phoric 
acid. 



18.30 
9.94 
6. 55 
8.22 
7.43 

12.17 
9.39 

11.52 
6.30 

13.00 

10.95 
7.39 

15. 80 
9.65 



2.09 
2.15 
2. 60 
2.84 
3.27 



2.25 ! 
1.47 j 
1.82 



0. 96 ! 
1.93 
1.94 
2.45 



4.91 
3.74 
6.53 



5.80 
6.18 
6. .34 
9.57 
4.59 
4.93 
6.42 
4. 16 
8.08 
4.92 
5.24 
6.79 



6.93 

8.72 



7.70 
11.11 

7.07 
13. G5 

7.70 

7.55 

"8.23' 
6.47 



8.40 
10.00 



6.37 , 
12.52 I 



er cent. 
0.41 
0. 23 
0.33 
0.49 
0.61 
0. 53 
0.39 
0.43 
0.48 
0.47 
0.54 
0.91 
0.53 
0.56 
0.44 
0.43 
0.72 
0.27 
0.41 
0.29 
0.68 
0.44 
0.51 
1.13 
0.59 
0.42 
0.28 
0.79 
0. 32 



1.76 
1.04 
1.46 
1.28 
1.11 
1.20 
1.41 
1.61 
1.15 
1.20 
1.31 
1.19 
0.99 
1.16 
1.54 
1.23 
1.19 
1.18 
1.63 
2.07 
2.23 
2.75 
2.05 
2.34 
2.19 
1.92 
1.98 
2.63 
2.46 
2. 10 
2.32 
1.75 
1.95 
2.70 
2.96 
0.28 
3.13 



Percent. 
0.15 
0. 09 
0. 15 
0.13 
0.19 
0.20 
0.10 
0,16 
0.26 
0.28 
0.29 
0.23 
0.13 
0.20 
0.11 
0.13 
0.13 
0.10 
0.14 
0.15 
0.33 
0.35 
0.11 
0.18 
1.19 
0.11 
0.11 
0.42 
0.15 



0.54 
0.29 
0.55 
0.49 
0.40 
0.35 
0.27 
0.43 
0.36 
0.53 
0.41 
0.40 
0.40 
32 
0.44 
0.56 
0.56 
0.25 
0.85 
0.38 
0.55 
0.52 
0.40 
0.67 
0..5] 
0.54 
0.50 
0.76 
0.45 
0. .59 
0.67 
0.40 
0.52 
0.78 
0.82 
0.44 
0.61 



Potas- 
sium 
oxide. 



Fercent. 
0. 33 
0. 23 
0.73 
0.38 
0.41 
0.34 
0.55 
0. 7ii 
0.76 
1.10 
1.14 
0. 75 
0.46 
0.24 
0.20 
0.49 
0.50 
0.31 
0.42 
0.53 
1.37 
1.73 
0.15 
0.58 
0.70 
0.75 
0.37 
0.44 
0.40 



* Dietrich and Konig: Zu.samensetzimg iind Verdaulichkeit der Futtermitlcl. 



398 AMERICAN FEEDlNiJ STUFFS. 

FERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS OF AMERICAN FEEDING STUFFS— Continued. 



HAY AND DRY COARSE FODDERS-Cont'd. 

Barley straw 

Barley chaff 

Wheat straw 

Wheat chaff 

Eye straw 

Oat straw 

Buckwheat hulls 

ROOTS, BULBS, TUBERS, ETC. 

Potatoes 

Red beets 

Yellow fodder beets 

Sugar beets 

Mangel-wurzels 

Turuips 

Rutabagas 

Carrots 

GRAINS AND OTHKK SEEDS. 

Corn kernels 

Sorghum seed 

Barley * 

OatH.'. 

Wheat (spring) 

Wheat (winter) 

Rye 

Common millet 

Japanese millet 

Rice 

Buckwheat 

Soja beans 

MILL PRODUCTS. 

Corn meal 

Corn-and-cob nie.al 

Ground oats 

Ground barle v 

Eye flour 

Wheat flour 

Pea meal 

BY-PRODUCTS AND WASTE MATERIALS. 

Corn cobs 

Hominy feed 

Gluten meal 

Starcli feed (glucose refuse) 

Malt sprouts 

Brewers' grains (dry) 

Brewers' grains (wet) 

Rye bran 

Rye middlings* 

"XV'heat bran 

Wheat middlings 

Rice bran 

Rice polish 

Buckwheat middlings * 

Cottonseed meal 

Cottonseed hulls 

Linseed meal (old process) 

Linseed meal (new process) 

Apple x>omace 



Moisture. 



Ash. 



Per cent. 
11.44 
13.08 
12. 5() 
8.05 
7.61 
9. O'.l 
11.90 



79.75 
87. 7;i 
90. 60 
86. 95 
87. 29 
89.49 
89.13 
89.79 



10.88 
14.00 
14.30 
18.17 
14. 35 
14.75 I 
14.90 ! 
12.68 i 
13.68 
12.60 
14.10 
18. 33 



12.95 
8.96 
1L17 
13.43 
14.20 
9.83 



12. 00 

8.93 

8.59 

8.10 

10.38 

6.98 

75.01 

12.50 

12.54 

11.74 

9.18 

10.20 

10. 30 

14.70 

9.90 

10. 63 

8.88 

7.77 

80.50 



Per cent. 
5.30 



3.81 
7.18 
3. 25 
4.70 



0.99 
1.13 
0.95 
1.04 
1 22 

i!oi 

1.06 
9.22 



L53 



2.48 
2.98 
1.57 



0.82 
4.99 



3.37 
2.06 



L22 
2.68 



0.82 
2.21 
0.73 



Nitrogen 



12.48 
6.15 



4.60 
3.52 
6.25 
2. 30 
12.94 
9.00 
1.40 
6.82 
2.61 
6.08 
5.37 
0.27 



Per cent. 
1.31 
1.01 
0.59 
0.79 
0.46 
0.62 
0.49 



0.21 
0.24 
0.19 
0.22 
0.19 
0.18 
0.19 
0.15 



1.82 
L48 
1.51 
2.06 
2.36 
2.36 
1.76 
2.04 
1.73 
1.08 
1.44 
5.30 



1.58 
L41 
1.86 
1.55 
1.68 
2.21 
3.08 



0.50 
1.63 
5.03 
2.62 
3.55 
3.05 
0.89 
2.32 
1.84 
2.67 
2.63 
0.71 
1.97 
1.38 
6.64 
0.75 
5.43 
5.78 
0.23 



Phos 

phoric 

acid. 



Per cent. 
0.30 
0.27 
0.12 
0.70 
0.28 
0.20 
0.07 



0.07 
0.09 
0.09 
0.10 
0.09 
0.10 
0.12 
0.09 



0.70 
0.81 
0.79 
0.82 
0.70 
0.89 
0.82 
0.85 
0.69 
0.18 
0.44 
1.87 



0.63 
0.57 
0.77 
0.66 
0.85 
0.57 
0.82 



0.06 
0.98 
0.33 
0.29 
1.43 
L26 
0.31 
2.28 
1.26 
2.J.9 
0.95 
0.29 
2.67 
0.68 
2.68 
0-18 
1.66 
1.83 
0.02 



*Dietricli and Kiinig. 



T^BLE III. 

COMPOSITION OF VEGETABLES, FRUITS, AND NUTS. 



399 



VEGETABLES. 



401 



COMPOSITION OF VEGETABLES. 



Artichokes 

Asparagus stems 

Hoaiis, adzuki 

Beans, Lima 

Beans, atriug 

Beets, red 

Cabbages - 

Carrots 

Cauliflower 

Chorogi, tubers 

Chorogi, whole plant 

Cucumbers 

Eggplant 

Horse-radish, root. 

Kohl-rabi 

Lettuce, leaves 

Lettuce, stems 

Lettuce, whole plaat 

Muskmelons, interior juice. 
Muskmelous, pulp 

Muskmelons, pulp juice. .. 

Muskmelons, rind 

Mustard, white 

Okra 

Onions 

Parsnips 

Peas, Canada field 

Peas, garden 

Peas, green 

Peas, small iLathyrun tOr- 

tiviu), whole plant 

Pumpkins, flesh 

Pumpkins, rind 

Pumpkins, seeds and 

stringy matter 

Pumpkins, whole fruit 

Jthubarb, roots 

jlhubarb, stems 

4lhubarb,stems and leaves . 

Jtutabagas 

Spinach r 

(squashes, flesh 

gnashes, rind 

Squashes, seeds and 

stringy mat? er 

Squashes, whole fruit 

Sweet corn, cobs 

Sweet corn, husks 

Sweet corn, kernels 

Sweet corn, stalks 

Sweet potatoes, tubers 

Sweet potatoes, vines 

Tomatoes, fruitt 

Tomatoes, roots 

Tomatoes, vines 

Tnrnips 

Watermelons, juice 

Watermelons, pulp 

Watermelons, riud 

Watermelons, seeds 



Food constituents. 



Water. 



Per et. 

81.50 
93.96 
15.86 
68.46 
87. 23 
88.47 
90.52 
88.59 
90.82 
78.90 
78.33 
95.99 
92. 93 
70.68 
91.08 
86.28 
88.46 
93.68 
92.61 
76.44 

90.53 
91.15 
84.19 
87.41 
87.55 
80. 34 
12.48 
12.62 
79.93 

5.80 
93.39 
86.23 



92, 27 
74.35 
92. 67 
91.67 
88.61 
92.42 
88.09 
82. 00 

74.03 

94.88 

80.10 

86.19 

82.14 I 

80.86 i 

71.26 

41.55 

93.64 

73. 31 

83.61 

90.46 

93.05 
91.87 
89.97 
48.37 



Ash. 



Per ct. 
0.99 
0.67 
3.53 
1.66 
0.76 
1.04 
1.40 
1.02 
0.81 
1.09 
1.02 
0.46 
0.50 
1.87 
1.27 
1.71 
1.18 
1.61 
1.01 
L49 

0.56 
0.68 
2.25 
0.74 
0.57 
1.03 
2.36 
3.11 
0.78 

5.94 
0.67 
1.36 

L51 
0.63 
2.28 
0.94 
1.72 
1.15 
1.94 
1.72 
1.21 

1.39 
0.41 
0.59 
0.56 
0.56 
1.25 
1.00 
5.79 
0.47 
11.72 
3.00 
0.80 

0.20 
0.33 
1.24 
1.34 



Protein. 



Per ct. 

2.23 
1.83 

20.57 
7.15 
2.20 
1.53 
2.39 
1.14 
1.62 

12.04 
1.50 
0.81 
1.15 



2.01 
2.27 
0.88 
1.41 
0.91 
1.36 

0.50 
0.62 
4.34 
1.99 
1.40 
1.35 
23.50 
27.04 
3.87 

15.61 
0.91 
2.76 

6.00 
1.11 



0.83 



1.18 
2.10 
0.92 

2.84 

5.27 
0.66 
1.33 
1.11 
2.88 
1.70 
1.42 
7.66 
0.91 



1.14 

0,12 
0.89 
1.43 
8.01 



Fiber. 



Per ct. 
0.63 
0.74 
3.86 
1.71 
1.92 
0.88 
1.47 
1.27 
1.02 



0.73 
0.69 
0.77 



1.27 
2.57 
2.68 
0.74 



2.13 



0.88 
2.04 
3.42 
0.69 
0.53 
2.53 
3.90 
L63 

30.97 
0.98 
3.45 

3.93 
1.49 



Lll 



1.25 
0.67 
1.04 
3,19 

4.26 
0.54 
5.64 
3.52 
0.54 
0.44 
1.23 
13.60 
0.75 



1.15 



Nitro- 
gen- 
free 
extract. 



Per ct. 

14.54 

2.55 

55.49 

20.30 

7.52 

7.94 

3.85 

7. .56 

4.94 



18.24 
1.83 
4.34 



4.29 
6.22 
6.15 
2.18 
5.47 
18.40 



Fat. 



Per et. 
0.11 
0.25 
0.69 
0.69 
0.37 
0.14 
0.37 
0.42 
0.79 



0.18 
0.22 
0.31 



0.09 
0.95 
0.65 
0.38 



0.18 



6.17 
4.67 
6.04 
9.53 
16.09 
57.69 
51.75 
13.30 

40.38 
3.93 
5.71 

4.78 
4.34 



3.26 



7.66 

2.38 

8.05 

10.04 



6.27 



0.50 
0.51 
0.40 
0.26 
0.66 
1.44 
1.58 
0.49 

1.30 
0.12 
0.49 

6.92 
0.16 



1.19 



0.15 
0.49 
0.18 
0.72 

6.31 
0.28 
0.53 
0.22 
0.93 
0.38 
0.35 
2.11 
0.43 



0.18 



0.55 
1.41 
12.43 



6.63 

5.61 

5.59 

86.22 



0.72 
0.83 
3.63 



Fertilizing constituents. 



Nitro- 
gen. 



Per ct. 

0.36 
0.29 
3.29 



0.24 
0.38 
0. 16 
0. 13 
1.92 



0.16 



0.30 
0.48 



0.23 



0.14 
0.22 



Phos- 
phoric ! Potash, 
acid. 



Per ct. 

0.17 
0.08 
0.95 



'0.09 
*0. 11 
0.09 
0.16 
0.19 



0.12 



0.07 
0.27 



0.04 
0.19 



2.50 



*0. 11 
0.55 



*0. 16 
0.00 



0. 13 1 0. 02 
0. 19 0.12 
0.49 0.16 



0.21 
0.18 
0.46 
0.28 
*0. 24 



0.16 
0.21 
0.32 
0.18 



0.05 
0.07 
0.07 
0.14 
*0.08 



0.05 
0.06 
0,07 
0.10 



* Wolflf. t Sugar in fruit, 3.05 per cent ; acid (malic), 0. 40 per cent. 

2094— No. 15 26 



402 



FRUITS AND NUTS. 



COMPOSITION OF FRUITS AND NUTS. 
A. Food and Fkrtilizing Constituents. 



Food constituents. 



A])ple leaves, collected in May . . . 
Apple leaves, collected in Sep- 
tember 

Apples, fruit 

Apple trees (young), branches . . . 

Apple trees (young), roots 

Apple trees (young), trunks 

Apple trees (young), whole plant. 

Apricots, dried 

Apricots, i'resh 

Bananas, flesh 

Blackberries 

Blueberries 

Cherries, fruit 

Cherry trees (young), branches . . 

Cherry trees (young), roots 

Cherry trees (young), trunks 

China" berries 

Cranberries, fruit 

Cranberries, vines 

Currants 

(3 rapes, fmit, fresh 

Grapes, fruit, dried and groundt. 

Grapes, wood of vine 

Lemons 

Nectarines 

Olives, fruity 

Olives, leaves§ 

Olives, wood of larger branches^. 
Olives, wood of small branches§.. 

Oranges, California 

Oranges, Florida 

Peaches, fruit 

Peaches, wood of branches 

Pears, fruit 

Pear trees (young), branches 

Pear trees (young), roots 

Pear trees (young), trunks 

Pineapples 

Plums 

Prunes 

Raspberries 

Strawberries, fruit 

Strawberries, vines 

Whorileberries 

Chestnuts, cultivated 

Chestnuts, native 

Chestnuts, Spanish 

Peanuts, hulls 

Peanuts, kernels 

Peanuts, vines after bloou)ing 

Peanuts, vines before blooming.. 



Water. 



Ash. 



Per ct. 
72.36 

60.71 
85. 30 
8S. 60 

C4. 70 I 

.51.70 ! 

60.83 ! 

32.44 i 

85 16 I 

66. 25 1 
88.91 i 
82.69 1 
86.10 ^ 
79. 50 I 

67. 20 ' 
53.20 i 
16.52 
89. 59 ' 



Per et. 
2.33 

3.46 
0.39 
0.65 
1.59 
1.17 



86.02 
83.00 
34.83 



83.83 
79.00 
58.00 
42. 40 
14.50 
18.75 
85. 21 
87.71 
87.85 
58.26 
83. 92 
84.00 
6«. 70 
49. .30 
89. 2H 
47.43 
77.38 
81.82 
9J.84 



82.42 
40.00 
40.00 
10.00 
10.00 
10.00 
10 00 
30.00 



1.38 
0.49 
1.15 
0.58 
0.10 
0.58 
0.78 
1.22 
0.81 
4.13 
0.18 
2.45 
0.53 
0.50 
1.16 
2.97 
0.56 
0.50 
1.42 
2.51 
0.94 
0.96 
0.43 



Pro- 
tein., 



Fiber. 



Per ct. Per ct. 



Nitro- 
gen-free 
extract. 



Per ct. 



1. 16 12. 01 



31.81 



28.88 



3.27 

1.25 

1. 41 ! 0. 96 

0. 94 I 2. 46 i 5. 03 

0.88 

1.10 0.24 11.14 0.84 



Fat. 



Per ct. 



1.35 
2.08 



7. 51 23. 02 



0.32 
1.93 
0.54 
0.76 
1.40 
1.71 
0.35 
0.54 
0.49 
0.55 
0.60 
3.34 
0.41 
1.78 
1.62 
2.66 
2.99 
2.21 
12.36 
7.45 



2.94 



0.94 
0.73 
Jl. 12 



3.70 



42.21 



56.81 



1. 09 12. 68 0. 90 
:2.26 I +9.48 |i27.'62 



6.61 



0.56 



Fertilizing con- 
stituents. 



Nitro- 
gen. 



Per et. 
0.74 



0.89 
0.13 



2.73 11.46 0.79 



0.39 
1.13 
1.01 
0.99 
0.95 



0.66 

6.46 

7.55 

• 9.27 

5.97 

26.62 

10.01 

10.59 



0.41 9.31 i 0.26 



2.88 
1.43 



3.17 
1.98 
1.78 
2.43 
65.24 
2.41 
22.04 
15.62 



5. 50 i 0. 68 



10.31 
43. 2) 
39.66 
68.13 
14.07 
16.75 
42. 03 
32.09 



3.03 
6.5S 
9.39 
7.51 
1.73 
42.01 
3.56 
4.25 



0.35 

o.'ia' 



0.15 
0.14 
0.18 



Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 



Per et. 
0.25 

0.19 
0.01 
0.04 
0.11 
0.06 
0.05 



0.06 



0.09 
0.05 
*0.06 
<i.05 
0.08 
0.04 
0.43 
0.03 
0.27 
0.11 
0.09 



0.15 
0.12 
0.18 
0.91 
0.88 
0.89 
0.19 
0.12 



42 
0.06 



0.90 
0.09 



0.12 
0.26 
0.11 
0.12 
0.05 
0.08 
0.05 
0.22 
0.03 
0.04 
0.07 
0.07 



0.18 
0.16 
0.15 
0.15 



0.02 
0.07 
0.48 
0.11 
0.48 



1.18 



1.04 
4.01 



0.39 



0.14 
0.82 
0.29 
0.32 



Pot- 
ash. 



Per ct. 
0.25 

0.39 
0.19 
0.04 
0.09 
0.06 
0.17 



0.29 



0.20 
0.05 
'0. 20 
0.06 
0.07 
0.06 
2.33 
0.09 
0.32 
0.27 
0.27 



0.67 
0.27 



0.86 
0.76 
0.18 
0.20 
0.21 
0.48 
0.24 
0.50 
0.08 
0.08 
0.11 
0.13 



0.24 
0.31 
0.35 
0.30 
0.35 



0.63 



0.81 
0.88 
0.90 
1.18 



* Wolff 

t "Grape food." 



X In pulp. 
§L. Paparelli: Etude chimiq^ue sur I'oliver, Montpellier, 1888, 



FRUITS AND NUTS. 403 

COMPOSITION OF FRUITS AND NUTS— Continued. 
B. — SuGAK AND Acids in Fruits. 

Ai)ple8 — Per cent. 

Baldwin, sugar in juiee 10. 79 

acid (malic) in juice 0. 92 

Rhode Island Greenings, sugar in juice 11. 97 

acid (malic) iu juice 0.86 

Sweet, sugar iu juice 11. 74 

acid (malic) in juice 0. 20 

Apricots — 

Dried, sugar 29. 59 

acid (as SO3) 1. 51 

Fresh, sugi»r in whole fruit 11.10 

acid (as SO3) in whole fruit 0. 68 

lianauas, free acid in fruit 0. 41 

Blackberries- 
Sugar iu fruit 11. 50 

Acid (malic) in fruit 0.74 

Sugar in juice 1. 27 

Cranberries — 

Sugar in juice 1. 52 

Acids in juice 2. 34 

Currants- 
Sugar in juice ,...■ 1.96 

Acid (tartaric) in juice 5. 80 

Grapes — 

Sugar in juice ., 10-16 

Acid (tartaric) iu juice 0. 5-1.2 

Lemons — 

Sugar in fruit 2. 08 

Acid (citric) in fruit 7. 19 

Nectarines — 

Sugar in fruit 14. 11 

Acid (as SO3) in fruit 0. 62 

Oranges- 
Sugar in fruit 9. 66 

Acid (citric) in fruit 1. 34 

Peaches — 

Sugar in fruit 17. 00 

Acid (as SOg* in friiit 0. 24 

Pears, sugar in juice 8. 93 

Pineapples, free acid 0. 63 

Plums — 

Sugar in fruit 12. 89 

Acid (as SO3) iu fruit 0. 48 

Prunes — 

Sugar in fruit 1.5. 35 

Acid (as SO3) in fruit 0.40 

Raspberries- 
Sugar in fruit 2. 78 

Acid (as SO3) in fruit 0. 73 

Strawberries — 

Sugar in fruit 5. 36 

Acid (malic) in fruit , . . . , , 1.3" 



TA^BLK IV. 



COMPOSITION OF COMMERCIAL FERTILIZING MATERIALS 
AND FARM MANURES. 



405 



FERTILIZERS. 407 

COMPOSITION OF COMMERCIAL FERTILIZING MATERIALS. 





Mois- 
ture. 






Phosphoric 


acid. 


Lime. 


Mag- 
nesia. 


Sul- 
phuric 
acid. 


Chlo- 
rine. 




gen. 1 ash. 


Sola- Re- 
ble. verted. 


Total. 


Alga (Lyngbia majutcula) . . 


Per ct. 
16.26 

.5.88 


Per ct. \Per ct. 
4 25 0.79 


Per et. Per ct. 


Per ct. 

0.19 

3.43 

36.08 

0.10 

0.40 

1.14 

1. 51 

1.70 

3.80 

35.89 

28.28 

17.00 

23.25 

17.60 
20.10 
29.90 


Per ct. 
2.06 


Per ct. 
1.18 


Per ct. 


Per ct. 


11.33 




























0.10 
0.40 
1.''0 


1 














1 










15.45 
30.22 
12. 50 
40. 09 
7.00 
4.60 




; 


48. r.0 
28. 08 
34.00 


2.60 
2.66 
3.40 






Aslies (wood, It- ached) 

Ashes (wood, unleached) 


1 1.27 


1 


0.14 




'8.'26' 


5.25 
1.31 






2.37 


1.24 








4-1.89 


. 






















15.40 I 1.30 
0.40 1 7.60 




i 






7.50 


4.05 

2.60 
6.20 
1.70 














1 






13.53 













1 i 




JJoue nieiil(from gluefactory) 










1 




13.68 








13.19 
3.29 

'i6.'75" 


0.56 
2.08 




41.50 




7.31 
9.50 
7.80 
7.75 

'24.27' 
12. 50 
12.75 
81.19 
22.28 
10.17 
3.20 

87.75 

22.70 

4.82 

7.27 

1.50 

1.50 

1.50 

1.50 

12.09 

13.32 

50. 00 

60.00 

2. to 

7.60 

1.93 

1.40 

8.54 

15.00 

61.50 

14.81 

2:25 








26.77 
1.75 
8.85 
3.10 
3.10 

13.35 
1.91 
8.25 
0.07 


39.95 

"9.' 66' 






5.50 

"7."i6 
4.30 


1.10 

22. 75 

1.80 

1.50 










1.25 


6.50 




Cottimseed meal (decort.) . . . 
Cotton seodnical (iindecort.) 


1 








1 


1.67 
10. ,52 
7.25 












Dried hlooil 












Dried tisli 




0.55 


2.60 




, 


Eel grass (Zostera marina) . 


0. 35 0. 32 


0.51 
43. 66 


0.32 
8.30 


1 






20.73 






13.25 
0.20 








1.83 






13.54 
0.24 






1.15 

0.40 

2.82 

12.45 

22.24 

3-34 

0-40 

1-9 
5-45 


9.80 

0.20 

17.30 

8.79 

1.30 


20. 2.') 


33 •''> 


Kelp {Laminaria sacckarina 
and /.. digitata) 







0.06 








36.10 
31 94 




Krugite 


a. 42 









6 63 




4.50 








3.52 
0-0.4 

0-2 

1-4 

0-0. 4 
2.07 

21.88 
0.10 
0.10 






6.1-3 










MarLs (Maryland and Vir- 


0.2-5 

3.5-7 

10. 2-1. 5 












Marls (New Jersey green- 
sand) ." 












Marls (North Carolina) 












10.44 
0.76 
1.10 






















7.55 


37.49 






Muck 


0. 15 








Mud (salt) 


0. 40 0. 35 
51.48 






0.90 


0.30 


0.50 


60 








48.80 








34.27 


37.45 








Nitrate of potasli 


13. 09 45. 19 












Nitrate of soda 


15.70 
12.12 

"6.' 85" 
7.35 


















Oleomargarine refuse 








6.88 
0.18 
0.08 
15.30 
24.50 




1 




0.05 
0.18 
2.65 






55.00 


0.35 


0.60 




Peat 










3. 20 1 4. 10 









Phosphates from Florida ... 
Plaster (pure)t 





28.50 
20.93 

0.47 
6.06 
0.23 

1.58 








: 1 




0.33 
4.37 
0.18 

0.39 


46.51 




Rock weed (Fticug nodosu* 
and /'. vesiculonn*) 


76.90 

1.47 

81.50 

88.49 
5.54 


0.31 
6.73 


0.65 
0.92 
1 . 50 






0.10 
0.30 
0.18 

0.10 










2.98 
0.84 
■ 
....... 


6.60 


Seaweed ( mixed 1 






96 


Sewage sludge (precipi- 
tated) 


0. 05 0. 05 








Sooi 




1.83 








South Carolina rock (dis- 
solved) 




15.20 








n. 


60 





* 18.5 carbonate. 

tNova Scotia plaster contains 94 per cent pure gypsum and 4 per cent carbonate of lime; Onondaga 
and Cayuga, 65-75 per cent gypsum and 18-28 per cent of carbonate of lime. 



408 FERTILIZERS. 

COMPOSITION OF COMMERCIAL FERTILIZING MATERIALS— Continued. 





Mois- 
ture. 


Nitro- 
gen. 


Pot- 
ash. 


Phosphoric acid. 


Lime. 


Mag 
nesia. 


Sul- 


Cln. 
riiie. 




Solu- 
ble. 


Re- 
verted. 


Total. 


phuric 
acid. 


South Carolinarock (grouud) 
Spent taubark ashes 


Peret. 
1.50 
3.61 

63.0(5 
1.00 

4.75 

2.54 
7.25 

10.00 
1.45 
6.18 

10.00 


Perct. 


Perct. 


Perct. 
0.27 


Perct. 
0.07 


Perct. 

28.03 
1.61 


Peret. 

41.87 

33.46 

1.14 


Perct. 
3.03 
3.55 
3.25 


Per ct.\ Peret. 


20.50 

"h'.io 


2.04 
3.25 














Sulphate of aiuuionia 

Sulphate of potash and mag- 








00.00 
44.25 
45.72 




25.50 

33.40 
16.65 








2.57 




2 60 


Siilphate of potash (high 










Sylvinite 
















0.30 
0.00 


5.16 
3.06 


11.80 
23.49 
0.65 
0.70 












48.66 
2.22 
4.20 


3.42 
0.59 
0.80 






Tobacco stalks 


3.71 
2.35 


5.02 
8.20 
3.92 
*1.20 












0.65 


65 












15.80 


6.50 






0.35 


0.11 


0.06 



















COMPOSITION OF FARM MANURES. 



Cattle excrement (solid, 




0.29 
0.58 
1.10 
0.44 
1.55 
1.00 
0.60 
3.20 
0.80 

0.55 
1.95 
0.50 

0.60 
0.43 
0.49 


0.10 
0.49 
0.56 
0.35 
1.50 
0.25 
0.20 
1.00 
0.30 

0.15 
2.26 
0.60 

0.13 
0.83 
0.43 






0.17 


























Hen manure (fresli) 


60.00 






0.85 
0.17 






































Human excrement (solid) . . . 


77.20 
95.90 
10.00 
50.00 






1.09 
0.17 
1.90 
1.40 

0.31 
0.01 
0.30 

0.41 
0.07 
0.32 






















Pigeon mauvire (dry) 

Poudrette (night soil) 

Slieep excrement (solid, 






2.10 
0.80 


0.80 
0.60 


0.60 
0.40 


50 






COS 
























Stable manure (mixed) 

Swine excrement (solid, 


73.27 






































Barnyard manure (average) . 


68.87 



























* Sometimes as high as 5 per cent. 



TA^BLE V^. 



ASH CONSTITUENTS OF DIFFERENT WOODS. 



409 



WOODS. 



411 



ASH CONSTITUENTS OF DIFFERENT WOODS. 



Air-dry wood contains — 



"Water. 



Asli. 



Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 



Potash. 



The ash contains- 



Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 



Potash. 



Lime. 



Mag- 
nesia. 



Ash, wood 

Chestntlt, bark 

Chestnut, wood 

Dogwood, bark 

Dogwood, wood 

Hickory, bark 

Hickory, wood 

Magnolia, bark 

Magnolia, wood 

Maple, bark 

Oak leaves, mixed . . . 

Oak pant, bark 

Oak post , wood 

Oak, red, bark 

Oak , red . wood 

Oak, white, l)ark 

Oak, white, wood 

Pine, burr 

Pine, Georgia, bark. . 
Pine, Georgia, wood . 
Pine, old field, bark.. 
Pine, old field, wood- 
Pine, straw, mixed . . 
Pine, yellow, wood. .. 

Pine, black, wood 

Sycamore, wood 



Per cent. 
10.00 
10.00 
10.00 
10. 00 
10.00 
10.00 
10.00 
10.00 
10.00 
10.00 



10.00 
10.00 
10.00 
10. 00 
10.00 
10.00 



10.00 
10.00 
10.00 
10.00 



10.00 
10.00 
10.00 



Per cent 
0.32 
3.51 
16 
9.87 
0.68 
3.97 
0.48 
2.98 
0.36 
9.49 
4.70 
12.10 
0.77 
6.29 
0.57 
5.95 
0.26 
1.09 
0.37 
0.33 
1.94 
0.18 
1.65 
0.23 
0.21 
0.99 



Per cent. 
0.012 
0.114 
0.011 
0.140 
0. 057 
0.061 
0.058 
0.095 
0.032 
0.421 



Per cent 
0.149 
0.278 
0.029 
0.341 
0.190 
0.141 
0.138 
0.192 
0.071 
1.197 



0.116 
0.070 
0.103 
0.060 
0.074 
0.025 



0.010 
0.009 
0.121 



0.249 
0.109 
0.179 
0.140 
0.125 
0.106 



0. 013 0. 024 

0.012 I 0.0.50 

0.095 0.077 

0.007 0.008 



0.045 
0.030 
0.230 



Per ee7it 
3. .58 
3.25 
6.76 
1.42 
8.51 
1.54 

11.97 
5.31 
8.75 
4.44 
3.35 
0.96 
9.00 
1.63 

10.55 
1.24 
9.48 
3.31 
1.99 
3.82 
4.88 
4.11 
4.28 
4.18 
4.33 

12.23 



Per cent. 

46.04 

7.93 

18.10 

3.46 

28.04 

3. .56 

28.60 

11.87 

19.51 

12.61 

3.74 

2.06 

21.92 

2.84 

24.66 

2.10 

42.16 

6.92 

3.56 

15.35 

3.96 

3.85 

2.08 

19.70 

14.30 

23.17 



Per cent. 
23.57 
47.02 
49.18 
49. 20 
38.93 
46.82 
37. 94 
23.64 
38.94 
37. 91 
29.03 
52. 04 
46.39 
.50. 51 
48.26 
52. 73 
29. 85 
10. 30 
34.14 
55. 24 
27.95 
67.73 
14.47 
65.53 
58.98 
31.62 



Per cent. 
0.60 
0.01 
2.11 
1.40 
6.80 
2.59 
10.04 
4.89 
8.05 
3. 25 

0.65 
6.88 
1.81 
5.38 
1.62 
3.43 



2.45 
fi.25 
3.10 
6.54 

3.20 
0.50 
0.62 



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